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A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history: Stone fruit is cooled after harvesting to extend its shelf life and prevent postharvest losses.
Received 11 January 2017 Because it is quickly subject to chilling injuries at inappropriate temperatures, its thermal
Received in revised form 12 May properties should be known in order to design an optimum cooling process. However, how
2017 long does it take for an olive to reach its storage temperature at the stone–pulp interface?
Accepted 14 May 2017 This paper proposes approximated equations as a model for predicting cooling times at the
Available online 18 May 2017 stone–pulp interface and for measuring the thermal diffusivity of the pulp and the exter-
nal heat transfer coefficient. The model is based on a solution in Fourier series for the
Keywords: conduction of heat in spheres with an inner concentric, insulating spherical core, as a model
Stone fruits of conduction of heat in stone fruits.
Heat transfer © 2017 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
Fourier series
Thermophysical parameters
Surface heat transfer coefficient
* Corresponding author. Department of Characterization, Quality, and Safety, Institute of Food Science, Technology and Nutrition (ICTAN-
CSIC), José Antonio Novais 10, 28040 Madrid, Spain. Fax: +34 91 5493627.
E-mail address: mayoyes@ictan.csic.es (M.D. Alvarez).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2017.05.012
0140-7007/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
international journal of refrigeration 80 (2017) 120–129 121
also based on these approximations (Awuah et al., 1995; Erdoğdu, and Lamúa, 1995, 2002; Lin et al., 1996a, 1996b, 2000; Smith et al.,
2005, 2008). Therefore, it would be useful to have appropriate 1967; Yilmaz, 1995 (and the Letter to the Editor – about this last
mathematical models that explicitly include the stone, to allow paper – published by Van Beek and Meffert, 1997).
accurate prediction of the design parameters mentioned above, In stone fruits, the theoretical thermal problems are different
and to measure the thermal diffusivity and the film coefficient. from those of solid products. In fact, stone fruits, such as olives,
In fact, among the analytical solutions to these problems cherries, plums, and so forth, have approximately spherical or
in solids with elementary geometries there is a considerable ellipsoid geometries, but inside they contain a ligneous core – the
body of literature on approximation models. Since the first seed – whose physical and thermophysical parameters are radi-
published results in the 1960s (Gac, 1963; Pflug et al., 1965; Smith cally different from those of the edible part, the pulp. Moreover,
et al., 1967), these models have been based on a linear approx- the contact surface between this seed and the pulp is, in practice,
imation of the cooling kinetics (on a semi-logarithmic scale), the deepest point that can be reached in the fruit and it per-
valid from a given time onwards. The main applications of ana- forms the role of a “thermal center” which in homogeneous solid
lytical approximations of this kind are: estimation of cooling/ objects is represented by the geometric center. According to
heating times, indirect measurement of the surface heat transfer Cinquanta et al. (2002) and Di Matteo et al. (2000, 2002, 2003),
coefficient h when the thermophysical parameters are known, the theoretical solution is easy to deduce, following the meth-
and measurement of thermal parameters if h is known. In odology described by Carslaw and Jaeger (1959), to which should
general, these approximation equations are valid for solids be added the works by Ruiz-López et al. (2004, 2007), which pro-
with elementary shapes (Becker and Fricke, 2002; Erdoğdu, 2005, posed analytical solutions for food drying kinetics, or the work
2008; Kondjoyan, 2006). These approximate equations were by Helal (2012), who proposed an integral transform method for
extended to ellipsoidal or even irregular geometries in some nonlinear heat-conduction problems in multilayered spheri-
works (Cleland and Earle, 1982; Cuesta et al., 1990; Cuesta cal media. Apart from these analytical works, we must resort
122 international journal of refrigeration 80 (2017) 120–129
to numerical calculation, where da Silva et al. (2009, 2010), that it is placed in sudden contact with a mechanically stirred
Hernández-Díaz et al. (2008), Fabbri et al. (2011), Nilnont et al. medium at a uniform temperature Tex . Denoting the diffusivity
(2012), Ruiz-López et al. (2011, 2012), Sabarez (2012), and Uyar of the object as α, the time as t, and using the following di-
and Erdoğdu (2012) have proposed algorithms developed to simu- mensionless variables:
late the heat and mass transfer by numerical calculation in semi-
spherical-geometry products and plums, respectively. T − Tex αt r a
Y= , Fo = , x = , xa = (1)
In spite of this, the literature contains little information T0 − Tex R2 R R
that includes analytical solutions for heat transfer explicitly
including the seed, and, consequently, the corresponding ap- The one-dimensional heat transfer equation with homo-
proximation equations for estimating the cooling time at the geneous isotropic constant coefficients, ignoring the internal
stone–pulp interface, the energy required to reach that tem- heat source, can be written in dimensionless terms in the form
perature, etc., or for determining the thermal diffusivity and (Carslaw and Jaeger, 1959):
the surface heat transfer coefficient (Biot number).
Accordingly, the first objective of this study is to present a 1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂Y ⎞ ∂Y
⎜x ⎟= (2)
solution in Fourier series for the kinetic temperature of spheres, x2 ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂Fo
explicitly considering a thermally insulating internal core, as
a theoretical simulation of stone fruits. A second objective was with the initial condition:
to derive valid equations for the inverse simultaneous deter-
mination of thermal diffusivity and Biot number (dimensionless Fo = 0 : Y0 = 1 (3)
heat transfer coefficient), or to pre-calculate the aforemen-
tioned design parameters. As a practical example, the solution and the following boundary conditions:
is applied to hydro-precooling of olives (Olea europaea, cv. Gordal).
A) External surface: Boundary conditions of the third kind:
Y ( Fo ) = Y = ∑ Ane −δn Fo
2
(7)
R ψ (δ nx ) being:
1 − Bi + δ n2xa
δ n = tan [δ n (1 − xa )] (9)
1 + xa ( Bi − 1)
2Biψ (δ n )
An = (10)
Fig. 1 – Schematic of the model. [ψ (δ n )]2 (δ n2 + Bi2 − Bi) − δ n2xa3
international journal of refrigeration 80 (2017) 120–129 123
tan [δ n,Max (1 − xa )] + δ n,Max xa = 0 (11) Or, denoting by Q 0 the total initial heat flow transferred by
the fruit through its surface:
−2 1
An,∞ = (12)
cos [δ n,Max (1 − xa )] (1 + δ n2,Max xa2 − δ n2,Max xa3 ) Q 0 = 4π R2hΔT0 (16)
And
Q = −Q 0 ∑ Anψ (δ n ) e −δn Fo
2
(17)
sin [δ n,Max (1 − xa )] + δ n,Max ⋅ xa cos [δ n,Max (1 − xa )]
ψ (δ n,MAx ) = =0 So the total energy extracted from the fruit up to moment
δ n,Max
(13) t is (by integrating Eq. (17) and rearranging terms):
6Bi2 [ψ (δ n )]2 The maximum amount of energy removable from the fruit
An = Anψ (δ n ) = ⋅ (14) (t = ∞) at Bi = Const. and with the initial temperature difference
δ n2 (1 − xa3 ) [ψ (δ n )]2 [δ n2 + Bi2 − Bi ] − δ n2xa3
ΔT0 is:
6 1 + δ n2,Max xa2
An,∞ = An,∞ψ (δ n,Max ) = (15) Q 0 2 An
δ 2
n, Max (1 − xa ) (1 + δ n,Maxxa2 − δ n2,Maxxa3 )
3 2
QM = R ∑ 2 ψ (δ n ) (20)
a δn
Fig. 2 shows the first eigenvalue (δ1) of boundary Eq. (9) vs.
And the absolute maximum amount of heat extractable from
Bi for xa = 0.3 to 0.6, and solid sphere as reference. The reason
the fruit for t = ∞ and Bi = ∞ is:
for this range is that, according to Cinquanta et al. (2002),
Hernández et al. (2010), and Jiménez-Jiménez et al. (2013), it
K 2 An,∞ −1
is the average diameter ratio range of the stone. These values Q M,Bi→∞ = R ∑ 2
a δ n,Max sin [δ n,Max (1 − xa )]
were confirmed in an extensive work on prevention of brown-
ing of two varieties of table olives by pre-cooling in cold water,
carried out at the Institute of Food Science, Technology and Nu-
trition (ICTAN-CSIC). Practical examples of the data are provided 2.2. First approximations and applications
later in the paper (section 3.1).
2.2.1. Kinetics of temperature
2.1.2. Heat flow kinetics: total heat exchanged with the As in the case of the homogeneous solid sphere, from a
medium given moment onwards the infinite series converges very
The heat flow transferred by the fruit through the entire surface quickly, because from the second exponential factor onwards
at moment t is (Newton’s law): values also decreases very quickly, so in practice the contri-
bution to the final sum of the complete series is null. Thus,
for practical purposes, exact analytical solutions lead to first-
approximation models based on a linear approximation of the
cooling graph (on a semi-logarithmic scale), which are valid
from a given time. Apart from estimating the cooling/heating
times, the main applications of these linear approximations
are in indirect measurement of thermophysical parameters
(thermal diffusivity and conductivity), and the surface heat
transfer coefficient. In dimensionless terms, the first term of
the complete series at the thermal center (stone–pulp contact)
is:
Y ( Fo ) = Y ≈ A1e −δ1
2 Fo
(21)
Or:
Fig. 2 – First eigenvalue (δ1) of boundary equation (9) vs.
Bi for xa = 0.3 to 0.6, and solid sphere as reference. ln Y ≈ ln A1 − δ 12Fo = ln A1 − S ⋅ t (22)
124 international journal of refrigeration 80 (2017) 120–129
ture, the estimation of the heat flow and the amount of energy
removed from the fruit up to moment t can be approximated
Approximation (28) greatly improves the approximation seen
by the first term of Eqs. (17) and (18):
in Cuesta and Lamúa (1995), which for the sphere can be
written:
Q ≈ −Q 0 A1ψ (δ 1 ) e −δ1 Fo
2
(24)
Bi
and δ 12 ≈ 6 (29)
Bi + 2
A1 − Y 1 Mn
Q (t ) ≈ Q 0ψ (δ 1 ) (26) δ n,Max ≈ × (31)
ln A1 − ln Y (1 − x a ) Mn − 2 (1 − x a )
For n = 1, M1 = (π 2 ) and:
2
2.2.3. Asymptotic dimensionless slope δ 12
In practice, the first eigenvalue (δ1) of the transcendental Eq.
(9) is one of the most important parameter in the process, as
δ 12,Max ≈
1
×
(π 2) 4
(32)
knowledge of it allows us to know the surface heat transfer (1 − xa )2 (π 2)2 − 2 (1 − xa )
coefficient. Therefore, −δ 12 is the absolute slope of the linear
portion of the cooling/heating curve in semi-logarithmic scale: Or:
d ( ln Y ) 1 (π 2)2
δ 12 = − δ 1,Max ≈ × (33)
d ( Fo ) (1 − x a ) (π 2)2 − 2 (1 − xa )
2.2.3.1. Asymptote Bi→0. As seen in Fig. 2, the plot of δ1 vs. Eq. (27) includes Eq. (32) for Bi→∞.
Bi is similar to that of a solid sphere (also drawn) but higher Fig. 3 shows δ 1,Max obtained with approximation (33), the
in value. When Bi→0, δ1→0 as well, and its values can be es- exact value (Eq. (11)), and the deviation (%).
timated by considering the expressions derived from Cuesta
et al. (2012) (see Appendix C):
2.2.4. Cooling/heating times
M12 Bi As in the solid sphere, the time required to reach a dimen-
δ1 2
≈ ⋅ (27)
(1 − xa ) Bi (1 − xa ) ( M1 + 2xa − 2) + xaM12 + 2 (1 − xa )2 sionless temperature Ya at the stone–pulp interface is:
With: ⎡A ⎤
ln ⎢ 1 ⎥
ln A1 − ln Ya ⎣ Ya ⎦
FoYa ≈ = (34)
M1 = (π 2) δ 12 δ 12
2
international journal of refrigeration 80 (2017) 120–129 125
δ 12xa − m
Bi = 1 + (38)
1 + mxa
Where:
δ1
m= (39)
tan [δ 1 (1 − xa )]
13 2
R= D L = 0.013 m
2
13 2
a= d l = 0.0065 m
2
xa = 0.501
Fig. 4 – (a): Semi-logarithmic-scale plot of the experimental
And the density of the pulp of the olive:
values {Y,t (s)} (hollow circles), linear portion (black circles)
and the regression line of the linear zone (unbroken line),
ρ = 1057.6 kg m3 lag factor A1 and cooling kinetic corresponding to Bi = ∞ as
the absolute limit case (dotted line). (b): Complete
3.4. Application I. Determination of Biot number and theoretical series of the cooling process (unbroken line)
thermal diffusivity compared with the experimental values (empty circles).
δ 1 = 2.93
R2 = 0.999
As, at this point, the Biot number is already known (Bi = 4.46), from the nutritional composition the theoretical thermo-
the roots of the transcendental boundary equation (Eq. 9) and physical parameters are: thermal diffusivity a = 1.268 10 −7 m2 s,
the constants of the serial expansion (Eq. 10) can be calcu- density ρ = 1038.2 kg m3 , specific heat per unit mass
lated. Therefore, the complete theoretical time–temperature c p = 3608.6 J kg K , and conductivity k = 0.4752 W m K . As the
curve of this experiment can be drawn and compared with the surface heat transfer coefficient is h = 162 W m2 K, the Biot
experimental values. The result is shown in Fig. 4b (unbro- number is:
ken line), together with the experimental values (empty circles).
The standard error between the experimental and theoreti- 162 ⋅ 0.013
Bi = = 4.43
cal Y curves is ± 0.01 (1.16%). 0.4752
On the other hand, from the chemical composition of the
olive, the thermal diffusivity can be theoretically estimated ac- So, by approximating the slope with Eq. (27), and by intro-
cording to ASHRAE (1998), Carson (2006), Carson et al. (2005, ducing this in Eqs. (40) and (41):
2006), Choi and Okos (1986), Marcotte et al. (2008), Maroulis et al.
(2002), and Murakami and Okos (1988), and compared with the δ 12 ≈ 7.95 → ψ (δ 1 ) = 0.432 and A1 = 1.155
diffusivity that has just been determined.
The chemical composition of the olive to be used for this And by substitution in Equation (34):
work is as follows (averaged from Guillén et al., 1992, ASHRAE,
1998, Ongen et al., 2005, and Wang et al., 2006): xWater = 75.97%; FoYa ≈ 0.217
xProt = 4.37%; x fat = 10.23%; x Ash . = 0.91%; xCarboh = 8.52% (by
difference). So the estimated time (in seconds) is:
Thus the following values are calculated, which can be
compared with those just obtained: thermal diffusivity R2
t Ya ≈ FoY = 296 s
a = 1.26810 −7 m2 s (2.4%); density ρ = 1038.2 kg m3 (1.8%). By a
accepting the theoretical specific heat per unit mass
The time deduced from the linear regression is t = 297s. So
c p = 3608.6 J kg K , the conductivity can be obtained from the
the deviation is −0.23%.
determined diffusivity:
The mass average temperature of the pulp at that moment
is (by replacing A1 in Eq. (34) by A1 = A1ψ , rearranging terms,
k = ρc pa = 1057.6 × 3608.6 × 1.23910 −7 = 0.4730 W m K
and clearing Ya :
3.5. Application II. Prediction of cooling times and The estimated power required to cool the fruit would be (Eqs.
estimation of the heat to be extracted from the fruit (16) and (26)):
An important issue in postharvest handling is the time that Q 0 = 4π ⋅ ( 0.013)2 ⋅ 162 ⋅ 17.24 = 5.922 W
the fruit must stay in the hydro-cooler to achieve a certain tem-
perature at the stone–pulp interface before moving to the next
Q ( t ) ≈ 1.40 W (6% deviation from complete series)
phase of its conservation or treatment. Thus, in this example
the cooling time is estimated by Eq. (34), but approximating
Considering that this specimen of Gordal olive weighed
the slope by Eq. (27). It is assumed that the surface heat trans-
10.44 g, the average calorific value would be 134.6 W Kg , so
fer coefficient (h), the initial temperature of the fruit (T0), the
that for a load of 1 Tm (for example) the value would be:
water temperature in the hydro-cooler ( Tex ), and the nutri-
Q (t ) ≈ 135 kW .
tional composition of the fruit are known.
Since this is merely an illustrative example, we take the
same case in reverse, and we could enunciate it as follows: In
a water tank in which Tex = 0.46 °C, the olive described in the 4. Conclusion
Geometry and weight subsection of the above example has to
be cooled from the initial temperature T0 = 17.7°C to the final A Fourier series solution has been deduced for heat conduc-
temperature T = 4°C at the stone–pulp interface (Y = 0.205). The tion in stone fruit for the kinetics of temperature in boundary
surface heat transfer coefficient is h ≈ 162 W m2 K . How long conditions of the third kind with a constant external tempera-
does it take to reach that temperature? What is the average ture. On the basis of the linear portion of the complete solution,
temperature at that moment? an algorithm is proposed to directly determine the thermal
As seen in the Equivalent sphere subsection, the radius of the diffusivity, the Biot number, and the first eigenvalue of the tran-
equivalent sphere is R = 0.013m, the ratio of the stone radius scendental boundary equation. If the specific heat per unit mass
to the pulp radius is xa = 0.501, and, as seen in Application I, is known, both the thermal conductivity and the surface heat
128 international journal of refrigeration 80 (2017) 120–129
transfer coefficient are also determined. On the basis of the new Cuesta, F.J., Lamúa, M., 1995. Asymptotic modelling of the
transcendental boundary equations and from the exact nu- transient regime in heat conduction in solids with general
merical series for the determination of the Biot number as seen geometry. J. Food Eng. 24, 295–320. doi:10.1016/0260
-8774(95)90048-G.
in a previous paper, the first approximations are derived for
Cuesta, F.J., Lamúa, M., 2002. Calculations of the minimum mean
the first eigenvalue of the transcendental boundary equation cooling/heating time of general-geometry solids. J. Food Eng.
(that is, the slope of the linear portion in semi-logarithmic plot), 53 (3), 259–271. doi:10.1016/S0260-8774(01)00164-9.
and thus for the estimation of cooling times and the heat ex- Cuesta, F.J., Lamúa, M., Moreno, J., 1990. Graphical calculation of
tracted from the fruit. half-cooling times. Int. J. Refrigeration 13, 317–324. doi:10
.1016/0140-7007(90)90063-3.
Cuesta, F.J., Lamúa, M., Alique, R., 2012. A new exact numerical
series for the determination of the Biot number: application
Acknowledgments for the inverse estimation of the surface heat transfer
coefficient in food processing. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 55,
4053–4062. doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.03.047.
The authors wish to thank the project entitled “Integration of da Silva, W.P., Precker, J.W., e Silva, D.D.P.S., e Silva, C.D.P.S.,
cooling and antioxidants technologies to control the ‘molestado’ Barbosa de Lima, A.G., 2009. Numerical simulation of diffusive
in table olives collected by mechanized means” supported by processes in solids of revolution via the finite volume method
INTERACEITUNA and the Spanish Ministry of Environment, and generalized coordinates. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 52, 4976–
Rural and Marine (MARM). The authors dedicate this work to 4985. doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2009.05.008.
da Silva, W.P., e Silva, C.M.D.P.S., e Silva, D.D.P.S., de Araújo Neves,
the memory of Olga Ferrera.
G., Barbosa de Lima, A.G., 2010. Mass and heat transfer study
in solids of revolution via numerical simulations using finite
volume method and generalized coordinates for the Cauchy
boundary condition. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 53, 1183–1194.
Appendix: Supplementary material
doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2009.10.028.
Di Matteo, M., Cinquanta, L., Galiero, G., Crescitelli, S., 2000. Effect
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at of a novel physical pretreatment process on the drying
doi:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2017.05.012. kinetics of seedless grapes. J. Food Eng. 46, 83–89. doi:10.1016/
S0260-8774(00)00071-6.
Di Matteo, M., Cinquanta, L., Galiero, G., Crescitelli, S., 2002.
Physical pre-treatment of plums (Prunus domestica). Part 1.
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