P RE FA C E .

T HE novel vi e ws in this little work respecting sub

aqueous vision , air lenses,and visual accommodation
we re first promulgated in two pamphlets,entitl e d,
N ote s on the D ioptrics of Vision, and
’ ‘
T he
M e chanism of Accommodation,published in 1 8 7 1
’

and 1 8 7 2 T he y were also explain e d in lecture s

.

d e livered in 1 8 7 1 before th e Sunday Le cture Soci e ty

and in 1 8 7 2 at th e Sunday E venings for the P e o ple.

A gain , in August 1 8 7 2,th e Author re ad a paper at

th e me e ting of the I nt e rnational O p hthalmological
Congre ss re specting his vi e ws on th e m e chanism of
accommodation , which is publish e d in the T ran sac
tions of th e Congress Since th e date of th e s e p bli
. u

cations and l e ct res,furthe r e xpe riments and obs e rva

u

tions by th e A thor hims e lf and by some contin e ntal

u

physiologists have confirmed the corre ctne ss of the

views he originally pu t forward res pe cting the
vi P f
r e a ce .

mechanism of visual accommodation,and as the s e

views have e xcited some int e re st both in this co ntry
u

and in Ge rmany,the Author has been induc e d to

write a more com pl e te t reatise on the optics of
vision in plain a n d untechnical lan guage,so as to
e nable thos e not conve rsant with O tical sci e nc e to
p
understand this impo rtant and interesting subject .

The Author belie ve s that a po pular m e thod of treat

m e nt of his subject is pe fectly compatible with
r

sci e ntific accuracy In th e spe cial optical part of

.

this treatis e h e has confine d himself to thos e optical

facts and princi pl e s which have a d irect bearing
on the optics of the e y e.

The Author has limited himself strictly to his

subj e ct,which is th e optical construction of the no mal
r

human e y e T he re ad e r will there fore not e xpect to

.

find a full account in this small volum e of thos e larg e

s bj e cts the physiology,anatomy,histology,patho
u

logy,and compa ative an atomy of th e e y e ,each of

r

which would require a large book for its proper treat

ment,and could hardly form the th e me of a popular
treatise
.
 C ON T ENT S .

PARA RA P G H PA GE

I .
—T he e ye an o pti cal i n strume n t constr u cte d on or d i nar y ptio cal

p r i nci pl es

2 .
—A le ns th e ch ara cte ri sti c featur e of a
ll Opti cal i nstr ume n ts

3
—
, Wh a t I s a l e ns !

4 .
—R efracti on ofli h t
g
5
— R e f
r ac ti on p
th rou gh a tran s are n t me d i um wi th p ar alle l si d es

—R
.

6 . r acti on o fo
ef bli q ly i mpi
ue n gi n g ra y s

7 —Rul e
. ofr e f
ra cti on

8 .
—Di fie r en t r efracti ve
'

p ow e r s o fd i f
fe r e n t p
tr ans are n t me d i a
9
—R efr acti on
. ofth e e ar th s atm os
’
ph ere

10 .
—C on structi on o fle nse s

11 —For ms ofglass le n se s 1

2 —.R e fr acti on ofp ar alle l r ays th r ough a d ouble convex l e ns

I 3 —Re f
. r acti o n ofd i ve r g e n t r ays th r oug h a d ou ble con ve x le n s

14 —.Re fra cti on ofpar allel r ays th r ough a d o uble c on cave le ns

15 —T he
. amou n t ofr e f
r acti on de p e nd s on th e d i f
fe re n ce b e tw ee n

r ef
r acti ve p ow e r ofle ns an d m e d i um tr an smi tti n g ra s y
16 —R e fracti on ofa glass l e n s i n w ate r
.

1 7 —Le nse s o fle ss r e f

. r acti ve p owe r th an tr an smi tti ng m e di u m

18 —Sh ap e s ofsu ch le n ses

.

1 9 —Re f
. r acti on o f p ar all e l r ays th r oug h a d ouble con ve x l e n s of

l e ss r ef
racti ve p o we r th an t ransm i tti ng m e di u m
20 .
—Re f racti on of p aralle l r a s y th rough a d ou le b concave le n s of

thi s ch ar acte r
v i ii Con ten ts .

PA A AP
R GR H

21 —C ombi n ati on o fl e n se s in o rd e r to i ncre ase re f

r acti ve pw o er

—
.

22 . C omb i n ati on Ofle nse s i n or d e r to di m i n i sh r e f

r ac ti v p w
e o er

23 — P i ctu re
. o f an j
ob e ct i n fr on t of len s th r own on a scr ee n

be hi nd i t
24 .
—T h e scr e e n m ust b e n ear e r th e le n s for pi cturi n g d i stan t
j
ob e c ts th an for n e ar ob e c tsj
25 — A lte r ati on s r e qu i r e d
. to ad a p t th e focu s fr om d i stan t to n e ar

j
ob e cts

26 —T h e e ye re sem ble s a photographi c came ra

Opti cal d i agram ofth e n ormal human eye
.

27 —
28 .
—Di ffe r e n t curvatur e s offron t an d b ack ofcr y t lli l
s a ne en s

29 — Sur face s ofth e e ye le n se s n ot sph e r i cal b u e

. so a t lli p i d l

30 — R
. ef ra cti on ofp ar all el rays o fli gh t b y th e l e nse s ofth e e e
y
3 I — T
. h e r e ti n a o r scr e e n of th e e ye only p e rfe c tly se nsi ti ve on a

sm al l s ace p
3 2 — T
. h i s i m p erfe ct se n si ti ve n ess com p e n sa te d b y th e qiku c n e ss

o f th e e y ’
e s m ove m e n ts
33
—Op ti.c al di f
fe r e n ce s o fe ye an d ph t g phi
o o ra c c am e ra

34
—T he I ri s p
th e di a h rag m o fth e e y e

h ytl
.

35
—T h e a q u e o us h um o ur th e chi e fl e n s o f th e e ye ; t e cr s a

li n e a se con d ar yl en s

36 — Op e.r a ti on s for c ataract e n abl e us to asce r tai n th e p r e ci se

le n ti cul ar p w o e r of th e cr y stalli n e

3 7
—R . ef
r a cti on o fp ll
ar a el ra s y by an e ye de p iv
r e d o f i ts cr sta l y
li n e le n s
3 8 —D e t
.e rm i n ati on ofth e r e f
ra c ti ve p ow e r of th e a u e ou s q le n s

39
—B y e.x ti n g u i shi n g th e a q u e o us le ns an d ar ti fi ci all y pplyi
su n
g
i ts lo ss
4 0 —I mm.e r si on i n w a te r e x ti n u i sh e s th e aqu e ous le n s
g
4 I .
—I m p e r fe ct vi si on r e tai n e d b y d i ve r s

4 2 .
—Le n s p owe r re qui re d to re stor e p e rfe ct vi si on u n d e r wate r
43 .
—G lass l e n s r e qui re d for th i s p p
ur ose

44 .
—P referable to ma k e le n ses o fa i r for use i n wate r

45 .
—
M od e of con stru cti on o fai r le n se s
 Con ten ts . ix

PARA AP GR H PA GE

46
—Eflect o f d ou ble con cave ai r
.
'

lens i n r estori ng pe rf
ect vi si on

un d e r wate r
47
—A ir
. s p ec tacl es for di vers
4 8 .
—I mp r ove d constr ucti on ofai r le n se s for di ve rs
49
— . btai ne d
P e rfe ct vi si on O w i th p
ai r s e ctacle s un d e r wate r
(N o te -
Le tte r from Si r J H e rsch el on th e su bj )
e ct
—C u
. .

50 fe cts of
r i ous e f p e ct vi si on un d e r
er f wate r
O
.

5 1 — p
. ti cal ef
fe cts o b se r ve d in a swi m mi n g bath
5 2 .
—T h e di sti n ctne ss of o bj e cts in or at th e b tt m
o o ofth e wate r
fe cte d
n ot af by ag i tati on of i ts sur face

53
—Re c i p ro ca l v i si on of o b se r ve rs i n an d o u t o fw ater

O
.

54
— p t i ca l d i a gr am of e y es o f s k at e an d tu r tl e

55 —V. i si on ofnear obj e cts

5 6 — C
. h a n g es r e q u i r e d to ad a p t th e e y e t o n e ar vi si o n

57
— S
. u pp os e d i n cr e a se o f d i stance b e tw i x t l e n s an d r e ti na

5 8 —I.n c r e as e d r e fr ac ti ve p o w e r o f e y e l e n se s, or o f on e o fth e m
5 9
—A. ll e g e d i nc r ea s e o f th e co n ve x i ty o f th e co rn e a

60 —Yo un g s be li e fthat th e con ve xi ty o f th e crystal li n e i ncre ase d

’
.

6 I —Lang e n b e ck s catop tr i c obse rvati ons

’
.

62 —C ramer assumes i n cr e ase d con vexi ty of crystalli ne

.

6 3 —H e lmh oltz and Don d e rs are o fth e sam e opi ni on

.

64 .
—Di fier e n ces
'

i n th e cato pt i
r cal a pp earan ce s see n by diff e re n t

b
o se r ve rs

6 5 —C r am er s di agram
.
’

—Don d ers’ di agram

6 7 —H lmh olt s d i agr am
’
e z

—
.

68 C h a g s sai d by H elmh olt

n e z to o ccu r i n ne ar acco mmod ati on
—
.

69 Ch. an ges all e ged by H e n sen an d Volcke r to occ ur in n e ar

acc om mod ati on

70 —C omm only r e ce i ve d ex pl ana ti on ofth e p rocess

—O
.

7 I b
.j e cti ons to thi s e xp l an ati o n

7 2 —T h e pt i cal pp
ca to r a e aran ce s i n the e ye e x
mi ne d a

—
.

73 C . ato pt i l pp
r ca a e ar an ces wh e n o bse rve d f
r om b oth sid e s

I nf
e re n ce to be d rawn from th e se b
o se r vati on s
 Con ten ts .

PA A AP
R GR H

75
— E fl.e c ts
'

o f an ob li q u e p os i ti o n o f a l e n s i n sh o r te n i n g i ts f
ocus

7 6 —P
. ro v i si o n s ag ai n s t s ph e ri ca l ab e rr ati on

—
( No te P ow e r o fa small ori fi ce to ob vi ate sph e ri cal abe rr a
.

ti o n )

7 7
—P
. r o vi si on ag ai n st ch r omati c ab e rr ati on

7 8 —T
. h e ar r an g e m e n t o f th e fib re s of th e c i li ar ym uscle fi tt d t
e o

p r od u ce a ti lti n g m o ve m e n t ofth e cr y t lli

s a ne le ns
79
—T h e cili y m u s l ar c e m ay con tra ct on on e si d e on l y at a ti me
Othe r
.

80 — . m uscle s of th e e ye su ppli ed by th e sam e n e r ve can

m ove si ngl y
—
8 L In n e ar accomm od ati on th e tw o i n tern al r e cti m uscles act

si m ulta n e ou sl y
82 —C omparati ve anatomy o fci li ary muscle
.

83 —Di ffe r e n ce o fti m e occupi e d i n ne ar an d

. i n di stan t accomm o
da ti on
—C ause ofC ze rmaks pl wsp/zén e
’
84 .

85 —M ove me n t o fpupil cause d by rota ti on

. y
ofcr stalli n e l e ns
86 — P r obable i n d e pe n d e n t con tra cti on o fo th e r
. p or ti on s ofcili ar y
mu scle
87 — In cre ase d
. k
th i c y
n e ss ofcr stalli n e le n s ob ser ve d p ost mor tem
88 .
—De scri pti on oflarge wor ki ng m od el ofth e e ye
 .
T HE H U MA N E YE

OP T IC A L C ON ST RU C T ION .

I T HE human e y e is an optical instrument of a

.

peculiar and complex character,di ffering in some i m

portant resp e cts from any of the Optical instruments
with which we are familiar,but yet resembling som e
of these instruments i n the general princi pl e s of i ts
construction .

2 .Optical instruments are of various kinds, fro m

the simple lens familiar to all in the spectacles we
wear in our old age and the burning glass we played
with in our childhood,to the complicated arrange
ment of lenses, diaphragms,chambers and screens in
our compound microscopes, our refracting telescopes
and our photographic cameras All these optical
.

instruments have one feature in common , namely, the

l ens.
2 T Ice Hu man Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

3 A lens is a transpare nt body of pe culiar shape ,

.

which poss e ss e s the property of refracting rays of

light passing thro gh it,that is to say,of d e fl e cting
u

them in ce rtain directions, according to its shape and

refractive power .

4 I.n ord e r to nde rstand the nature and properties

u

of a l e ns,it will b e nece ssary to explain what is meant

by the refraction of light .

Whe n a ray of light f om a transparent medium of r

a ce rtain re fractive powe r im pinge s p e rp e ndicularly on

a transparent m e dium of a di fferent refractive power,
it passes through without d efle x i on,but if it i m
i
p g n e s on this second m e dium obliqu e ly ,
it is deflected
from its original co rse and proce e ds onward through
u

the s e cond m e dium in a new d i rection The amount .

of dive rgenc e from its original course will d e pend on

two things First,th e degre e of obliq ity with which
. u

th e ray strikes the s e cond medium second,the

di fference betwixt the re fractive power of the first
and the s e cond medium ’
.

Re fracti on i s n ow u su all y xpl

e ai n e d to be cause d by a r e tar d ati on

of th e ve loci t y o f th e vi b r ati on s o f th e r ay o f li gh t,by th e o b stacle s

p r e se n te d to i ts fr e e p assag e th rough a so-cal le d re f

r acti ve m e di um .

T he ph e nom e na of th e p
s e c tru m are h e ld to b e d u e to th i s r e tar d i n g

ef
fe ct a cti n g wi th more or l e ss p owe r on th e d i f
fer e n t c ol ou r e d ra y s of

whi ch whi te l i gh t i s c om ose d p I

h ave n o t th ough t i t d e si ra le
. b or

n e ce ssar y
to en te r i n to fu lle r d e tails on th e su e ct of the cause bj of

re f
r acti on . We h ave onl yt o d o h e r e wi th th e ef
fects .
 Refr a cti on of L igat.
3

5
. Fig .1 repr e sents the refraction of a ray of l i ght
through a trans parent substance with parall e l sid e s .

When the light A,from a less e fractive m e dium M ,

r

0 falls p erpendicularly to th e surface X Y of the more

refractive medium X Z,it pass e s through the new

m e dium to the Opposite sid e Owithout being de

fl e cte d
. Wh e n it n o w passe s,still perpe ndicularly,
into the l e ss re fractive medium M,it continues the
same course witho t d e fle x i on,so that the ray of
u

light from A to C is perfe ctly straight .

6 B ut if the ray of light D strike the surface of the

.

more refractive medium obliquely,it will not traverse

it in the straight course D E, b ut will be deflected or
B 2
4 Ta
!
. Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr u cti on .

drawn towards the perpendicular B O ,and strike the

opposite surface at F On emerging into the less
.

re fractive medium M ,which it ente rs obliquely,it

w ill be deflected away from the perpendicular O C, in
the dire ction F G, parallel to the direction of its inci
dence D B .

7. H ence the rule of refraction may be stated thus

A ray of light entering a more refractive transparent
medium fro m a less re fractive transparent medium
obliquely,is deflected towards the perpe ndicular ; b ut
if it passes obliquely from a more refractive me diu m
into a less refractive medium,it is deflected away
from the perpendicular .

8 All transparent media possess the refractive

.

power ; fluids and solids have a much higher r e frac

tive power than gases,but many fluids possess a
higher refractive power than some solids Thus, .

carbon sulphide and oil of cassi a possess a greater

r efractive power than plate and crown glass The .

diamond has nearly the highest refractive power of

any transparent substance,and it is this property
that imparts to it its peculiar brilliancy The r e .

fracti ve power of a transparent substance is not

alway s in proportion to its density A high degree
.

o f refractive power has b e e n supposed to i n dicate a

g reat degree of com b ustibility ,

and Sir I saa c N e wton
 Refr acti on of t/ze A ti n osp/cer e .
5

inferred the combustibility of the diamond from its

remarkable refractive power .

9
. Our atmosph e re possess e s a considerable degree
of refractive power,a circumstance well known to
astronomers It is only when they are in the z enith,
.

that is to say, perpendicularly above us,that the stars

are seen in their true positions ; as they approach the
h ori z on the rays of light from them are defl e cte d by
the atmosphere I t is this refractive power of our
.

atmosphere that enabl e s us to see the sun several

minute s before it rises and after it sets To an .

ob server at 0 ( Fig. on the surface of the earth

FI G . 2 .

E,the sun,which is really b elow the hori zon at S,

appears to be above the hori zon at S,in consequence '

of its rays,which impinge obliquely on th e ea rth s ’

atmosphere A,b e ing re fracted from their original

direction S R,in the n ew direction R O ; the r eal
6 T be Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr u cti on .

position of the sun being in the line O 8 But in spite .

of the conside rable refractive power of the earth s ’

atmosphere compared with that of inte rstellar space ,

the air being the least refractive of the transpare nt
m e dia in which our optical instruments are used,is
regard e d as unity in calculating the refractive powers
of other transparent media e mployed for optical
p urposes .

1 0 The refractive properties of transparent sub

.

stances have bee n tak e n advantage of for constructing

instruments,called l e nses, by means of which the rays
of light are deflecte d in certain require d directions .

L enses,which form the basis of most optical i n

stru m e n ts, are ge nerally constructed of glass,and the
two C hi e f uses of lenses b eing to concentrate and to
sca tter rays of light, the glass is shap e d so as to e ffect
the s e two objects .

1 I . The chief forms of glass l e nses are shown in

Fig 3 A is a sphe r i ca l lens,B is a d ou ble con vex
. .

lens ; the two s rfaces may have the same convexity ,

u

as in the illustration,or may have di fferent con

ve x i ti e s C is a pla no con vex lens,one side being
.
-

plane, th e other convex D is a meni scus,

. where one
side is c onvex,the other concave, the convexity being
greate r than the concavity E is a d ou ble conca ve
.

lens I n such l enses the concavities may be the sam e

.
 For ms f
o Gla ss L enses .
7

or dissimilar F is a pi
. l e ns,one surface
-
a n o conca ve

plane,the other concave G is a conca oo con oex lens,

.
-

the concavity being greater than the convexity .

FI G .
3 2

The curved surfaces of artificial l e nses are usually

spherical ,but lenses may be constructed with cy li n
d ri cal,elliptical,
or hyperbolical surfaces .

When light reaches them through a less refractive

m ed i u m M , the four first forms A, B, C,D con e en
trate the rays,and are what are called mag n ify i ng
glasses, the remai n der E, F,G disperse rays of light,
and are sometimes called d i mi n i shi ng glasses .

1 2 The su bjoined diagram ( Fig 4 ) explai ns h ow

. .

parallel rays of light proceeding from a less refractive

medium are concentrated to a focus by a double conve x
lens made of a more refractive substance The parallel
.

rays A, B, C, impinge on the surface of the lens L L,

at the points D, E,G As the centre ray A strikes
.

the len s at D perpendic ularly to its surface, it passes

8 T /ze Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str ucti on .

t hrough the lens in a straight line, and as it emerges

from the opposite side of the lens at H, pe r pe n

d i cu larly to the surface of the less refractive medium

M, whose shape is determin e d by that of the len s, the
r ay still goes on in a straight line B ut the ray B
.

i mpinges on the su rface of the lens L obliquely at E

F IG 4
. .

R
( Q is the prolonged radius of the surface L E L ,
an d B E Q is the angle of incidence of th e ray B) ,

an d as L has a greater refractive power than the

medium whence the ray comes, the ray is now in its

passage through L deflected towards the perpendicular
o f the surface E of the lens T h e radius R E of the
.

C onvex surface L E L of the lens,is the pe rpe n

 Refr a cti on o
y Con vex G la ss L en ses
.

d i cu larto the front of its surface at E So in passing

.

through the lens the ray B is deflected at E, so that it

strikes the opposite side and emerges at J but here
it enters the less refractive medium M obliquely to
its surface at J,and is accordingly de flecte d away
from its p e rpe ndicular ( the radius S ] of the surface
L ] L prolonge d) This new d e fle x i on directs it to F ,
.

where it meets the u n d e fle cte d central ray A and the

corresponding parallel ray C at the Opposite periphery
of the l e ns All int e rmediate parallel rays b e tween B
.

and C likewise meet at F, and this is called the focus

of the lens .

FIG 5
. .

I3 . R ays of light proceeding from a luminous Obj ect

at a considerabl e distance,impinge on the lens in
n early parallel lines B ut when the luminous object
.

i s near the lens, th e rays of light from it strike the

lens in divergent lines I n the latter case the focus
.
10 T be Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str ucti on .

is found at a greater distance behind the lens,as

shown in Fig 5 ,where the rays proceeding from a near
.

Object are focused at F, whilst parallel rays a,b,

are
focused at o .

14. When parall e l rays of light proceeding from a

less refractive medium pass through a double con
cave lens made of a more re fractive medium they
are dispersed This will be understood by the follow
.

ing diagram,Fig 6 The parallel rays of light

. .

F IG . 6 .

A, B, C,impinge on the su rface of the lens at D, E, G .

As the centre ray strike s the lens at D p e rpendicularly

to its surface,it passes through the lens in a straight
line,and as it e merge s from the opposite side of the
lens at H, perpendicularly to the surface of the less
 Refr acti on o
y Con ca ve Gla ss L enses . 1 I

refractive medium M , whose shape is determined by

that of the lens, the ray still goes on in a straight line .

B u t the ray B impinges on the surface of the lens L

obliquely at E ( B E R in its angle of incidence), and
as L has a greater re fractive power than the medium
through which the ray comes, the ray is now in its
passage through L deflected towards the pe rpe n
d i c u lar The perpe ndicular is ascertained by pro
longing the radius R E of the surface E D G O
.

. n

emergi ng at J ,it enters the less refractive mediu m

M obliqu e ly to its surface,and is consequently
deflected away from the perpendicular S J ,in the
direction J K The same thing takes place with the
.

ray C at the opposite periphery of the lens L and with

all intermediate parallel rays .

The focus of a concave lens is said to b e the point

F,where the rays would meet if prolonged b ackwards
in their final direction .

In eve ry case of re fraction of light by lenses ,

'

.15

the amount of the d e fle x i on depends on the di fference

between the refractive power of the lens and the
m edium through which the rays of light are trans
m i tte d to it . This refractive power of a trans parent
medium is called its index of refraction As the .

atmospheric air is the medium of least refractive power

employed in optical operations,its ind ex of refraction
I 2 T Ize Hu man Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

is called 1 G lass , which has an index of refracti on

.

of 1 5 , i s the usual substance of which o ptical lenses

are made But some substances of wh ich lenses may
.

b e made have a much h i gher or a much lower index of

refraction than glass T hus the index of refraction of
’

diamond is as high as 2 4 , and water has an index of

°

refraction of I 3 The rule for calculating the amount

.

of d e fle x ion a ray will undergo in its transmission

from ai r through a l e ns, I n e e d not detain the read e r
by explaining It is expre ssed in these terms : The
.
'

sine of the angle of incidence is to the sine of the angle

of refraction as the index o f refraction of the lens is
to 1 Thus if the l e ns be of water,the sine of the
.

angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction

will be as to I ; if of glass,as to I ; if of
diamond , as 2 4 to I ,and so on
°

1 6 B u t when a glass lens is used in a medium

.

whose index of refraction is greater than that of air,

as for instance in wat e r,then the sine of the angle
o f incidence to that of refraction will be as I 5 to
°

1 3 . I n other words, the rays of light impinging on

a glass lens immersed in water, will be much less
deflecte d than when the same lens is used in air ; it
will consequently concentrate the rays of light at a
much greater distance b e hind it in water than in air .

1 7 L enses may be made when the relations betwixt

.
 L enses of sma ll Refr a cti ve P ower . I 3

the lens and the surrounding medium through which

it receives the rays of light may be just the opposite
.

of those j ust described : The surrounding medium

may be the most refractive, the lens itself the least
refractive .

I 8 L enses of this description ( Fig 7) may be

. .

similar in shape to those formerly described,but their

FIG .
7
.

qualities will b e precisely the o pposite of theirs .

Thus the sphere A, double convex B, p i ano convex C,

-

and meniscus D, will cause the rays of light to diverge

where as the double concave E,plano concave F,and
-

co ncavo-convex G, will cause the rays of light trans

m i tte d through them to converge .

1 9 This will b e understood fro m the following dia

.

gr ams The parallel rays A B C ( Fi g

. .passing
through the more refractive medium M ,impinge on
the su rface of the lens L L (which is composed of a
less refractive medium than M ) , at the points D, E, G .
I 4 T /te Hu man Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

The centre ray A, striking the lens at D pe rpe n d icu

larly to its surface, p ass e s through th e lens wit h out
any d e fle x i on of its co urs e ,and as it also strikes the
F IG 8
. .

surface of the more refractive medium at H, p p

e r e n

d i c u larly to its surface,it continues on a straight

c ourse . The ray B impinges on the surface of the
lens at E obliqu e ly ( its angle of incid e nce being B E Q ) ;
so on passing through the less re fractive l e ns i t is
deflecte d away from the p e rpendicular R E and
e m e rges at J . H ere it e nt e rs the more re fractive me
d i u m M obliqu e ly ( its angl e of incidence being E J S ) ,
so in passing through this medium it is again deflected
 R efr a cti on tnr oug /t su e/z L en ses
. I 5

to wards the perp endicular S T,and proceeds in the

course J K The same thing happens to th e ray C on
.

the Opposit e pe riphery of the l e ns Thus it will b e

.

s e e n that this double convex lens ,becaus e i t re c e ive s

-

the rays of light from a m e dium of gre ater re fractive

powe r,acts precisely lik e a do bl e concave l e ns
u

re ceiving rays from a less refractive medi m than u

itself On both sid e s the more refractive medium has

.

a concave shape .

2 0 When parall e l rays,

. pas sing through a more
refractive medium , strik e a doubl e concave l e ns made
of a less refractive medium,they converge to a point
F IG 9
. .

behind the lens, as s e e n in Fig 9 The ray A,

. . falling
pe rpendicularly to the surface of th e l e ns L at D ,
passes through the lens, emerges also perpendicularly
I 6 T li e Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr u cti on .

to the surface of the medium M ,and is not d e flected .

The ray B impinges on the surface of the l e ns at E

obliqu e ly ( its angl e of incidence is B E R ),and as the
lens L is a less refractive medium than that it leaves,
the ray is deflected away from th e pe rpe n d i c ulafR T,
and strikes the opposite surface of the l e ns at J
. .

H ere it enters the more re fractive mediu m M at J ,

an d is consequ e ntly deflected towards the pe rpe n

d i c u lar S J ,
and joins the ray A D H at F As the
'

ray C on the opposite p e riphery of the lens and all

intermediate parallel rays likewise meet at F, this i s
th e focus of th e lens L Thus it will be s e en that a
.

double concave lens constructed of a less re fractive

medium,immersed in a more refractive medi m , acts u

like a double convex lens made of a more refractive

substance in a mediu m of less refractive power O n .

both sides the more r efractive medium has a convex

shape .

21 . A combination of lenses is frequently used I n .

some cas e s it is desirable to incre ase the refractive

power of the lens,and thereby shorten its focus .

This is shown in Fig 1 0,where the ray B,which

.

would otherwise have entered the lens L at D and

been refracted to f; su ffe rs a pre vious refraction by
the supplementary convex lens S,and entering th e
lens L at E alre ady d efl e cted, is focused at F T he .
 Combi n a ti on s of L en ses . I 7

same thing happens to the ray C ,while the central

ray A, which strikes both lenses p e rpe ndicularly,pro
ce e d s in an u n d e fle cte d cours e and joins the other

ray s at F .

FIG . 10 .

22 . I n other cas e s it may

wished to d e crease th e
be
refractive power of the l e ns,and thereby lengthen its
FIG . 11 .

fo cus This is don e ( Fig 1 1 ) by adding a concave

. .

lens S to the too refractive lens L The ray of light

.
1 8 T be Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

B, which would otherwise have e nte re d the l e ns L at

D,and b e e n refracted to f,und e rgoes a pre vious
refraction by th e s pplem e ntary concav e l e ns S,and
u

e nters the lens L at a di f ferent angle E, and is con

sequently focused at F .

2 3 I f a screen be placed behind a l e n s pre cisely in

.

its focus whe n it is re ce iving rays of light from an

obj e ct situated in front of it at a greate r distance than
its own focal length, an inverted picture of the obj e ct
will be thrown u pon the scre e n This will b e und e r
.

stood by the diagra m Fig 1 2 A B C is an obj e ct

. .

FIG. 12 .

placed in front of a lens L L at a distance greate r

than its focal l e ngth R ays of light emanate in e very
.

direction from every point of the obj e ct Those pro .

cee ding from the central point A are focus e d,as

already explained, behind the lens,at F The rays .
 De D D
'

f f fi
er en t F ocu ses o i er en t i sta n ces . I 9

proceeding from the point B are focused at f, as shown

by the interrupted line whilst the rays from th e point
C are focused at f , as shown by the dotte d line A
’
.

screen placed at Fff will exhibit an inverted and

’

smaller picture of th e obj e ct A B C .

24
. I t is this pro p erty of the lens ,
of depicting th e
image of an Object in front Of it b e yond its focal
‘

l e ngth on a screen placed behind it in its focus, that is

utili ed in the construction of the camera obscura and
z

photographic apparatus From what has been pre

.

vi o u sly said , it will be obvious that for the picturing

on the scre e n of distant objects whence the rays of light
impinge on the lens in nearly parallel lines, the scre e n
must be placed n e arer the back of the lens than when
it is wished to picture the image of near objects ,
wh e nce the rays impinge divergently on the lens In .

th e former case, as already explained,the focus is

shorter than in the latter .

2 5 I f th e position of the screen is fixed,

. then the
a lterati on required in order to focus obj e cts perfectly

upon it,must take place in the position of the l e ns,

which may be moved nearer th e scre en for distant
obj e cts, and farthe r from the screen for near obj e cts .

Or if it be impossible to move e ither scre en or l e ns ,

which must consequently preserve the sam e relative
positions,then it will be necessary to i ncrease th e
refractive power of the lens, whereby its focus will be
C 2
20 T be Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

s horte ned for near objects T his may b e done by .

1, using a lens of greater convexity ; 2 ,by employing

a lens of the same convexity,but made of a more
refractive material ; or 3,by e m ploying a supple
m e ntary convex l e ns, as shown at Fig 1 0, where the .

original lens is adapte d for distant obj e cts ; or 4 ,

by
making u se of a s ppl e m e ntary concave lens,as u

shown at Fig 1 1 ,whe re the original lens is already

.

suited for the focusing of n e ar obj e cts or 5 , by pre

s e nting the l e ns obliquely to the Object,whereby the
focal distance is diminishe d .

T h e r dimenta ry optical facts above d e tailed w ill

u

rend e r inte lligible the principles of the optical con

struction of the eye .

2 6 T h e o ptical instrument the eye most nearly

.

re sembl e s,is the photographic camera I n both we .

have an inve rted image of external objects thrown

upon a sensitive scree n at the back of a dark chamb e r .
‘

I n th e case of th e eye, howe ver,the dark chamb er is

filled with a highly refractive aqu e o s medi um,an d u

the le ns is a com pound on e , composed of two media of

di ffe rent refractive powers .

2 7 Fig 1 3 is a diagram of the normal human eye

. . .

It b e l on g s to ph y is olog y t xplo e ai n h ow i t i s th at bj
o e c ts pi ctur e d

u p id
s e -d ow n on th e r e ti n a ar e se e n p p p i ti
i n th e i r ro W
er d os on . e n ee

on ly say h e re th at i t i s not th e re ti
na whi ch p iv ,b t th b i ,
e r ce t es u e ra n o

wh i ch i m p r e ssi on s on the r e ti n a ar e c vey d by th O

on epti ve e c ne r .
 Opti ca l D i ag r a m of til e Ey e. 2 I

S S is the hard, thick,opaque case calle d the scler oti c,

which encloses the dioptric m e dia of the e y e I t is
.

nearly sph e rical in shape ,

and lies in a hollow of the
sk ll called the orbit,wh e re it is surrounded by a
u

FIG . 13
.

series of muscles which turn it in every required

direction This opaque case does not constitute a
.

com plete sphere I n the front part of it is a C ircular

.

opening,which is occupied by a firm transparent

structure C C,more convex in shape than the case
i tself,and resem b ling a watch glass ; this is called
from its horny consistence the cor nea At a short
.

distance behind the cornea there is suspended a

contractile memb rane I I , called the i r is,with a cir
22 T li e Hu m a n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

c u la r hol e in its centre capable of being made larger

or smalle r by the contractions of the m e mbrane T he .

membran e is of various colours in various eyes ; it

give s what is called the colour to the e y e I n the .

human eye it varies from light grey to the most

inte nse viol e t bl e,and from yellow through e ve ry
u

shad e of b own and haz e l to the d e e pest black

r .

Various shades of gre e n are not uncommon .In

th e albino it is usually bright red . It is a perfe ctly
opaque m embrane,not allowing a ray oflight to pass
through it, except in th e albino , where the absence of
colouring matter renders it n ot quite opaqu e T h e .

C ircular o pe ning in its c e ntre P P is call e d the p pil u .

T h e iris divid e s th e e y e into two un e q al chamb e rs

u

fill e d with transparent media That to the front,

.

bo nded by th e c o rnea,
u contains a wate ry fluid A A
calle d the aqueous humour That bounded by th e
.

scl e rotic behind ontains a fluid similar in properties

c

to the aqueous h mour,b ut enclosed in a finely

u

r e ticulated membrane, which holds its fluid contents

together eve n afte r re moval from the e y e,causing it
to look like a lum p of glass — h e nce its nam e ,vi tr eou s

lzu mour ,V V .T h e refractiv e po w er of cornea and

aq e ous an d vitreous humours is nearly identical,
u and
is ve ry nearly th e same as that of water .

I mmediately behind the iris, bathed in front by the

 Cu r va tu r es of tire Cry sta lli n e L en s . 23

aq ueous humo r,and behind imb e dded in the front

u

of th e vitre ous humour, is a transparent double conve x -

l e ns shape d body L L,
- enclosed in an e lastic membrane .

T his lens is called the cry sta lli ne lens I t is com

posed of conce ntric layers of various re fractive pow
.

er,
in creasing towards the c e ntre Its average re fractive .

p o w e r is not much great e r than that of the aqueous

a n d vitreous humours While the index of re fraction
.

of th e latter may be stated as I 33,the ave rage ‘

ind ex of refraction of the crystalline l e ns is certainly

not n ore than 1 39,probably l e ss The crystalline .

lens is commonly spok e n of as the l e ns of the eye , !

but this is misl e ading,for it is not th e only nor y e t

the chief l e ns of the eye, but may rather be look e d on
as a S pple m e n tary l e ns,
i as far as the human e y e is
concerne d,though,as we shall see h e reafte r, in certai n
other ca sses of animals it is the chi e f or eve n the sol e
oc lar lens
u .

2 8 T h e cu r vatures of the two su rf

. aces of the c rys
talli n e l ens are not alike th us its front is l e ss c onvex ,
while i ts back is more convex than the cornea .

T he cur vatu r es ofcorne a an d , fr ont an d b k

ac y
ofcr stalli ne l en s ar e

u su all y sta te d to b e as follows : th e corn e a h as a r ad i us of cur va ture

of 8 m i llimetr e s th e fr on t, of th e cr y t lli
s a ne le ns h as a ra d i us of

cur vatur e of I Om ill i metr e s , an d i ts b ack a radi us o f curvature of

6 m illi m e tres ; b ut as th o se sur f

ace s ar e n ot s ph e ri cal ,
th ese m easur e
men ts can on l yb e con si d e re d as a ve rag e s .
 24 T ue Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

29 . surfaces of cornea and crystalline are not

T he
spherical ,b ut ellipsoidal They are segm e nts of a .

fi gure like what is repres e nted here ( Fig T h e .

cornea is a segment of an e g g
F 4IG 1
shaped body cut from its lo ng
. .

diam e te r C the surfaces of the

crystalline lens are segments of a
similar section cut from its short
diamete r L) This wi ll make
“

the apex of the cornea its most

convex part, while the apices of the s u rfaces ofthe
cry stalline lens will be the least convex This shape .

of the surfaces of the re fractive media of the e y e

e ndows them with pe culiar optical properties .

3 0. When p arallel rays of light ,i e rays of light . .

from a distant object, impinge upon the eye, they first

come in contact with the convex surface of the cornea .

T he cornea, having a refractive power nearly i de ntica l

with that of the aqu e ous humour it encloses, th e two

togeth e r form a homogeneous lens, bounded in front by

the outline of the cornea, behind by the anterior sur
face of the crystallin e The form of this lens,. it will
be observed, is that of the meniscus ( D, Fig for the .

con vex i ty of the cornea is ,as b e fore observed , greate r

than that of the anterior surface of the crystalline,

Obl t ph i d l i th m m ti m ppli d t thi fig
a e s e ro a s e na e so e es a e o s ure .

It i g i fi
s n ph fl tt d t th p l ,
es a s ere a enelik th fi g
a e fth
o es th e e ure o e ear .
 Refr a cti on o
y tl f
ce L en ses o a . Ey
!
e .

which d e te rmin e s the shape of the conca vi ty of this'

aqueous lens H owever,it differs from the ordinary

.

m e niscus in this,that the concave surface does not

com e in contact with the air,but is in C los e apposi
tion with a more refractive m e dium than its e lf ; so
that, in tracing the rays of light thro gh the aqu e ous
u

humour, we have only to take into consid e ration the

conve rgent refraction caused by its conve x surfac e ,
and not, as i n the case of a glass m e niscus,the diver
gent refraction caused by the concave surface .

The ray a ( Fig . falling perpendicularly to the

s urface of th e cornea at cl, passes through the di optric
media of the e y e without refraction to the back of the
eye T he rays 6 and c,which strike th e corn e a at c
.

and g ,passing from a l e ss refractive m e dium, the air,

i
i nto the more refractive n e d i u m obl i quely to its surface,
are d e flected towards the perpendicular, as before ex
lai n e d (see Fig
. This will bring these rays in
the direction e lt,g k,when th e y will impinge on the
surface of the crystallin e lens at It and k The crys
.

talli ne l e ns, b e ing a more refractive m e dium than

the aqu e ous humour, the rays from the latter, striking
its surface obliquely,are deflecte d again towards the
perpendicular of the anterior convexity of the crystal
line, and proceed in the direction Iz m, k n,and passing
into the less refractive medium of the vitreous humour,
they are again deflected, this time away from the per
 26 T be Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr u cti on .

‘
p e n d i c u l of the poste rior curve of the c rystalline
ar

lens, which brings them in the direction mf, n f, where

they join the central ray at f,on the line of the visual
axis of th e e y e T he interior of the eye case is lined
.
‘ -

with a s e nsitive screen,called the r eti na ,a nervous

e xpanse of wond e rful construction , that forms the
termination of the optic nerve .

3 1 T his. nervous screen , on which the picture of

e xt e rnal objects is thrown, is only perfectly sensitive
to the image s formed on it in a small point exactly in
th e axis of vision at f, where is the focus of rays
proceeding from obj e cts directly in front of the eye .

T h e field of view of the e y e is ve ry extensive , but

th e po rtion of this field , wh e re the image of e xternal
objects is perfe ctly s e en,is a very minute point, calle d
th e yellow spot I n this spot the arrange ment of rods
.

and cones,of which th e retina is made up, is different

from what it is on other parts of the r e ti n a ] L

3 2 I n C.onsequence of this arrangement it is only

T h ese alte r ati on s i n th e di re cti on of th e r ay of li gh t ar e so sl i gh t ,
th at th e y a r e n ot e xhib i t d i e n th e cu t .

1
'
A lth ough th e y ll w p
e o s ot i n th e axi s of vi si on i s th e o nl yp art of

th e re ti n a ca a p bl e o fd i sti n ctl yp e r ce i vi n g th e pi ctur e ofo bj e c ts throw n

u p on ,
it it is a ctu all y n ot so se n si ti ve to lzg/zt as th e su rroun d i ng p ar ts

of the r e ti n a. Of thi we m ay c onvi n ce o ur selve s i f we d arke n th e

s

r oo m suf
fici e n tl y x
wi th ou t e cludi n g all li gh t T h e n i fw e l ook strai gh t
.
,
forwar d w e , bl
sh all be a e to se e the for ms of wh i te o bj e cts,u s ch as

pi ece s o f wh i t p p ,lyie a er n g on e i th e r si d e , b u t on di re cti n g th e e ye to

th e se bj t ,th t i t
o ec s a s o say , on allowi n
g th e m to be fo cuse d on th e

y e llo w p ot,
s w t see cann o e th e m at al l.
 I mperfect Sen si ti ven ess f
o t/ze Reti n a . 2 7

n e ce ssary that the rays of light in the line of the

visual axis i e the rays directly in front of the eye,
.

should be accurately focus ed on this small point of the

retina ; the remainder of the re tina would not b e abl e
to perceive distinctly the objects pictured upon it,

though they may be pe rfe ctly focus e d The lightning

.

like rapidity of the ey e s movem e nts neutraliz es th e

-
’

defe ctive s e nsibility of the remainder of the retina,

and enables us,if not to take in a whole landscape at
a glance , at all events to see e very portion of it in suc
c e ssion with the utmost distinctn e ss by a rapid swee p
of our eye I n this way each individual portion of
.

the landscape is accurately focused on the small

e rf e ctly sensitive spot of th e retina,
and the impres
p
sion on th e mind is as if the whole view were dis
ti n c tly s e en at once .

I t is probable, indeed certain,that the image of

e xt e rnal O bjects is distinctly focused on a much larger
s pac e than the small yello w spot that is alon e capabl e

o f p e rc e iving it perfe ctly, but it is impossible that the

w hol e fi e ld of vision , so e xte nsive as it is,can be
accurately focused P ractically,
. however, this is of n o
consequence,for the perfectly s e nsitive point of the
re tina being exactly in the axis of vision,it is no
d e triment to our perception of exte rnal objects if the
whole of the remainder of the retin a received an
imperfectly focused picture .
 °

28 T lze H u ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

33 .From wha t h as b e en stated it will b e s e e n that

the e y e has a considerable resemblance to the photo
graphic camera B oth have a dark chamber ,and on e
.

or more lenses, so arranged as to throw a picture of ex

ternal objects on a sensitive screen at the back of this "

dark chamber B ut the e y e di ffers in some important

.

respe cts from the photographic camera While th e .

dark chamber of th e latter is filled with the same

m edium as that through which the rays pass to the
lens of the camera, vi z air, the dark chamber of the
.

e y e is filled with a highly re f ractive medium,which

forms, in fact,the principal lens of the eye,for the
c hief refraction is performed by the aqueous humour,

the c rystalline l e ns only b e ing as it were a s pple u

menta ry lens,e ffecting a slight additional refraction

of the incident rays .

Rays of light, entering th e camera of the eye from

the air by its anterior lens,do not again pass into air
before being focused on the sensitive screen b e hind,
as they do in the photogra phic ca mera .

34 .I n the eye we find an arrangement f o r cutting

off superfluous rays of light that might interfe re with

Re cent obs ervati ons see m to sh ow that the rese m bl an ce b e twe en

the scre en of th e eye an d that of th e ar ti fici me ra i s gr e ate r th an

al ca

pp
was su ose d . T h us K ii hn e foun d th at th e i mag e ofan ob e ct thr own j
p
u o n th e r e ti na d uri n g life i s ac tu a ll vy
i si l ebas a rose -coloure d i cture p
b
o n that mem rane af ter d eath .
’
( Se e N ature vol xv , . . p .
 T he Di aphr ag m f
o the Ey e . 29

th e perfection of the image cast on the retina T his .

is called a d i aphr ag m in optical instrume nts The .

iris I I,which is the diaphragm of the eye,is placed

j ust in front of the crystalline lens, and has the power
of contracting and dilating its op e ning,called the
pp , ,
u il P P to reg lat euthe admission of rays of light .

I n fact,in ordinary conditions of the e y e , the i ris,

which i s an opaq e m e mbrane,covers up a large
u

portion of the c rystalline lens,and allows only i ts

central portion to receive the rays of light The si z e .

of the pupil regulates the amount of light admitted

into the e y e When the image would be blurred by
.

the admission of rays of light i n excess,the pupil

contracts an d shuts off th e se rays Accordingly.

the pupil contracts,as a rule,in strong light and

dilates in obscure light When the refractive media
.

of the eye become less accurate,as th e y do in old

age,the pupi l has a tendency to contract,and thu s
correct,to som e extent,the faulty refraction of the
ocular l e nses B ut the contraction of the pupil is not
.

carried far enough to obviate all the inaccuracies

‘

of the de fe ctive e y e lenses of old age Accordingly,

- .

We are forced to suppl y, by artificial means,the addi

ti onal refractive power the defects o f our refractive

media req ire

u .

35 . I have stated that the ch ief lens of the eye is

3 0 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

that form e d by the corn e a and aqueous humour By .

this I m e an that th e first re fraction of rays of light

at the cornea and aqueous humour is greater than th e
s e cond ca sed by the crystallin e lens And y e t th e
u .

crystallin e lens is constructe d of a medium of gre ate r

refractive power than the corn e a and aq e ous humour ;
u

it is moreove r a doubl e convex lens,one su rface of

which is gre atly more convex than the singl e convex
surface of the aqueous lens, which, as before remarked,
is a meniscus D id it receive the rays of light as the
.

aqueous lens does from the slightly refractive m e dium,

the air,the refractive power of th e double conve x
.

crystallin e lens would gre atly ( ex ceed that of the

.

aqu e ous m e niscus It would,in fact,bring the rays

.

to a focus 4 or 5 millim etres behind it B ut as the .

crystallin e lens is suspended in a medi m (th e u

aqu e ous and vitreo s humours) whose re fractive power

u

is but slightly infe rior to its own,rays of light passing

into it from this medium are only very slightly
deflect e d from their course .

It would b e di f fi c lt by calculation to ascertain the

u

p recise amount of r e fraction of the rays of light

ef fect e d by each of the ocular lenses,but w e can
e x perimentally do this .

36
. I n th e o
‘
p e r a ti o ns for the cur e of cataract, the
crystalline lens is removed from the eye,or at all
 F oca l L eng th f y
oCr sta lli n e L e n s .
3 1

eve nts from the line of vision,so that rays of light

p e n e trate to the sensitive scre en of the ocular cam e ra
only re fracted by th e corne a and aqueous humour .

T his refraction is not su fficient to form a clear image

of e xte rnal objects on the re tina T h e focus of .

the l e ns formed by th e refractive m e dia of the e y e

without the crystalline lens is considerably b ehind th e
retina .

F IG . I5 .

37 This will be apparent from the diagram ( Fig

. .

T h e rays a , b,c,entering the cornea at d ,e, g,

would su ffer no further refraction,and this re fraction
would unite them in a focus beyond the retina, say at
f but being intercepted by th e retina they form on it
3 2 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

a blurred and confused image I n orde r to correct

.

this,a l e ns 1 l is us e d to give the refraction to the

rays n e cessary,in combination with th e furthe r r e
fraction e ffected by the cornea, to b ring them to a
focus on th e retina at f The lens 1 1 req ired for
. u

this purpos e will precisely represent th e refractive

power of the lost crystalline lens It is found that a
.

glass le ns of 4 inch e s focus will generally restore

perfect vision for distant Objects,i e will focus . .

parall e l rays accurately on th e re tina This con .

c lu si ve ly proves that the crystalline lens in its

situation in the inte rior of the e y e is equal to a glass
lens of 4 i nches focus in air .

3 8
. I n th e same way we may infer that the r e f
r a c

tive powe r of the cornea and aqueous and vitreou s

humo urs is equal to a glass lens, which supe rimposed
on a glass lens of 4 inches focus,will sufli ce to ‘

re duce th e focus to 1 inch ( the diameter of the eye ) .

What the focus of such a l ens may be can be as oer

tai n e d by the mod e s of calculation familiar to optical

students,or it may be found out by trying several

lenses over a 4 inch lens In this way we shall find
-
.

that a glass l e ns of I fi inch focus,if sup e rimposed on

-

a glass l e ns of 4 inches focus , will reduce the focus to

1 inch . We thus prove that the refraction of the
eye deprived of its cry stalline lens is e qual to a
 Refr acti ve P ower of A gu eous L ens .
33

gla s lens in air of l inch focus ; hence it would

s I -

throw the image of distant Obj e cts half an inch

be hind the retina .

39.B u t we may ascertain the precise value of t h e

aqueous lens b y extinguishing its refractive power in

the living human eye, and ascertaining what power of
l e ns will su ffi ce to restore pe rfect vision
.

4 0.As before obs e rved,the refractive power of

the aqueous and vitre ous humours is almost iden
tical with that of water I f then we immerse the eye
.

in water,and allow it to rec eive the rays of light

through this medium,it is Obvi ous that these ray s
will su ffer no further refraction from those media of
the eye that in fact, the only refraction they will now
undergo will be that effected by the crystalline lens,
which,as we have j ust seen,being equal to a lens of
4 inches focus ,is una b le to focus rays of light nearer
than about 3 Inches behind the e y e ; vision,conse
quently, b eneath the water will be very indistinct,as
the rays of light inte rcepted by the reti na are so far
from their true focus I t is Obvious that this must
.

be so, for, as shown by Fig 1 6, . the rays of light su ffer

no d e fle x i on at c and g , but only at h,h,m,and n,
and at these points only the trifling d e fle x i on that
can be caused by a lens of a certain convexity con
structed of a medium little superior in refractive
D
34 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str ucti on .

power to that through which the rays of light are

transmitted to it .

4 1
. And yet I have been again and again assured
by pe rsons fond of diving that they can se e quite well
when und e r the wate r,so little obs e rvant are some
F IG . 16 .

persons of what actually occurs under nove l and

.

perhaps agitating conditions The sight which in

.

reality remains to us when imme rsed in the cleare st

water is the pe rception of light and of colour,but
only the vaguest perception of form And even this
.
Restor a ti on of P erfect Vi si on ’
u n a er Wa ter .
35

poor amo u nt of vision only re mains for objects at

a small distance from us a fe w yards o ff, even objects
of considerable si ze are unseen .

4 2.I n order to restore p e rfect vision under water

we must use a lens capable of concentrating the rays
of light transmitted to it thro gh wate r into a focus
u

at 1 } i nch behind it ; this b e ing the focus of the

1

aqueous lens lost by imm e rsion in the wate r .

43 .I fw e us e a glass l e ns for this p urpos e it is obvious

that it must be a much more powerful lens than what
would have a focus of that l e ngth in air For while .

the refractive inde x of air compared with that ofglass

is as I to 1 5 , the refractive index of water compare d
with that of glass is only as I 33 to I 5 H e nCe glass .

will refract the rays of light to a very much smaller

extent in water than in air,in fact about one fourth -
.

I have found exp e rim e ntally that a glass lens which

has a focus of three eighths of an inch in air will have
-

a foc s of 1 5 inch in water There fore a glass lens

u .

of this power will b e required in order to enable an

eye immersed in water to see distinctly,and I have
practically proved that this is so .

44 .B u t it is obvious that water being its e lf a .

medium of high refractive power,it wo ld be better u

to avail ourselves of a medium either of much gr eater

refractive power than itself,or of much less N ow it .

D 2
3 6 T he Hu man Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr u cti on .

is diffi cult to procure a transpare nt m e dium of much

greate r refractive power than glass for use in the
wate r D iamond,which would do,its re fractive
.

power b e ing as high as is for obvious reasons

not to be tho ught of B ut there is nothing to prevent
.

u s using a medium of ve ry inferior re fractive pow e r to

wate r in the construction of subaqu e ous lense s The .

medium o fleast refractive power is air T he relations

.

of lens medium to surrounding medium being re versed,

the shape of the air lens must be also revers e d,as
b e fore shown We must use here a doubl e concave
.

air lens in place of the do ble convex glass l e ns

u .

45 . B y taking two of the old fashion

- e d highly
cu rve d watch glasses,and fixing them in a ring with
their concaviti e s outwards,we e nclose a portion of air
of the shape of a d oubl e concave l e ns I mmers e d in
.

wate r,this air lens will re fract the rays of light from
objects reaching it through the water,convergently .

I t will resemble in its optical properties a double con

vex glass l e ns in air,as I have e xplained above ( 5
4 6. I found that a double concave air lens,m ade
with two sections of a glass globe of 2 inches
—
diam e ter,constitute a l e ns of I i inch focus whe n
imm e rsed in water T his lens accordingly supplies
.

the refractive powe r lost by the eye when immerse d

in water I n the diagram (Fig 1 6) the dotted line
. .

shows the C ourse of the rays of light transmitted to

 Constr u cti on efD i vi ng Specta cles .
37

the eye when immerse d in water They are not

.

focused at the retina, so that the image form e d on

the retina is very indistinct,as it must be when so
imperfe ctly focused T he continuous line shows how
.

the rays of light are first deflecte d by the concave air

lens l ; this d e fie x i on,in the case of a lens whose
c u rves are such as stated above ,being su ffi cie nt t o

make up for the loss of re fraction by the extinction

of the aqueous humour lens when it receives the rays
o f light through the identically refracting watery
m edium .

47. I thought it might be advantageous , at all

o r

events agreeable,to be able to see distinctly when

diving ; so I constructed a pair of spectacles fitted
with air lenses of the kind j ust d escribed I t is .

obvious that spectacl e s fitte d with air lenses would

b e much more conveni ent for diving than glass
lenses For whereas th e glass lenses required for
.

subaqueous purposes are of such very short focus in

air ( only three eighths of an inch ) ,
- that they would
prevent all vision when the diver came to th e sur
face ,th e se air lenses would Offer no impedim e nt to
perfect vision in the air,and so might continue to
be worn with equal advantage both in air and water .

I found, however,that the two sections of a glass

g lobe which form the conc a ve air lens, hav e in th e

air the effect of a very weak concave glass lens, such

3 8 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

a lens as is used to correct the slighte st de gree of

short sight The cause of this is that the inner con
.

cave surface of the glass globe is a curve of smaller

radius than the outer convex surface Thus it is a
.

concavo convex lens,though of very small power

- .

B u t when two such glasses are plac e d together the

refraction they produce is appreciable, and so mewhat
impairs perfect vision to a non myopic eye
- .

4 8
. I n order to counteract this slight refraction in
the lens when used in the air, in place of having th e
glasses made of sections of a glass globe,I had them
grou n d with surfaces of precisely the same curvature .

B y this means I obtained glasses for my air l e nses

which,having their surfaces of precisely the same
cu rve, cause no d e fle x i on of the rays of light These
.

l e nses there fore restore perfect visi on be neath the

water,and offer no impediment to perfect sight in
the air .

49. V ision b elow the water , if the latter is quite

clear,is with l e nses of this description quite pe rfe ct
for both near and distant object s . T hus with them we
can see to read the smallest type at the distance of a
foot,while we can also see objects at many yards
distance Everything b e lo w the water is seen in its
.

proper proportions,and without any distortion what

ever Thus the pattern o f the porcelain tiles on the
.

bottom and sides of a b ath,as in many of the swim

 Si r 7 Her sch
.el on D i vi ng Specta cles .
39

ming baths i n London,anything lying upon the floor

of the bath,such as coins, stones,pins,or other small
articles, the b odies and limbs of other bathers, and any
Obj e cts floating in the wate r,are all seen distinctly
and accurately .
!

I 8 7 I p bli h d
n 1 p mphl t ti tl d N t
1 u th Di p t i
s e a a e en e o es on e o r cs

fVi i , i whi h I g i p ti
’
o s on d n f th i l cf d ave a e scr on o e a r ense s or use u n er

w t a er T hi p mphl t I
. t t s l i ti fi g tl m , d
a e se n o se vera sc e n c en e en an

amon g th e m to th e late Si r John ,

H ersch e l through hi s p bli
u sh ers ,
M essrs Lon gmans . . A few d a y s af
ter war ds I r ece i ve d th e foll owi ng
le tte r

SI R , C OLu NGwoo n,7a . 22 ,87 1 1 .

I b e g to k
ac nowle d ge ,wi th than k ,y u p p ,N
s o r a er ote s on

th e Di o pt i r cs ofVi si on .
’

T he i d ea of e m ployi g n a b
d ou le concave ai r len s i n wate r i n ste ad ,
of th e mor e b
o vi ou s d bl ou e con v x gl
e ass one ,i i g i s n e n ou s , as i t ce ase s
to be a len s as soon as i t is out of th e wa t , d (b
er an arr i n g d i storti on
fr om we t ex ternal surf p d e vi i i f d
aces p ) woul d n ot im e s on u se as s ec

ta l t fw t
e es ou Ex s m , o h w v , i f I m k th t th w y i
a e r. cu e e o e er re ar a e a n

w hi h th p i ci pl
c f et ti r n i t t d i p g 8,
e o li 1 , & ,
con s r uc on s s a e n a e ne 0 c.

h d t m y lf,
a o fi t pi d p
se l, th
on eff t f
a ti g rs m ra er usa e ec o cr ea n so e

d eg f b
re e o i ty t th o t al d i posi ti
scur i t d ed , whi h w
as o e ac u s on n en c as

on l y di i p t d , I
ss d ,b y th
a e f th t m ai r l
as r eai p ag on e use o e er ens n e

1 5, li 8, wh e all b
ne m l n eca e c e ar .

I h v th h t be , Si , a e e on ou r o r

Y u b e d i t se v t, o r o en r an
“
J . F . W . H E RSC HE L .

P S —O
. u r e p er usal I se e th e pri n ci pl e i s all ve ry cle a ly state d i n
. r

p age 5 ,
l i e 1 0,et seq
n But thi s, by turni g ove two leaves t o ce,I
. n r a n

unluc ki ly mi ssed.

P .
—
S M . . C hossat long ag o p oi nte d out th e non -s ph e i i ty
r c of th e

cry t lli l , d sh w d th
s a ne e ns an o e at th e cur vatur e was that of an obla te

sph i d , th c t l p orti
e ro bei e e n ra on ng less cur ved than th e e xte ri or.

D DU DGEO N r. .
!
4 0 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

5 0
. e ffect of perfect vision,such as th e se lenses
T he
af ford, beneath the surface of the sea is curious and
u nexp e cted I f the sea is perfectly clear,
. as it is on
m any parts of the coast,when we dive, say from
6 to 1 0 feet in water of about 2 0 fe e t in d e pth, we
'

see the bottom most distinctly ; every stone,every

s hell,every leaf of seaweed that may be growing on
the sand is distinctly visible over a consid e rable space .

Bu t on looking around us hori z ontally we are sur

prised at the gloom of the prospect H owe ver bright .

the day may be above ,we seem to be looking into

the d e pths of an ob scure cavern, wherein is
, k
N 0 li gh t b ut r ath er d ar n ess vi si bl e.

The weird void that see ms to extend all around us,

unless wh e re it is broke n by a fragment of floating sea
weed, som e air bubbles hastenin g up to the daylight,
-

or perha ps the white limbs of some d istant fellow

bather, s e e ms unaccountable under a b right sunshine .

I fwe turn on our back an d look upwards, we shall

fi n d that the light se e ms not to penetrat e all the
surface,but only a limited portion of it The surface .

of the se a is seldom so smooth as to enabl e us to

note exactly what takes place,b ut if we will gently
glide to the b otto m of an ordinary swimming bath
when the surface is undisturbed by other bathers, we
shall see what remarkable effects ar e produced by
 Su ba gu eou s Opti ca l Efi ects
.
4 I

the refractive power of the wate on the rays of light

r

coming to it from the air .

5 1
. I n the diagram ( Fig 1 7)
. I have end e avoured to
represent what will be seen by an obs e rve r looking u p
FI G . 17 .

wards from the centre of the b ottom of a small swim

ming bath T he kne es of the bath e r B will appear to
.

be at b the middle of C s body will be elevated to c :

’

the clock D will be raised to a the wall of the room

’

at E will be at c The lamp F b e ing directly above

.

the observe r s eye,

’
the rays of light proceeding from it
perpendicularly will su ffe r no refraction ,
consequently
the lamp will be seen in its true place All parts .
4 2 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr u cti on .

of the room and all the objects in it,except what are

immediately above the observer s head, will be more or
’

less distorted Objects must be at a certain elevation

.

in ord e r to be seen at all by the imme rsed observer .

The reason of this is, that rays of light must impinge on

the water at a certain angl e (about 1 0 from the hori °

z o ntal in order to ent r the sur ace of the water and

) e f
be refracted .

Fig 1 8 will convey an idea of the appe arances seen

.
"

by an obs e rve r immers e d in the centre of one of the

London swimming baths I n order to observe this
.

perfectly,it is necessary that the surface of the bath

be perfectly undisturbed, and that the observer should
let himself down beneath the water without causing
any movement of its surface, which may be done afte r
repeated trials H e must also be furnished with air
.

lens spectacles T h e first thing that will strike him

.

is that the floor of the bath is accurately and vividly

pictured on th e under surface of th e water, as though
that were a mirror of silvered glass This picture of .

the floor is pierced by a circul ar opening, cut out as

sharply as if done with a knife ,and the edge of the
opening is fringed by a delicate iridescent border .

Through this ope ning the whole of the room and its
contents are visible,with the exception of the parts
and objects ve ry low do wn Thus in the bath we
.

p
See fron ti s i e ce .
 Su bagu eou s Vi si on .
43

have here depicte d, a border about 2 feet high,orna

m e n te d with scroll work, is not visibl e to the immersed
Observer . All obj e cts,except those immediately
above the observer s head ,are more or less distorted
’

the nearer th e y are to the hori zon the more dis

torte d they a re . T hus, the person standing on the
right hand side of the woodcut is flattened and
-

dwarfed out of all re cognition The clock at the top

.

of the cut is less distorted , as it is more elevated but

even the windows in the roof of the building appear
to be curved ( though in re ality they are not so ) ,
.

except those immediately above the Observer T h e .

most striking part of the phenomena observed is the

sha rpness with which the circular openi ng is cut in
the picture of the bottom of the bath T here is no
.

notice abl e transition of indistinctn e ss from the pic

ture d porcelain tiles of the bath to the distorted view

of the Obj e cts above the wate r in its circular fram e A

.

very care ful observation may indeed detect a ghostly

prolongation of the pattern of the bottom of the bath
a little way beyond the edge of the circular Opening,
but it is so very indistinct that it is not noticed unless
steadily looked for .

The explanation of these phenomena will be found

in the subjoined diagram ( Fig . A ray of light
from an obj ec t A impinging on the surface of the
water W W at an angle of 80 from the perpendicular
°
44 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr ucti on .

is refracted at B at an angle of about whence it

is prolonged to the eye below the wate r at E The .

eye sees the object whence the ray A proceeds in the

F IG . 1 9.

refracted directi n,
o consequently at a in place of at A .

The point C sends a ray which,striking the surface

of the water at an angle of 60 at D ,is refracted the nce
°

to the eye at an angle of 4 0 from the p e rpe ndicular,

°

and seems to be at c So also a ray from the poi nt

.

F impinging on the wat e r at an angle of 30 from the

°

perpendicular is deflected at C at an angle of 2 0 to °

the eye at F, by which it will be seen at f The rays

.
 Su bagu eou s Vi si on .
45

from H,
striking the surface of the water pe rpe n d i cu
larly ,su ffer no re fraction in their course to the eye
at E,and there fore H is see n in its true positi on .

B eyond th e point B, whe re the rays of light from the

lo west point outside the water capable of be ing r e
fracted are bent towards the eye,the under surface of
th e water acts as a mirror, reflecting with perfect
accuracy and distinctness th e floor of the bath .

The conve rse of th e se phenomena may be observed

from above the water by the eye placed at E ( Fig 2 0) .

at a very sm all height above the surface of the water .

F IG . 20
.

The rays procee ding from the b ottom of the bath at

H, directly beneath the eye,bei ng perpendicular,
su ffer
no refraction, and the point H is accordingly seen in
its true position O
. n the other hand , the rays from
the point F at an angle of 1 0 from the perp e ndicular
°

on emerging from the water at G are refracted to the

eye at an angle of I and the point F appears to the
4 6 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

eye at f So also the rays from the point C,

. pro
d u ce d at an angl e of 4 0 from the perp endicular, are
°

re fracted when they reach the surface of the water W

at D,at an angl e of 5 3 to th e e y e at E,
°
and the point
C will consequently appe ar to th e eye as if at c T he .

rays from point A , at an angle of 5 3 from the per

°

n d i c u la r,
are r e fracted to the eye at B at an angle
p e

of and th e point A will seem to the e y e to b e at

a
. H ence to the eye at F the floor of the bath appears
to rise upwards towards the surface of th e water with
a strong cu r ve, and the bottom of the bath disappears
beneath the surface of the water at Q Beyond this
.

point the bottom of t he bath is not seen,and the

surface of the water b e com e s a mirror,reflecting ex
ternal objects with pe rfe ct accuracy .

I t re quire s a little practice to make the observations

I have described und e r the water To slip gently
.

beneath the surface without agitating the water, and

to place oneself face upwards at the bottom of the
bath and make observations with distinctness in such
a novel situation,is Ii ot without its diffi culti e s I .

would advise those who att e mpt the feat to wear a

nose clip,othe rwis e the water will fill the cavity of
-

the nose and cause a disagreeable sensation .

The phenomena d e scribed may be partially observed

in the large glass tanks of our aquaria I f we place .
 Opti ca l Efi ects u n a er ’
Wa ter .
47

the eye near the bottom of the glass plate that forms
the side of such a tank and look upwards,we see the
bottom of the tank and the fishes in the water re
fl e cte d from the under surface of the to p of the water,
an d at the side next the eye a semicircular opening

fringed by an iridescent ring,through which objects ‘

in the air above are seen disto rted as I have described .

T o th e immersed O bserve r the appearance of a

bather standing at a short distance from
him is very droll I have endeavoured .

in the cut ( Fig 2 1 ) to represent what

.

we see We shall s ppose that the

. u

water reaches to his waist We see the .

body in an upright position as far as the

waist standing on the tesselated floor of
the bath Above and joined to this figure
.

is an inverted re fle x i on of the bather,

standing on the mirrored tess e lated floor .

Above this again,we have the circular

opening i n the refl e cted floor,through
.

which we see th e h e ad and shoulders of

the bather u nwsth e tically flatt e ned .

5 2 .Though , to the immersed observer,the picture

Owi g,I pp ,
n t th g su f ti
ose p w f th thi k pl t
o e re at r e ra c ve o er o e c a e

g l ass f o rmi n
g th e si d e o f th e a q uari um tank , the i ri d e scen t f
ri nge i s

b
b r oad e r and ri gh te r than i t a pp e ars to the i mm e rsed e ye .
4 8 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str ucti on .

of objects above the water and the re fle x i on of the

bottom of the bath are broken into fragm ents by every
agitation of the surface,the distinctn e ss of objects
immersed in the water is no more a ffected by any
movement of the wat e r,provided only the water be
clear and of equal density throughout, than is that
of objects in the air,to an observe r in the air, by a
bree ze of wind .

53 .To a fish in clear smooth water a man on th e

bank will b e as distinctly visible as the fish is to the

man ; only, unless the observer is placed directly above
FIG . 22 .

the fish,each will appear to the other to occupy posi

tions more or less far from their true places Thus .

the ob server on the bridge at A ( Fig 2 2 ) receives and

.
 ’
Eyes of Sh a te an a Tu r tle .
49

transmits rays of light in a perpendicular dire ction

from and to the fish,consequently both he and the
fish will see one another in their tru e places But the .

r ay s from the man on the bank striking the water

obliquely are refracte d at B The cons e qu e nce of thi s

.

is that the man on the bank sees th e fish at C, and the

fish sees the man at D This disagreement of the
.

true with the appare nt position of Obj ects in the water

seen from the side, is a fact familiar to those who have
a ttem pt e d to shoot fish in the water One has to ai m
.

considerably below the fish in order to hi t it .

FI G . 23 .

54 . I t may be int e resting to look at the optical

construction of the eyes of fishes and other aquatic
animals and see how it is that they can see distinctly
in the watery medium where they ar e oblige d to live .

Fig 2 3 shows diagrammatic sections of the eye of

.

E
5 0 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr u cti on .

a skate A, and the e y e of a tu rtle B I n the skate s

.
’

e y e,and generally in the e yes of fishes,the cornea is

n e arly quite flat, the aqueous humour is insig nificant,
and there is virt ually no ant e rior chamber,for the
crystalline lens comes p close to the corne a A
u .

convex cornea filled by an aqueous humour would be

of no use in the water,th e refractive index of the
water being identical with that of the aqueo s u

humour Accordingly th e refraction of the rays of

.

light has to b e e ffe cted entirely by the c rystallin e

l e ns,which is n e arly sph e rical , and of much greater
refractive powe r than the corresponding organ in
animals which pass their lives in the air The crys .

talli n e l e ns b e ing so n e arly sph e rical in sha pe ,and of

such high re fractive power,the axis of the eye is
sho rt The e y e of the tu rtle B,
. w hich is so m ch i nu

the wat e r,is ve ry similar to that of the fish T h e .

crystalline lens is ve ry near the cornea The lens is .

smaller pro portionally than that of th e skate,nor is it

n e arly so sph e rical and its d e nsity, and cons e quentl y
its re fractive power,is som e what less H ence it has
.

proportionally a longe r focus The cornea is more

.

convex than that o f the skate T here is nothing i n

.

th e configuration or th e optical construction of th e

eye s of fishes or amphibia which should pre vent the m
see ing,with tolerable,if not with perfect,distinctness
 Vi si on f
o n ea r a n d d i sta n t Obj ects .
5 I

in the air as well as in the water,for the refractive

power of the crystalline l e ns will be the same whether
the animal is in water or in air,as this lens is still
en veloped in a watery medium (the aqueous and
vitreous humours) when the animal is in the air The .

fish having no eyelids nor any lachrymal apparatus ,

i ts cornea will b e apt to become dim by exposure to
the air, but the tu rtl e is well supplied with the
‘

requisite apparatus for maintaining the transpa ency r

of the eye in air O phidian re ptile s have no eyelids

.

o r lachrymal apparatus, but they do not require the m,

as their corn e a is transparent though dry .

55
. B u t to return to the human e y e We have .

hitherto been conside ring the optical properties of th e

eye in relation to the incidence of parallel rays,that
is,to the vision of distant objects,the rays of light
proceeding from which ap proach the e y e i n nearly
parallel lines But, . as is well known, th e normal eye is

capable of focusing distinctly on the retina the image

of objects moderately near the e y e ,as n e ar indeed as
from 6 to 1 0 inch e s Now it was shown above ( Fig 5 )
. .

that the d ive rge nt rays of light proceeding from a near

object are focused at a greater distance behind a lens
Some fi h e p bl flivi g l g ti m
s e s ar ca a e o n a on e out of water , such as

the cli mbi g p

n h of C yl
er c Th t
e p on . y e rans are n c of th e corne a in such

fi hes is p b bly p e ved by s m peculi ari ty i

s ro a res r o e n i ts constr ucti on .

E 2
5 2 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr ucti on .

than the nearly parallel rays from a distant obj ect .

I n other words, the same refractive power is unable

to focus the i mages of near and distant objects on a
screen at the same distance behind it I n orde r that
.

the divergent rays from the near obj ect should be

accurately focused on the screen,one of two things
must happen : 1 , eith er the distance between the back
of the l ens and the screen must be increa sed ; or,2 ,
the refractive power of the lens must be incre ased .

5 6. As the optical apparatus of the eye is subject

to th e same laws that govern the re fraction of light in
our optical instruments , the same rules that apply to
the latter must equally obtain in the former H ence .

in the vision of n e ar objects,either the distan ce of the

screen, i e the retina,from the eye lenses must b e
. .

incre ased, or the refractive power of these lenses must

be incr eased .

5 7 The most diverse views as to the means by

.

which one or other of these operations is e ffected

have been held,and are still held ,by distingu ished
physiologists an d physicists Thus K epler supposed
.

that the eye was lengthened and shorte n e d by the

action of the c iliary processes Others have h e ld that
.

an elongation of the eyeball,in order to adapt the

e y e for near vision, was effected by the pressure of
the external muscles of the eye H uygens thought
.
 Va r i ous Explan a ti ons efN ea r Vi sion .
53

that the crystalline lens,in near vision,approached

th e corn ea by the pressure of the exte rnal muscles,
or th at the convexity of the c rystalline lens migh t

be increased by the sa me means P orte rfield imagined

.

th at the cry stalline lens was drawn backwards and

fo rwards by the ciliary processes We now know
.

that the ciliary processes are not mu scular, an d are

i ncapable of motion,and that th e pressure of the

e xte rnal muscles can have no influence on the posi

tion or shape of the crystalline le ns,and cannot

e longate th e e y eb all, which,moreover,is not elon
g ated in adapting the sight to near objects . Sir
David B rewster maintained,
“
with Huygens, that,in
n e ar vision ,
the distance of the cry stalline lens from
the retina is increased,and he conceived this to be
e ffected by some unexplained mech an ism at the base
of the iris But this idea m akes no account of the
.

a queo us humou r, which would have to advance along

with the crystalline lens and its appendages, as it i s
an i n compressible fluid,and cannot escape to the
b ack of the lens during its supposed forward move
ment .

5.8 A s ,
then ,
the idea of an increas e of th e distance
b etween lens and retina h ad to b e abandone d, it was
necessary to assum e an increase of the refractive
o O pti , 3 ’
T ‘
tirea se n cs 02 .
54 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr u cti on .

power of the eye lense s or of one of them du ri n g

near vision . The more convex the surface of a le n s,
ca ter i s pa r i bus,the shorter its focu s SO,then, it i s
.

obvious that if by any means the convexity of o ne o r

both of the eye lenses could be increased , the req u isit e
shortening of their focus for the vision of near obj e ct s
would be effected .

59
. Some contended that the convexity of th e
cornea was increas e d in near vision,by the sim u l
tan e o us contracti on of the external muscl e s of th e

eyeball causing the globe to be squeez ed into a .

flatter shape posteriorly,and thu s made to bul g e

and become more convex in front The principal .

a dvocate of t hi s notion was Sir Eve rard H ome,w h o

“

constituted himse lf the oppone nt of D r Young s vi e w .

’

o be mentioned pre e ntly) H inv nted an

( t s e . e i nstr u
m e nt by which he all e ged he co uld measure th e
exact extent of the incre ase of conve xity that occurre d
in the cornea That no alte ration occurs in the co n
.

ve x i ty of the corn e a during accommodation is k now n

by the unaltered si ze o f the refl e cted image of th e

candle flame ,and is proved by my own obs e rvatio n s
under wate r,where accommodation remains perfe c t ,
though the re fractive power of the cornea and aque o u s
humour is extinguished .

P hil
. vol . l xxxv
.
 Supposed i n cr ea sed Con vex i ty ef L ens .
55

60 .So the cornea being abandoned,the incre ased

refractive po wer had to be sought for in the crystal
line l e ns D r Young,i n
. .contended that the
convexity of this lens was increased in near vision,
which is the opinion h e ld by most writers on o ptics
at the present day H e said that this i ncre ase of .

conve xity was caused by the automatic action of the

crystallin e lens,which was a muscle,as i ts fibrous
structure s howed I n this he followed D escartes,
. who
held that the crystalline was a m uscle,the ciliary
proc e sses being its tendons,and that it increased or
diminished its convexity,and thus adjusted itself to
vision at di fferent distances, by means of its m uscular
p ower 1 I
. t is
'

n o w known that the fibres of this lens

are not muscular .

6 1 I n 1 84 9 a distinguished G erman surgeon ,

.

M aximilian Lang e nbe ck, t thought he could prove th e

increase d convexity of the crystalline lens in near

vision by the changes in position of the image of a

candle s flame reflected from the di fferent surfaces of

’

the eye lenses He set himself to discover how this

.

i ncrease of convexity was brought about, and satisfied

himse lf that it was e ffected by a circular muscle that
P hil T rans ,vol
’
xci .

O
. .

1'
Ed in A rt pti ,p
cs 5 64
O
. . . .

I K li n . Be i trii ge aus b
de m Ge i e te d e r C hi rurgi e und h
p th l a

mologi e .
’
O
G tti ngen .
5 6 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l C onstr u cti on .

surrounded the edge of the cry stalline lens This .

muscle he called the musculus compr essor len tis accom

moda tor i us,and he gives an admirable picture of it
in his b ook O ther observers have not been able to
.

see this muscle, so they have come to the conclusion

that it was manufactured by the discoverer s scalpel, ’

a fact not altogether without precedent in minute

anatomy .

6 2 A youn g D utch d octor,

. A Cramer by name, ’
.

constructed an instrument by which he was e nabled

to observe with a microscope the changes in position
of the refl e cted image of the candle with gr eater
accuracy than could be attained by Langenbeck s ’

method of holding the candle in his hand and i n

specting the eye without any magnifying power He .

asserted that what he saw proved the increased con

ve x i ty of the c rystalline lens in near vision ; and he

imagi ned that the increased convexity was caused

in some unexplained manner b y the muscular action
of the iris .

6 H e lmholtz, T the eminent physiologist an d phy

3 .

Ph ysi ol ogi sch e A bhan dlun g u be r d as A ccomm od ati onsve rmogen

d er A ugen Le e r ,1 85 5
’
( Ge rman translati on ofth e Dutch O
ri i nal)
g
Optik,
.

1
'
Ph yis ol ogi sch e
’
12 . In thi s wo r k wi ll be f d m st
oun a o

co mple te accoun t ofall the vi e ws that h ave bee n h ld by all w i t

e o r e rs n

th i s subj ect. Ih ave n ot th ough t it n e ce ssar y to g i ve more than the

vi e ws ofa few ofth e more cons pi cuous authori ti e s.
 Ca toptr i ca l A ppea r a n ce i n A ccommoda ti on .
57

,
si ci st likewise examined the eye a s Cramer had
done,but without a microscope,and is sati sfied th at
it is by an increase in the convexity of the crystal
line lens that accommodation for n ear vision takes
place .

D onders followed Cramer s mode of examining ’

the e y e ,and adopts nearly th e sa m e view .

64 B ut while these illustrio u s physiolog ists a nd

.

ophthalmologists come to the conclu si on that,i n

accommodation for near vision,the crystalline lens
increases in conve xity,and therefo re in refractive
power ; their observations of what really occurs in the
catoptrical phenomena of the eye d i ffer considerably .

Langenbe ck only observed that the image of the

candle flame reflected from the anterior surface of the
crystalline lens moved when the eye was adj uste d
from di stant to near vision and vice ver sa .

6 5 Cramer desc ribes this ima ge as moving towa r d s

.

th e corneal image in accomm o dation for n ea r visio n ,

an d slightly diminishing in si z e H e gives a diagram
.

re presenting the image of the candle flam e as moving

towards the corneal image and the centre of the
pupil,and as of dimi nished siz e ( Fig 2 4 ,D,the . .

eye accommodated for distant vision,N,for near

vision ) .

’
A ccommod ati on and Re fracti on ofthe Eye .
5 8 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

FI G . 24 .

66 . D o n ders represents the same image as moving

towards the corneal image b ut away from the centr e
of the pupil, i e towards the pupillary border of the
. .

i ris (
. Fig 2 5 ,D ,distant
.
,N ,near vision ) .

FIG . 25 .

elmholt z d we lls most on the diminution of si ze

67 H.

of the candle flame image reflected from the anterior

-
 Helmholtz on A cco mmoda ti on .
59

surface of the c rystalline l e ns when th e eye is adjusted

for near vision H e says that it g ener a lly (i n der R eg el)
.

also moves towards the centre of the pupil The .

diagram he gives,however,shows no movement of

“

the image to one side or the other, but only a d i mi nu

tion of its si ze ( Fig
. .

F IG . 26 .

68 The following are the changes which he asserts

.

take place in th e eye on being adjusted to near from

distant vision
1. The pupil contracts 2 T he pupillary portion of
. .

the iris move s forward 3 The pe ripheric part of the

. .

lens recedes 4 The ante rior su rface of the c rystal

. .

line lens becomes more convex and its verte x moves

forwards 5 The posterior surface of the lens becomes
. .

somewhat more convex,and does not sensibly change

.

its place The lens therefore becomes thicker in its

.

centre,an d its circumference m ust be diminishe d, or,

A hi f O ph th l m l gi ,Bd i ,
rc v
. .
pt a o o e
’
. . . 2.
60 T he H u ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr u cti on .

to speak more co rrectly,

its equator must be con
tracted .
‘

69 A somewhat similar idea is ente rtained b y

.

H ensen and Volcker in their j oint work 1 They give .

’

a diagram,Fig 2 7,to illustrate the changes they

.

suppose to occu r .

FI G . 27 .

I t will b e observed that the lens here depicted not

-

o nly increases in conve xity before and b ehind, b ut

g rows perceptibl y larger in passing rom
f distant to
In hi s Ph ysi ol ogi sche O
pti k
h e gi ves a figure to illustrate these
changes ve r y much th e same as F i g 2 8 far th e r
. on . T h e le ft halfofth e
di agram re presen ts th e su pp
ose d form of th e y
cr stalli ne lens wh en at

rest or a ccommodated ,
for di stan ce th e ri gh t halfthe same when accom
n od ated for n ear vi si on.

f E xpe i m
r e ntal Unte rsuchung u be r d en Mechanismus d er A ecom

modati on , , ’
K i el 1 868 .
 Expla n a ti on of a lleg ed Cha ng es .

near accommodation ( The dotted lines indicate th e

.

change supposed to occur ) The author s do not blink

.

this fact,but are quite equal to the task of explaining

how this is so The cry stalline lens,
. they say, consi sts
of a s eries of tubes arranged side by side When the
.

eye is in a state of rest,i e when it is accommodated

. .

fo r distant vision ,these tubes are empty,but when i t

is accommodated for near vision,the ciliary muscl e
pumps water from the canal of P etit, which su rrounds
the lens, into these tubes,thereby increasing the si z e
and altering the shape of the lens This i s a very
.

pretty idea,that the canal of P etit should b e, as i t

were, a main water pipe with continuous supply,

-
read y
at any moment to let water into the service pipes of
the lens whenever the tap is turned on by the action
of the ciliary muscle What a pity the ingenious
.

authors do not inform us what effect this filling with

wate r of the tubes of the crystalline lens would
hav e on its refractive properti e s as a lens,why
these capillary tubes do not keep themselves con
sta ntly filled without the assistance of the ciliary

muscle,or how,being filled , they empty themselves

again .

7.0 E xplanations more or l e ss satisfactory or

, rather
unsatis factory, have been o ffered of the mode in which
the cili ary muscle e ffects the supposed i ncrease of
62 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr ucti on .

convexity of the crystalline lens in accommodation

for near vision . The following is now the most gene
rally received account of what occurs .

T he cry sta lli n e len s is enclos e d in a strong ca rti la

'

i no u s bag called the capsule , t h e special attribute of

g
which is its elasticity This capsule an d its contents
.

assume, when detached from the influenc e of its con

n e x i on s,the thicker and more convex form which it
takes in near accommodation,and the entire lens if
subjected to a gentle antero posterior squeeze will
-

yield and become thinner and flatter,and whe n te

leased will resume at once its thicker and more
convex form .

I t is thus evident that if the lens were , wh e n at rest

within the eye,fre e to adopt its own shape,the e y e
would be always accommodated for near objects , and
would be useless for distant vision I t is the refore.

necessarily presumed that the pe ri phery of the lens is

continually under tension, which flattens its form and
maintains it in that condition,i e the condition of
. .

accommodation for distant vision This te nsion can

.

not be muscular in i ts origin,because we re it so th e

musc lar spasm must be constant and nremitting a
u u —
—
condition which cannot exist and becaus e it has been
conclusively demonstrated that muscular relaxation
( which may b e arti fi cially produc e d by atropia ) is
 Mode of A i on f Ci li M l 63
g
e o a r
y u sc e .

accompanied not by a shortening of the sight ( i C by . .

a thick e ning of the lens),but by the contrary condi

tion The cause of this te nsion is there fore to be
.

ascribed to the passive elasticity of the structure

attached to the circumference of the lens,and the
muscular effort in near accommodation counteracts
this elasticity,and thus relieves the lens capsule of -

the force which prevents i ts assuming its n atural cpr

vatu re . The lens is maintained in its position by the
suspenso ry ligament known as the zonule of Zinn This .

attachment seems to be simply a thickened expansion

of the hyaloid membrane which encloses the vitreous
humour, and it takes its origin from the margin of
that body,j ust where the re tina terminates close to
the posterior limit of the ciliary muscle It is .

highly elastic,an d its stre ngth and elastici ty are

increased by the int e rweaving of radi ating fibres of
elastic tissue I t lies be twe e n the ciliary processes and
.

the lens, and is attached to th e anterior capsule, having

b e tween itself and the vitreous humour a space about
the twelfth of an inch wide,immediately abutting on
the edge of the lens This space is called the cana l
.

of P etit,within which the edge of the lens is supposed

to advance and recede during the changes of its form
which take place in accommodation To account for.

the continuous flatte ning of the lens this suspe nsory

64 T he H u ma n Ey e i ts O ti ca l Con str u cti on
p .

ligament is presumed to keep up an elastic pull upon

the capsule Outside or rather i n front of it are
.

placed two structures,

the ciliary processes A ,
and the ’

c iliary muscle B C ,Fig 2 8 The ciliary processes

’ ’
. .

FIG . 28 .

J,
c j
on un cti va ; C ,co nea : S, leroti c ; D,
r m mbra
sc e n e of Desce me t ; A ,
aq ueo us

h umour : I , i ri s ; L , y talli l ; V,
cr s ne vi t ensh umo re ou s ur ; Z, zon ule of Zi nn ; P ,
canal of P eti t ; A
'
,ci liary p oce ; B ,l gi tudinal
r ss
'
on fibre s of cili ar y muscle
'
,
C rad i a ti ng fibr es .

c ontain numerous blood vessels, and the cilia ry muscl e -

is composed of longitudinal and C ircular fib res The .

longitudinal fibres B a ise from the memb rane of the ’

r

aqueous humour ( D esce m e t s m e mbrane) at its angl e ’

where it is reflected on the iris,and are attache d pos

te ri o rly to the connective tissue of the choroid just
wh e re the retina ends, and where the ligament of the
lens capsule,
- the z onule of Z inn,arises The circular .

fibres are wider in the meshes and are spread out upon
 Mechan i sm of A ccom modati on . 65

th e ciliary processes The actual mechanism of ac .

co mmodation is suppose d to be as follows

a The retina becomes conscious of the confusion of
.

the image produced by a near obj ect as depicted on

it by the lens flattened by the strain of the elastic
capsule and its tense ligament This consciousness .

of imperfe ct vision bein g conveyed to the brain,th e

brain sends i ts orders through the appropriate nerves
to the ciliary muscle which
b C ontracts I ts circular fibres constrict the venous
. .

trunks,and this prevents the return of the blood

through them to the choroi d This produces erec .

tion of the ciliary body,the e fle ct of which on the '

lens s ligament is not very apparent The longi

’ “
.

tu d i n al fibres by their contraction draw together the

anterio r limi t of the choroid (to which the lens s ’

ligament,the z onule of Z inn,is attached ) The .

e lastic tension of this ligam e nt i s thereby counter

a cted, and the lens assumes its thicker and more

P ri estl y Smi th Bri t M e d

. .
J ourn al ,6th D c
’
e . has sh own
by g alvan i c xp i m
e er e n ts on th e e n u clea te d e ye ofa ra bbi t th at vascul ar

turg e sce n ce h as noth i ng to d o w i th th e ch ang es i n the crystalli n e le n s

d uri ng accom mo dati on . O th n e o th e r h an d Mr Norton

. Bri t M e d
. .

Journal , ’
D
z 7 th
e c 1 8 73) sa
.y s tha t t h ough p art of th e i ncr e ase d
c onve xi ty i n accomm od ati on may be cause d by the acti on of the ci li ary

muscle and i r i s, i t i s ke p t up by stranglin g the small vessels and t e

tai ni n g the blood i n them li k e e r ectile ti ssue .
66 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr u cti on .

co nvex shape its focus is thereby shorte ned , and the

im age of the near object i s aow rate ly pictured on the
r e tina .

When the le ns i s thus relieve d of the controlling

pressure by its elastic covering and ligame t,it i s n

su ppose d to becom e thicke r and moi e convex a n '

teri orly I t accordingly is assumed that its anterior

.

surface advances towards the cornea,and that i ts

periphery recedes within the canal of P etit .
‘

7 1
. N ow this is a very p retty e xplan ation indeed ;

th e only questio n is,i s it true ! The advance of

the anterior su rface of the lens and its increased
c onvexity must be a ccompanied by a diminution of

its peripherical circu mfe renc e H as this diminutio n

bee n observed ! O
.

tto Be cker and C occi us say that

th e y have observed this recession of the pe riphe ry of
the lens in the eyes of albinos,and in cases where
irid e ctomy had be e n performed O n the other hand, .

Von G raefe was unable to see an y such re cession in a

case where the whole iris was accid e ntally remove d,
and in which the accommodation faculty remained
intact,though the catoptric phe nom e na,above de
scrib e d,were pl ainly visible ; and Donders failed to
,
T h i s whi ch i s the e xpl an ati on Offe r e d by H e lmhol tz ,
i gi ves n n early
i n th e words of Dr . A . H J. b
aco i n a le cture re p orte d i n the Med .

P re ss an d C i rcul ar
’
for July 2 6, 1 8 76 .
 Obj ecti on s to r ecei ved Explana ti on . 67

discove r any such recession in eyes in which i ri d e c

tomy had been perform e d Thus the we ight of
.

authority is rather against the occurre nce of a d i mi nu

tion of the periph e ral circumfere nce of the lens in
accommodation for near vision, and the above e x pla
nation remains a doubtful hypothesis .

Then with regard to the hypothe sis of the supposed

i ncreased convexity of the crystalline lens being
occasioned by the contraction of the ciliary muscle
c ausing diminution of the ten sion o f the elastic stru e

tures e nve loping the lens,and thus allowing the lens

to assume its normal form,which is alleged to be
more conve x than it is when these elastic envelopes
are not relaxed by the action of the ciliary m uscle
if this view is to be acce pte d we encou nte r this little
d ifli culty ,
vi z that in advanced life distant ac co m m o
.

dation remains perfe ct,while the faculty of near

accommodation is diminished or lost H ence we .

must believe that the tension of the capsule with its

C onnexions remain s unimpaired or ev e n increases in

old age,while the musc ular power of the cilia ry

muscle declines or is altogether lost D o e s it not
.

s e em highly improbable that the supposed tension of

these d e licate str uctures should continue unimpaired or
—
even increase with advancing years for many presby
o ptics require a convex lens even for distant vision !

F 2
68 T he Hu man Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr u cti on .

A gain,what reason is there for supposing that the

m uscular power of the ciliary muscle is so much
im paired in Old age when we find that the powe r of a
neighbouring and analogous mu scle, the circular fibres
Of the iris, i s rather increased in O ld age, se e ing that
the pupil as a rule becomes more contracted as w e
g row older !
I n normal or emmetropic eyes the limits of distinc t
vision vary much with age Fellenberg says that a t .

ten years of age the near point,that is, the mini !

¢

mum distance at which an Object can be seen dis

ti n ctly ,is 2 3 inches distant from the front of th e
cornea at twenty years, 34} inch e s ; at thi r ty ,
4 inches 1;
4

at forty, t} inches ; at fifty, 1 2 inch e s ; at sixt y ,

2 4 inches ; and at seventy, inch e s T he fa r

’ “
144 .

point of distinct vision for normal eye s is infinit e

d istance a! all ages ; but as before stated, man y o ld
persons require a convex l e ns for the distinct visio n
of even distant objects T he grad al in cre as e of thi s. u

near point, as y ears increas e,may,I think,b e

!

satisfact o rily accounted for by the flattening of th e

eye le ns e s That the cornea which gives its shape to
.

the anterior aqueous lens becomes flatter in old a g e

has bee n generally remarked, and I am convinced b y
‘
C ar p ’
e n ter s yiPh s olog y,1 2 th Ed i t ,p 80 1
’
. . . T h e se figures
.
ar e

p b bl y
ro a ave r age s,
th y e re
a tai nl y ot i vari bly
ce r n n a corr e ct.
 Ex a mi n a ti on of Ca toptr i ca l P hen omen a . 69

re peated observatio ns in old and young subj e cts of

the catopt ic appe arances connected with the anterior
r

surfac e of the c rystalline, that the c rystalline lens i s

also flatter in advance d age N ow we need not
.
.

suppose that removal of the near point in advanced

“ !

life is owing to a loss of power in the ciliary muscl e ,

all we need say is that the acti on of the muscle

cannot remedy the alte red shape of the eye lenses .

7.2 L et us now consider th e catoptric phenomena

that have been observed i n the change of accommoda
tion from distant to near vision When a candl e i s
.

placed on one side of the eye and the observer looks

at the eye on the leve l of the candle flame from th e
other side,three images of the candle flame are

observed in the pupil : I ,a large,distinct,upright

i mag e of the flame on the side nearest the candle, the
r e fle x i o n from the surface of the cornea ; 2 , a large
indistinct,upright image of the candle flame near the
centre of the pupil,the re fle x i on o f the a nterio r
surface of the crystalline lens ; and 3, a small inverted
image of the flame on the side most remote from the
ca ndle, the re fle x i on from the post e rior surface of the

crystalline lens . I n the figures given b y Crame r

( Fig. 2 4 ) the large indis tinct upright imag e of th e

fl ame is obs e rved in accom modatio n fro m distant to

nea r vision to move toward s th e b right up right corn ea l
7 0 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr ucti on .

image ,i ts si z e being slightly diminished I n th e.

figure give n by D onde rs ( Fig 2 5 ) of the same pheno

.

menon, the image re flected by the anterior surface of

the lens moves more m arkedly towards the corneal
image,while it undergoes an even greater diminution
in si ze I n the figure given by H elmholtz ( Fig 2 6) no
. .

lateral movement is indicated,the image is only re pre

sented as diminished in si z e in accommodation f or

n ear vi sion , b ut he says it g ener ally moves towards the

cen tre of the pupil H ad h e a lway s observed this
.

m ovement towards the centre of the pupil , he would

doubtles s have said so,but his language leads us to
suppose that it sometimes did not appear to move i n
the indicated d irection, and possibly that it was occa
si o n a lly o b served to move in the op posite direction .

73
. I n orde r to obs e r ve the changes that occur i n

the image of the candle flame reflected from th e

a nt e rior surface of the c rystalline lens I constructe d

an apparatus similar in principle to that us e d a nd

devised by Cramer,but modified in such a way that

I could at will observe the e y e from either side, while
the candle was place d at the Opposite side Whil e .

the e y e under observation was steadily fixed on an

object right in front of it, the light of the can dle
i mpinged on the eye at a small angle on one side o f
th e line of vi sion, an d I looked at the e y e thro ugh
 I mag es of Ca n d le F la me i n Ey e .
7 1

a m icroscope of I inch focu s placed at a similar

-

a n gle to the l i ne of vision on its o ther side In .

-

thi s way I could see the three images of the candle

a s they were reflected re spectively from th e cornea ,

the a nterior surface and the posterior su rface of the

cry stalline len s ( Fig . Seen through the microscope
the images ar e of cou rse all reversed,b ut I represent
them here in their true position The large distinct
.

upright i mage is the re fle x i on from the cornea ; the

small inverted image is the r e fle x i on from the pos
te ri or surface of the crystalline lens ; the dim large
image betwe en these two is the re fle x i on from the
anterior surface of the lens I t is always extremely
.

indistinct in norm al eyes,and looks like the

host of an image when contra sted with the clear ,
g
well d e fine d images reflected from the cornea and
-

posterior surface of the lens The cause of this

.

indistinctn e ss and want of de finition is the very slight

c onvexity of the central part O f the anterior curva
ture of the l e n s I n some myopic eyes I have ex
.

amine d , where the myopia was evidently,in part at

l east , owing to the abnormal convexity of the anterio r
surface of the lens, the image of the can dle flame is
m uch more distinct and considerab ly s maller .

Fig 2 9 represents th e appearance of the i e fle cte d

.
'

candle flame i n the pupil of the right eye when the

7 2 T he Huma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

candle is placed on the external side and the micro

scope is directed to the nasal side of the eye D .

represents the position s of these im ages wh e n the eYC

F IG. 29 .

is directe d to a distant object,N the same images !

whe n the eye is directed to a near object,i e ao . .

co m mod ate d or adjusted to near vision I t will be

.

observed that in the transition from distant to near

vision the pupil contracts, and the dim image reflected
from the anterior surface of the c rystalline lens moves
'

towa r d s the co rn e al image ; it also becomes somewhat

smaller,showing that it is reflected from a more

convex surface than before .

Fig 30 represents the appearance of the reflected

.

candl e flame in the pupil of the right eye when the

candle is placed on the n asal side and the mi croscope
is directed to the external side of the eye D shows .
 D i ag r a ms of Ca toptr i ca l P hen omena .
73

the positions ofthese images when the eye is directed

to a distant object,N the same images when the eye
i s directed to a near object I n the transition from .

F IG .
30 .

distant to near vision the pupil contracts,and the

image reflected from the anterior surface of the crys
ta lli n e lens moves away from the corneal image ,
becoming somewhat smaller at the same time .
‘

7 4 What
. is the inference to be dra wn from th e

movement of the image reflected from the anterior

surface of the lens in both these observati ons ! H ad
there merely been an increase of the convexity of thi s
surface accompanied by a forward movement of the
lens,it is obvious that the movemen t Observed would
in both cases have been towards the apex of the con
T h ese pp
a e ar an ces may, wi th p racti ce ,
be q ui te we ll obse rved i n
app p iro r ate ey ,
vi
es z. ,
the n ormal e ye s of y oung p e rsons by the n ake d
e ye wi thout the ai d ofany a pparatus .
74 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str ucti on .

ve x i ty,
to wit ,the centre of th e pupil B.u t,on th e

contrary,i n both instances the reflected image moves

towards the external e dge of the pupil,showing
that the actual change in the crystalline is merely a
change in the dire ction or slope of its anterior surface,
and that this is prod uced by a slight m ovement of
rotation of the l e n s on its ve rtical axis fro m witho u t
inwar ds T he slight diminuti on in the size of the
.

imag e sho ws that it is now re flected from a more

convex part of the lens This is acco unte d for by the
.

actual shape of this surface of the le ns,which is,as

formerly point e d out, not spherical b ut ellipsoidal, vi z .

an ellipse of re volution round th e shorter axis, or, as

Si r J H ersch e l calls i t,an o blate spheroid ( Fig 1 4 ,L)
‘

. . .

H ence the centre i s the flatte st or least curved po rtio n

of the elli psoidal su rface, and conse quently the reflected
image will be larger when reflecte d from the centre
than fro m any oth e r point of the su rface ,as it rapidly
i n creases in conv e xity from the c e ntre outwards The .

movement of rotation causes the candle flame to

.

be reflected from a more convex portion of the lens,

hence its diminution in si z e .

75. B u t,it may be ask e d , how will the supposed

obliquity of the lens in accommodation from distant

to near vision,have the e fle ct of diminishi ng the

'

l e ngth of the focus of the lens,and thus focusing

the picture accurately on the reti na, wh ich was before
 Spher i ca l A ber r a ti on cor r ected .
75

focused b ehind the retina ! To this I reply that

any one may convince himself that in an ordinary len s

w ith spherical surfaces, a marked diminution of th e

leng th of the focus is produced by presenting the lens
obliquely to the object If this takes place in the
.

case of a lens with spherical contours, in which the

whole surface is uniformly convex, it will be much
m ore m arked in a lens of the ellipsoidal shape of the
crystalline lens ,where the movement of rotation brings
a more c onvex portion ofthe lens into the axis of vision .

7 6
. T o this view it may be o bjected that in th e

case of ordinary glass lens e s an obliqu e position

causes the image d epicted on the screen to be distorte d
by what is called spherical aberration of ray s True, .

but the con tours of such lenses are spherical, whereas

the shape of the surface of the crystalline lens i s
ellipsoidal,whereby little or no distortion is produced,
as that is precisel the shape which was found by
y
D esca rtes to obviate the sph e rical aberrat i on of rays .

B u t even with lenses of spherical contour, this aberra

tion with conseq uent distortion of the image thrown
on the screen may be corrected by interposin g a
diaphragm with a small opening between the object
and the lens And in the ey e,as if to guard agains t
.

the possibility of disto rtion by aberration of rays, th e

diaphragm interposed between the object and the lens,

I m ean the iris, d iminishes the si ze of i ts orifice in
 76 T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr ucti on .

a cc ommodation for n ear vision ; that is to say,when

the lens i s, according to my supposition, presented oh
li q e ly to the obje ct
u H e nce,t here is no possibility .
‘

o f a disto rted image of the object being thro w n on th e

yellow spot of the retina, which is the only part of the

re tina capabl e of accurately perceiving the image of

o bj ects There i s still another provision in the e y e

.

for obviating spheri cal aberration, and that is that th e

lenses of th e e y e are a combination of the meniscu s
( aqueous h u mour) and doubl e convex lens ( c r ystal .

T he p ow e r o f a small ori . fi ce to correct th e greatest amoun t o f di s

torti on from i n te rf
e ri n g y
ra s is sh own by m le
a si p exp im er en t . T he
n or mal e ye of an ad ul t can no t se e to r ead small prin t neare r th an
6 i n ch e s . Wi th i n that d i sta n ce th e ty p becomes m
e ore i ndi sti n ct th e
C lose r i t a pp r oach es th e e ye . Bu t if w m k pie a e a nh ole th r ough a

card an d pl ace i t close to th e e ye ,

w e can see to re ad pi r n te d matter
o fany si ze e ve n as ne ar as halfan i n ch fr om th e e ye A t that di stan ce .

we ca n e ve n se e the te x b
tu r e offin e cam ri c wi th mi crosco i c d e n i ti on p fi .

T he cause of thi s is e asi l y xpli bl f m wh t w h v b f

e ca e ro a e a e e or e sa i d

r e g ar di ng the course of ra s o y f li gh t i mpi ngi g th c t f n on e en r e o a l e ns,

T he rays stri ki ng th e le n s i thi p t p rp di cula ly uff n
n s ar e en r s er o re f
ra c

ti on . T he e fi e ct of th e
'

pi h l i t x l d l l ys b t th
n o e s o e c u e a ra u ose th a t
p
i m i nge p p er en d i cularl y on th e cen tre of th e e ye le n ses . H e nce th e
i mage of th e o bj e ct close i n fron t of th e e ye is pi ct ed ur on the r e ti n a

wi th out th e i nte rfer e nce of th e surro u nd i ng ra s y , whi h c would fall

o bli q ly ue on th e l e ns ,d b an e i ng r e frac te d ou t of focu s woul d bl ur th e

p i c tur e . Ob se r vati on of th e fe ct of a
ef small ori fi ce in corr e c ti n
g
ab erra n t ra s y, an d of the fact that th e pupil contr acts in n ear vi si o n
,
le d H aller and som e o th e r phy i s ologi sts t beli
o e ve that con tr acti on of

th e p pil w th l f t i
u as e so e
'

ac or n n e ar accomm od a ti on . But thi s vi e w

h as been suffci e tly refuted by oth

i n b
e r o se rvers.
 Chr oma ti c A ber r ati on cor r ected .
77

line),which i s e x actly th e co mbinatio n found by

H erschel to prevent spherical aberratio n in ordinary
glass l e ns e s .

77 . There i s, m or e o ve r, p
a ro vision i n the o pti ca l
construction of th e eye to guard against chromati c
a b e rration, by whi ch t e rm is understood that ten
d e n cy of a lens to throw an indistinct image on the
scre e n b y rea son o f the di f ferent refra ngibility of the
diffe re nt coloured rays of light Thus the violet ray .

i s most re fracted i n pas si ng obliquely through a t e

‘

fracting medium,the red ray least Supposing the .

scree n is adjuste d for fo using accurately the inter

c

mediate yellow or green ray, then the rays b e yon d

that towards the violet sid e of the spectrum wo ld
.

be focused short of the sc re e n, whil e th e rays on the

o th e r s i de towards the r e d sid e of the spectrum woul d

be focused b e hind the screen In Optica l instrum e nts .

this chrom atic aberration is got rid of by usi n g a

c ompo nd lens,
u formed of a convex and a concave lens
o f two di f ferently re fracting media ; usually a com
b ination of flint and crown glass, which h ave di f fere nt
indices o f re fraction A si m ilar provision is made
.

in the eye,whe re not o n ly is there a combination of

‘

A t least i n accom mod ati on for n e ar visi on ,

whe re the ante ri or
y
ace of th e cr stalli n e
surf lens,upposi ng th di na y vi e w of i ts i
s e or r n

cr e ased con vexi ty i n thi s act be acce p te d ,

be comes more convex than
 8 The H u ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr uction
'

7 .

two lenses of di f —
ferent refractive po wers to wit , th e
a queous l e ns and the c rystalline lens, but the latter
lens is not of a uni form re fractive power throughout
i ts subs tance I ts refractive power increases fro m i ts
.

su pe r fic i es to its centre .

Thus the e y e , considered as an optical instrument,

is constructed on the most approved optical principles
for obviating both spherical and chromatic aberratio n
o frays of light .

7 8 I t has
. been object e d to m y explanat i on of the
change that occurs in the position of the crystalline
lens in accommodation from distant to n e ar vision ,
that I have n ot shown how this change is brought
about by the action of the C ilia ry muscle Consider .

ing the u tter failure by those who contend for a n

i ncreased convexity of the c rystalline lens in near
accommodation to show how thi s could be brought
about by the action of the ciliary muscle, it might be
th e conve x su rf
ace of the an te r i or a q u e ous len s ,d an th us ch an g es the
m e ni scus form of th e aq ueous le n s i n to a con cavo-con ve x lens. T he
move me nt o f rotati on y
ofth e cr stalli n e ,
len s whi ch , accor di n
g to my
vi e w , o ccurs i n n e ar accommod ati on ,
will vi r tuall yh ave th e same ef
fect
on th e an te ri or a u eo usq le ns as i ts i n cr e ase d con ve xi ty,f or owi n
g to
th e pe cul i ar o bl a te s ph i d e ro al or e lli p soi d al form of the an te ri or sur f
ace

of th e y
cr stalli n e l ,th
e ns e rotati o n b ri ng s a m o re con ve xp or ti on of

the le ns i n to th e p pil ; m
u ore ove r , bas ef
ore sh own ,
th e mor e o bli que
p i ti
os on as re g ar d s i n ci d ent r a s of a y le n s of e ve n s ph e ri cal con tours i s

e qui valent t o an i ncre ase ofi ts convexi t y .

 Exa mi n a ti on of Ci li a ry Mu scle .
79

pardoned me that I contented myse lf with show

i n g what actually occurred,without attempting to
conjecture how it occ urre d B Ii t a caref l study of . u

the arrangement of the ciliary muscle in the works

of distinguished physiologists and histologists,and
an indepe nd e nt exami nation of many eyes of animals,
enable me to Offe r,as I think, a ve ry probable account
of the part playe d by the ciliary muscle in effe cting the
torsion movement of the cry stalline lens in near
accommodation .

Le t us examine the position and distribution of the

fibre s of the ciliary muscle in ord e r that we may
j udge of the e f
fe ct that will b e produced by their con

traction The subjoined Fig 3 1 is a diagrammatic

. .

representation of a section of the e y e in its ciliary

C , j con u ncti va ; C , cor n e a ,
; S scle r oti c ; D,me m b r an e of De s
ce m e t,
li i g
n n q
th e a ue ous h u mour , ,d an at l form i ng th e li g am e n tum
i t m i i di A ,t i h q mb , o f a u eo us h u m our ; A
'
p e ct na u r s an e r or c a er
p os

te ri or c h mb
a f q
er o h ma ; L, y t l li
ueo us u l
o ur
j ; t i cr s a ne e ns an e r or

wall o fit p l b,
s ca su e p t i w ll f i t p l I,
os e r o r ai i ; C i ,ili y
o s ca su e r s c ar

p ro ce ss p, i t p i gm t l y
s ; , it
en la er l pi th li m V,
e vi t
s co our e ss e

,
e u r e ous

h u mo ur h, i t hy l id m m b
s a o , d i vi d i g t ,
e i t
ran e thi k l mi n a x n o a c er a na

Z , th e zon ul a Zi n n ii ,whi ch r un s on to the an te r i or wall ,

j of th e
ca ps u le o f th e le n s wi th wh i ch i t b e com e s bl en d e d ,d an a th i nn e r pos
te ri or lami n a g wh i ch,, b m bl e co es en d e d wi th th e p t i
os e r or wall of th e

le n ti cular ca p lsu e ,
b b tw the een ese two l ami n ae e n closi ng th e e d ge
of th e le ns i ,
s P,th e can al of P e ti t ; M,
th e m e ri d i o nal fib res of th e

cili ar y m usc le R, th e rad i ati ng fib r e s of th e ci li ar y muscle ,th

s e

c an al o fSchl emm.
80 T he H u ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str ucti on .

region,taken chiefly from K O lli ke r and Strick e r,

o mitting th e d e tails of structure which do not con

c ern the point we are at p resent inquiring into

'

T he
.

FI G
.

ciliary muscle con si sts of two parts not distinctly

s e parated ,but running into on e another It aris e s
.

fro m the i nte rnal wall of Schle m m s canal,s,and

’

from the pe ctinate d ligament of the iris, l,which i s

th e refl e ct e d portion of the me mbrane of Descemet .

The O ter or m e ridional longitudinal fibres,M ,

u run
parall e l with the scle rotic,and are inserted into the
choroid membrane ; the inner radiating fibre s,R,are
distribute d to the ciliary processes ( H Muller says
. .
 A cti on C l
'

f Muscle 8I
'

o c ea ry .

the innermost of these fibre s constitute an annular

muscle, which he terms the compr essor le n ti s,
though
how it compresses the lens i n the position it occupies
is not very clear ) .

N ow it is b ey ond a doubt that the o ri gin of the

muscle at the canal of Schlemm i s its fixed point .

The fibres there terminate in a dense fib rous structure ,

called by some the tendon of the ciliary muscle, which
is merged in the substance of the cornea The other .

end of the longi tud i nal fibres extends to the choroid,

in which these fi bres are spread out and lost ; the
radiating fib res spread out in the su bstance of the
cilia ry process N ow what must b e the effect of the
.

contraction of this muscle,which I prefer to consider

as a whole, and not,as some authors assert, as two

distinct muscles Evi dently it will pull fo rwar d the

choroid mem b rane ( the muscle is sometimes called
tensor ckor zozd ece) and the ciliary processes , and if
' '

w e accept the existence of an annular muscle, this

will only assist th e radiating fibres in pulling the
ciliary processes still farther forwards and inwards .
‘

I am aware Dr H enry Lawson

th at Monthly Mi cr oscopi cal
O
.

Journal ,
’
ct . f
r om an ex am i n ati on of th e eye of ph e asan ts,
com es to th e conclusi on th at th e ac ti on ofthe ci li ary muscle is j ust the
reverse of ,
thi s vi z. tha t itpo p an d
ull s u
re tr acts t
nhe p i ph er y of
er

the corn a e ,thu au si ng i ts ce t e to bulge and become mo

s c n r convex re

but see i ng that i n other animals no in crease of convexi ty i n the corn e a

G
82 Tne Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

Supposi ng one side of the m uscle only to be thrown

i nto action,
what effect will be produced ! The choroid
mem bran e enclose s and is firmly attached to the
vitreous humour,therefore the traction exercised b y
the muscle on the choroid will m ove the vitreous
humour for wards an d inwards,and this motion w ill
be carried on to the corresponding edge of the crystal
line lens But the radiating fibres,R,
. draw the ciliary
processes,Ci ,forwards and inwards,and the cilia ry
processes are intimately co nnected with the anterior
thickened process of th e hyaloid membrane,called
here the z onule of Z inn ; so in timately,indeed,are
the ciliary processes dovetailed and united with the
portion of the z onule on which they lie that we
cannot separate them without leaving fragments of
the pigment lamin a,p,and epithelium,e,of the

h as bee n d e te cted , an d that the an te ri or termi nati on ofth e muscle i s i n

a sti fi and un yi mem b , p th e com ara p
'

e ld i n g ran e wh i le i ts osteri or i s in
t i vely loose ch or oi d , it is as i mpo i bl
ss e to conce i ve thi s acti on of th e

, ,
i t i s to i magi ne a la Dun d rear y,
’

m uscle on the corn ea as hi s tail

w aggi ng th e d og ,i plac ofth
n e e d og waggi ng hi s tail I h ave di s .

se cted num e r ou s e y f ph
es o easan ts an d can testi f
y to th e si ze an d

d i sti nctn ess o f th ei li y m

c lar usc e . In p
o the r r es e cts th e o pti cal con

stru cti on fe r s from that of th e human

di f y i th e p t e ye chi e fl n ese r s ec s

th globe i m h fl tte ,
e s ucth c y talli e le
a r i s ve y th i k ,
e r s i ts t i
n ns r c an e r or

surf ce ve y li gh tly
a r s vex,wh i l th post i
con f i v ry co vex,
e e er or sur a ce s e n

but th h p fth
e s a e ou r v tu ve y di ti ctly that f
e c a re obl tr ph oi d ,
s n o an a e s er

so that an obli q ue posi ti o must very sensi bly shorten i ts f

n ocus .
 P a r ti a l Con tr a cti on of Ci li a ry Muscle . 83

ciliary processes adhering to the z onule T he z onule,

.

z, after quitting the Qi li ary proce sse s,passes on to the

'

anterior wall of th e lenticular capsule,with which it

becomes blend e d a littl e beyond the edge of the lens,
and this portion is sometimes called the suspensory
lig a men t of t/ze cry sta lli ne lens H ence the forward
.

m ove ment of the ciliary process e s wi ll assist in pull

ing the lens forward, and thus give it the rotary move
ment on its axis I before de scribe d,whereby its focus
is shorte ned so as to form a distinct picture of a near
obj e ct on the retina .

79. This rotary moti on is only possible on the

supposition that the contraction of the ciliary muscle
takes place on on e side only in accommodation for
near vision, whilst the muscle on the opposite side of
the e y e is in a state of relaxation .

8 0 T here seems to me no reason to doubt that

.

cohtracti on of the ciliary muscle may tak e place in

one portion of the muscle at a time T he motor .

nerve that supplies the ciliary muscle is derived from

the third pair, which al so regulates the movement of
the circular muscle of the iris (which is contracte d
during near accommodation),and of several of the
external muscles of the eye which are capable of
independent movements .

8 1 I t may b e o bj e cted to my view that the ex

.

G 2
84 TIce Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str ucti on .

ternal portion of both ciliary muscles is brought into

action at the same time in a ccbmmod ation for near
vision ; whe reas in the move m e nts of the eye ball,while
the external muscle of one eye i s in action,the internal
muscle of the other eye is contracted B u t in ae com
.

mo d ati on for near vision thi s is not so, for the two
internal recti act simultaneously, causing convergence
of the ball,or a slight internal squint ; so that there
is no improbab ility ,but on the contrary by analogy
a strong probabil ity, that the e xternal portions of th e
ciliary muscle of both e yes may act simultaneously,
a s the catoptric ph e nomena indicate . I n vol ntary
u

inward squinting we find that we naturally accom

-

mo d ate the e yes for near vision in th . act of squinting .

8 2 I t fre qu e ntly happens that obscure points of the

.

anatomy and physiology of human organs may be

illuminated by an e xamination of the corresponding
organs in other animals C omparative anatomy and
.

physiology have thrown a flood of light on our know

ledge ofthe structure and functions ofthe human frame,
and they may assist us in arriving at correct conclu
sions with respe ct to the action of the ciliary muscle .

I n the Journal of Anatomy and P hysiology for N o

‘ ’

ve mb e r, 1 8 68 ,there is an interesting paper by M r R. .

L ee on the cilia ry muscle in fishes, bird s, and quad

J.

r u pe d s,which corroborates most strikingly the views

 Compa r a ti oe A n a tomy o f Ci l i a ry Mu scle 8 5 .

I have put forward I n this paper M r Lee shows

. .

that the ciliary muscle is absent in fishes, in which, as

I have said above , the crystalline lens is of a spherical
form, and hence no rotary movement could afie ct its '

refractive p ower ; therefore no provision is made for

altering i ts position The iris of fishes,as H aller long
.

ago remarked, does not move This absence of a ciliary

.

muscl e ,and this immobility of the iris,preclude the

idea of an accommodative change in the eyes of fishes .

On the other hand, the cat,which has a great range of

accommodatin g power, has an extre mely mobile iris,
and its ciliary muscle is highly developed I t arises .

from the anterior border of the scl e rotic close to the

margin of the cornea,and passes backward to the
choroid, forming so intim ate a connexion with it as to
appear re ally a part o f that membrane B ut it is .

especially in b irds of the predacious sort, such as owls

and falcons, that the accommodative faculty exists in
the greatest perfection I n them the ciliary muscle
.

is comparatively large, and its longitudinal fibres can

be traced to their insertion in the choroid at a con
sid erab le distance from its anterior termination By .

their contraction the choroid is drawn forwards, carry

i ng with it the c ry stalline l e ns .There are likewise
two rows of elastic fibres between the sclerotic and
choroid, which y ield to the muscular contraction of
86 Tlze H u ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr ucti on .

th e ciliary muscl e ,but which serve to repl ace the

choroid in its former position when the muscular con
traction o f the cili ary muscle is relaxed The whole
arrangement described,says M r Lee, is intended
!
.

for the alteration of the position of the crystal

line lens H e then goes on to say The result of
.
!
:
“

the numerous dissections which I have mad e leads me

to consid e r that the various theories which have been
advanced at different times to explain the means by
which the eye is enabled to adjust itself for distance,
are inconsistent with the anatomy of the organ of
vision,and I trust that it will not be thought pre
sumpt ous to express my belief that this ph e nom e non
u

will be found to be explicable by the simple law of

optical science, which requires nothing more than a
change in the relative position of the lens and the
retina to accommodate the sight to n e ar and distant
objects What this change of relative position of
.
!

lens and retina is I have endeavoured to show .

8 3 I t has been observe d that the time occupied in

.

accommodating the e y e for near vision is gre ater than

that required for adapting it to distant visi o n ; and
this is strikingly obvious in vie wing the move m e nts of
the candle flame image reflected from the anterior
-

surfac e of the crystalline l e ns While the image

.

moves slowly into its place when the eye is directed

 ’
Czer maé s P /cosp/cene . 87

to a n ear object, it springs rapidly back to its original

seat when the eye is directed to a distant object .

The cause of this is obvious , for in near accommoda

tion the force of the ciliary muscle is exe rted in over
coming the resistance of e lastic structures in order to
rotate the lens on its axis, where as whe n the change
takes place to distant accommodation the elastic .

forces and the inte rnal portion of the muscle acting

together cause the lens to resume its normal position .

with great velocity .

84 I f the transition from near to distant accommo

.

dation takes place in the dark, there occurs,as C ze rmak ’

h as remarked, a sudden flash of light in the eye, which

he calls a plcosp/céne This phenomenon is,
. I believe,
caused by the sudden springing back of the lens to
its normal unaccommodat e d position, communicating
a shock to the retina whereby the sensation of light
is evok e d,j ust as a slight blow on the e y e will pro
duce the sensation of a flash of light At the same .

time the sudden relaxation of the ciliary muscle or

tensor chorioide a ,permitting the strained choroid
membrane to resum e its position,will intensify the
shock that produces the flash .

8 5 Another proof of the correctness of my view

.

respecting the rotation movement of the lens in ac

A h fO
rc . phth lm l gi ,Bd
. a o o e
’
. vn .
88 Tli e Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr ucti on .

co mmodation for n ear vision is afforded by the obse r

vati ons of K n app, A d a mii k,and Woi now, to the ‘

effe ct th at the centre of the p upil moves at the same

time towards the nasal side,consequently in the same
direction as the lens This movement do e s not take
.

p l a ce in cont raction of the pupil occurr ing without

accommodative alte ration in the eye These authors .

hence infer that the crystalline len s produces this side

ward movement of the pupil in accommodation This .

is an important observation , as it proves beyond a

doubt that one side only of the ciliary muscle is con
tracted in near accommodatio n,that this is the ex
ternal side,and that the effect of the action of the
muscle is to cause the lens to communicate a move
ment to the i ris which pushes the pupil somewhat
towards the inner or nasal side The only possible .

movement of the lens whereby this could be produced

is the rotary one I have described, and which the dis
tri b u ti on of the muscular fibres of the ciliary muscl e
is exactly fitted to accomplish .

8 6 Whether the ext e r nal portion of the ciliary

.

muscle is the agent in the production of near ae com

mod ati on in all positions of the eye I am unable to
determine M y observations only apply to near
.

Beri ch t u b er di e Fortschr i tte d er A mi c

n ato un d P hysi ologi c i m
Jahr e ates Heft .
 I n cr eased t/ci cé n ess f
o L en s,post mor tem . 89

accommodation in respect to objects situated directly

in front and on the level of the eye itself It may b e
.

that when the eye is directed u pwards or downwards,

and at the sam e time accommodated for n e ar vision,
some other portions of the ciliary muscle are brought
into play and the axis of rotation of the lens is vari ed
accordingly The intimate connexion of the action
.

of the extern al portions of the ciliary muscles with that

of the two internal recti muscles,might lead us to
suppose that when other external ocular muscles are
brought into play,other parts of the ciliary muscle
may like wise act in accommodation But this is a.

speculation that need not detain us .

8 7 I do not think much impo rtance can attach to the

.

increased thickness ofthe crysta lline lens observed after

death H elmholtz and others have founded on this
.

fact their explanation of the act of near accommoda

tion,vi z th at the crystalline lens is forcibly retained
.

in the condition of accommodation for distance by the

elastic tension of the z onule of Z inn,and that the
e ffect of the contraction of the ciliary m uscle is to
relax this tension, and so enable the lens to assume
.

the more convex form its own inherent elasticity i m

presses on it ; the increased thickness of the lens
observed when it is removed from its attachments
being considered a proof that the more convex shape
9 0 T he Hu man Ey e i ts Opti ca l Con str u cti on .

it is allege d to assume in near accommodation is th e

form it will naturally assum e when freed from r e
straint But besides the objections to this view above
.

stated there is this further objection,that the incre as ed

si z e of the lens which has long been known to occur
after death is apparently caused by absorption of the
aqueous humour by the tubules of the lens and
around the l e ns beneath its capsule T he so called
.
-

liquor M orgagni,which is found be tween the capsule

an d lens, is now generally belie ve d to be merely
a q u eo us humour receive d i nto th e capsul e by e u

d osm ose post mor tem Very soon aft e r d e ath the trans
.

pat ency of the crystalline lens in the human subj ect

be com e s materi ally impaired, showing that something
has occurred to diminish its dioptric prope rtie s, and
this something is no doubt absorption of the aqueou s
humour, which will account at once for its increase d
thickness and its loss of transpare ncy .

8 8 I n order to put my views to a still more strin

.

gent te st,I constructed a working model of the e y e of

large siz e,in fact wi th dime nsions ten tim e s greater
than the human eye T he cu r vatures of th e various
.

r efracting media in the eye being elli soidal of course

p ,
I could not imitate them exactly,but I employe d
spherical curvatures as near the mark as possibl e .

The globe of the eye is represented by a g l ass

 L a rg e Model of the Hu ma n Ey e .
9 1

globe 2 4 centim etres in diameter,with a hole cut

out in front for the reception of a section of a globe
of 8 centim etres radius, to represent the cornea This.

of course is left clear,b ut the larger globe re pre

senting the sclerotic is painted b lack inside and white
outside, a circular clear space being left in the axis of
vision to show the picture formed on the retin a A .

diaphragm of vulcani zed i n d i arubbe r is suspended

3 centim etre s behind the cornea to repr e sent the
iris, perforated with a hole to imitate the pupil mode
r ate l
y dilated
. The cry stalline lens is m ade with
two segments of globes respectively 1 0 and 6 centi
m etres radius of curvature,to r epresent the anterior
and posterior su rfaces of the lens,and 5 centim etres
thick in the centre These segments are united edge
.

to edge by a b rass ring,an d the space thus formed is

fi lled with a mixture of glycerine and water in equal
proportions , which has a refractive power correspond
ing to that of the c rystalline lens The aqueous and
.

vitreou s humours are represente d by water, with which

the globe is filled An object placed at a distance of
.

about I 5 feet is accurately pictured in the clear space

left at the back of the globe, representing the retina i n
the axis of vision On b ringing the object nearer to
.

the model eye the focus is thrown behind the globe .

.

At a distance of 8} feet the object i s as much out

9 9. T he Hu ma n Ey e i ts Opti ca l Constr u cti on .

of focus as it would be at 1 0 i nches in the n u

accommodate d e m me trOpi c hum an e y e A slight .

r otary motion of the artificial lens shortens th e f oc u s

so as to b ring it again a ccurately to the back of th e

globe corresponding to the retina i n the axis of vision .

If a candle is placed at one side of the e y e and we

look into the pupil from the opposite side, the image s
of the candle reflected resp e ctively from the cornea ,
anterior surface of the lens, an d p oste rior su rface of

the lens,are plainly visible,the two former er ect and

large ,the third inverted an d small When the rotary .

motion is given to the lens in order to accommodate

th e focu s to a near object (at 8 } feet) , the image
reflected by the anterior su rface of the lens is seen to
move in precisely the same way as I have d escri be d as '

occu rring in the human eye in n ear accommodation .

O O
0
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BA YLI SS WYK E ,
T H E W I T N E SS F A RT R T H E LEGE O ,O N D OF
BEA TY U
Wi th llustra ti ons the A uthor I by Second
, ,
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Ed i tion C rown 8 vo cloth 6s

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B E N N C II FR A N C IS
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,
P E M S L YR C S S N G S A N D S ET SI Wi th , .

a P ortrai t of the A uth or on Ste e l F cap 8 vo cloth 7s 6d , , .

,
. . .

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A fe w co i es on Large P a e r fca 4 to cloth 1 zs 6d p ,p .
, . .

B E NS O
M 7 . W .

T IME an d T IME T E L L E R S : A Boo a k bout W tches a

ks
an d C loc . Wi th man Wood cuts C rown 8vo y .
, cl th ,
2 6d o s .

B LI N C O
UR T , A de B E L .
, . . .

N
F R E C H G E N DE R S A n Eas y Method of Disti ngui shi n
g
th e m at Si gh t 8 vo 6d .
, .

B ON E R,C HA RLE S
O OUN
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I N T H E P LA I N A ND N T HE M ‘

TA IN A :
G ui d e for P ed estr ian s an d M ounta i n T our ists Wi th Ill us
, , ,
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tra ti ons of Dr e ss r e u i si tes &c F cap 8 vo cloth 2 s q . . .

B OOK K N T S
of O
ll ustra . I t d by 1 72 Ex mpl ,
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manne r of M aki ng e ve r y K t,T i , d S li c ,by T m
no e
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w 8 v ,loth
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T h i rd Ed i ti on
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2
ro 6d n o c s. .

BRA N DE P r o/I D C L , , . . .
, a nd P ro ] :A . S T A YL R
. O,
M D ERS &c .
, . .
, .

C H E M ST R Y I
Fcap 8 vo 900 , page s,1 2
—
. . s. 6d .

“
T he be st gui d e to th e stud y ofC he mi str y y e t gi ven to th e world .
"
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B RE E C R M D ,
O O O U O ,
. .

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b
o se rve d i n the B ri ti sh I sl e s I
llustrate d wi th 2 38 C olour e d
,
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P lates Fi ve vols su. .

,p e r -r o al 8 vo ycloth 5 s r r ,
ed uce d .

ri ce p
3 1 9s .

B URB I D GE F PV ,
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C L R C H D S a n d H o w to G row T h e m I Wi th , .

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Descri ti ve Li st of a ll the best S e ci es i n C ultivati on p
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llustrated wi th n ume rou s Wood cuts an d C oloure d Fi gures of

1 3 Vari e ti e s C ro wn 8 vo clo th 6s .
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B USHN A M y s M D , ,E ms
O IO O I C H T H YOL OG Y
. . . . .

IN
T R DU C T N T . Wi th 33
C oloured P lates F ca . p . 8 vo ,l th,
4
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C A P EL C C ,
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T R T C U LT RE U
A P racti cal T re ati se on S awni ng . p ,
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H atchi ng and Reari ng T rout Fca p 8vo cloth 2s 6d . .
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C A RRI N G T 01V,D,M D ,F R S . . . . .

I I
B R T SH H E P A T C AE I
C on tai ni ng Descri ti ons and p
,
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F igures of the N ati ve Spe ci es of Jun g ermann i a M archan ti a ,

an d A n thoce r os I mp 8vo se we d P arts I to 4 e ach 2 s 6d
. .
, , , . .

p
lai n ; 3s 6d colour ed T o be C om le ted i n a out 1 2 P ar ts
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C A SH ,7A M E S
‘
.

T H E RE S A W A Y ; W I LL
_

W H E RE T H ERE S A
’ ’

,
o r Sci e nce i n th e C ott e ; e i n g M e moi rs of N aturalists i n b
H um le Li feb C rown v0 cloth 3s 6d .
, , . .

C A XT ON ,
W I LL I A M Wh o was C ax ton Wi lli am C axto n,
M e rchant, , ,
.

A mbassad or,Hi sto r i an ,A uth or T ran slator and

P ri n te r A Mon ograp h
. C rown 8 vo, Is . .

C HA M I SS O
,
A DA L E E R T V N O .

P E T E R SC H L E M H L T ranslated I . by Sir JOHN BOW

RI NG
,LL D &c llustrati on s on nd i a , I I p p by GEORGE a er
UK K ,h lfR xburghe ,
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C R I SHA N Large a e r c rown 4 to . pp , a - o

T he A the m says : T he illu strati ons of P e te r Schle mihl ’

are a mongst
k k p
the fin est d i s la ys of C r ui shan s ge ni
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C HA NG E D C ROSS ( T H E ) Ill umi nated . Word s by L . P . W .

by K K De d i cate d to the Me mor o fthose le ssed on es wh o y b

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‘
looki ng to Jesus
’
S uare I 6mo wi th ll umi n ated C rosses
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an d B ord er Li nes 6s See al so ,
C r own of Life . .

C H A N G E D C R SS ( T H E ) O
A Large Ed i ti on of the a ove b
k,
.

w or p
rin ted i n ou tli ne on est P late P a e r f or those er sons b p , p
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wh o ei ng r o ci en t i n th e ar t of llu mi nati on ,
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k ,
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g Fca 4 to hand p
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some ly b
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COLLE C T I O
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N C A T A L OG U E f N A T U RA L I ST S or
d fO
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A R l d B k f k pi g p m
u e tR oo bj ts i or ee n a er an en e cor o ec n

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ran c,wi th A pp d i x
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i t ti p ti l , d l tt d p g f g
n er es n l I d
ar cu ars an e e re a es or e ne ra n ex .
Strongl und 200 y , pag , es pag ,m 300 d es s. an
2 s 6d e tra f
or e ve r x y ad d i ti onal 1 00 pages Wo ki ng C ata r

,
. . .

lognes 1 s 64 each . . .
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C OM P A NI ON T O T H E W R I T IN G DE SK .

H w t A dd Titl d P pl
o o r ess e eo e.

C ON C H OLOG Y,Q t ly J l f S p g 9 u ar e r o u rn a o . ee a e 2 .

C OOK E, M C , M A , LL D
d E A SY A C C O
. . .

A P LA I N U N T f T H E B R I T I SH
an o
FU NGI . p
Wi th es eci al r e fe ren ce to the Escule nt and other
E conomi c S eci es p
Wi th C oloured P lates of 4 0 S eci es p .

,
.

T hir d Edi ti on r e vi se d ,
C rown 8vo cloth 6s .
, .

T H E B R T SH R E P T L E S I I A P lai n an d Easy A ccoun t I

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.

ofthe Li zard s, Sna es, , k

N e wts T oad s F rogs an d T ortoises
i n d igenous to Grea t Bri tai n I ,
N umerous llustrati ons C oloure d .

by han d , ,
Fcap 8 vo cloth 6s
. .

R U ST , SM U T , M I L DE W , A ND MO U L D A n I nt o r

pi Fu gi I llu t ted wi th
.

d ti o t th St d y f M i
uc n o e u o crosco c n s ra
by J E SOWERBY Fo th Edi ti on,
.

2 69 C l d Fi g
o our e ur e s . . . ur
wi th A ppe di x fN e w Spe i s n C w 8v ,
o cloth , 6s c e . ro n o .

A MA N U A L O F BO T A N IC T ERM S N w Edi ti , . e on

g e tl
r ay l g d , i cl d i
en ar e
g th re c t T t log i cnl te ms
u n e en era o a r
I llust ated wi th v 300 W d ts Fcap 8 v ,cl ,2 6d
.

r o er oo cu . o . s. .

A MA NU A L OF ST R U C T U R A L B OT A N Y R i . e v se d

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E di ti on wi th N e w C h e mi cal N otati on Ill t t d wi th
us ra e 200

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Wood cuts T wenti eth T housand 32 mo

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C OUC H,yos T HA N ,F L s . . .

B R I T I SH F I SH E S A Hi t y s or of th e
F ishes of the Bri tish
I l d I ll t t d wi th 5 6 b
.

s an s. us ra e 2 eautif ull C oloured P la tes y .

F our Vols" p
su e r -r o al y 8 vo ,, cL £4 4 s red uced ri ce £3 3s . p .

C RA WLE Y,
R I C H A RD
OUN OT H E R
.

THE Y GE R B R A C omed y i n Fi ve A cts

, ,
. .

C rown 8vo cloth 6s .

C RE SS WE LL,C M,fh
t I n n er T emple o e

WO O WO
. .

MA N, A ND HER W RK IN T HE R LD
, ,
.

C rown 8 vo cloth 3s 6d . .

C R OW N OF L I F E By M Y W Wi th elegantl
(T HE) y
Ill mi t d B d
. . . .

rom d e si gns b
or er s f A RT H R ROERT SO U B N
.

na e
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U ni form wi th T he C ha ng ed C r oss F cap 4 to cl extra 6s . .

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C U VI E R B a ron
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I
T H E A N M A L K N G D M : A rran ged afte r i ts I
,
ti on formi ng a N atural H istor of A ni mals and n tr od ucti on y , I
p
to C om ara ti ve A n atom Wi th consid e ra le ad di ti ons b y y b
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F LS N e w Ed i ti on ,i ll ustra te d wi th 5 00 Engravi ngs on

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. . .

Wood and 36 C oloured P la tes I mp 8vo cloth z l s . . .

 H a r d w i cke a nd 8 03 74 5 .
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DA RB Y,W A M A
OO I OB SE R V E R
.

T H E A ST R N M C A L A Han d oo for b k
th e O
b y
ser vator and the C ommon T elesco e Em racin g 96 5 p b
b , , ,
.

Ne ,
ulae C luste rs an d Dou le Stars Roy 8vo cloth 7s 6d b . . . .

DA VI E S,THO
MA S
I ON OUN I O
.

T H E P R E P A RA T an d M T N G of M C R I
SC P C OI B JE C T S ON ew Ed i ti on ,gr ea tl E nlar g e d . y
and b
r ought up to th e P rese n t T i me JOH M A T T H E S by N W,
M D , Vi ce -P resi d en t of the Q uelrett Mi cro
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scopi cal C lu p
Fca b
8 vo cloth as 6d
. . . .

DE C RE SP I GN Y,E C ,MD
N E W LO N DON F L OR A ,H
. . .

A or book t the B t ni
an d o o a
cal Locali ti es of th e Me tro o li t Di st i t C m pil ed f m
r c s o
m P e onal O
an . ro
the Latest A uth ori ti es and ro rs bse v tion C w r a ro n

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.

8 vo cloth 5s .

DE WA R ,
IN DI G E ST I ON A ND D ET I . C ro wn 8 vo li m , oth,
p cl as .

DI C K C apt ST 9 01 m
; . . .

I
F L E S A N D F L Y F SH I IN G I ll . ustrate d . C rown 8 vo ,
cloth 4 s 6d, . .

C HR ON O O
L GY A T A G LA C E ; A n E itome o f E ve nts N p
from 4 000 B C to A D 1 8 77. . Wi th a T a le gi vi ng the d ates
. . . b
of th e d ea ths of England s most noted Worthi es
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A uth ors Di vi nes Statesme n N aval and Mili tar C ele ri ti es , y b ,
&c &c .
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R £1 M D ,
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l arly E x lai n e d p Ill ustrate d wi th 32 Wood cuts Ro al y
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1 8mo cloth 3s 6d . .

D UN C A N ,7 A M E S,FLS
I N T R ODU C T I ON O E N T OM OL OG Y
. . .

T Wi th 38
,loth,
.

C oloured P lates . Fcap 8 vo . c 4s . 6d .

I I U
B R T SH B T T E R F L E S : A com le te Descri ti on of I p p
the Larva and f ull-grown nsec ts of ou r N ati ve S ec i es I p
,
.

Wi th C oloure d Figures of Ei gh t Vari e ti es Fca 8 vo y p

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. .
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cloth 4 s 6d . .

I I O
B R T SH M T H S : A oom le te Descr i ti on of the Larva
p
and f ull-grown nsec ts ofourI ati ve S eci es Wi th C olour e d p .

Fi gures of Eight Vari eti es y

F cap 8 vo cloth 4 s 6d . .
, , . .
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E E T LE S B R T SH A N D F R E G , I I C ontai ni ng a O I N .

p
full d escri ti on of the more i m ortan t es Wi th C o p
O
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loured Figures of more than n e H Vari e ti es Fca p

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8 r o cloth 4 s 64 . .

N A T U R A L H I ST ORY ofE X OT I C B U T T E RF L E S I
, ,
.

Wi th 36 C oloure d P lates . Fca p . 8vo cloth 4 s 6d . .

N A T U RA L H I ST OR Y OF EX T C M OI OT H S Wi th
, ,
.

34 C oloured P lates . Fca p . 8 vo cloth 4 s 6d . .

,
0 YE R Rev T R T HI SE L T N M A O,
O O — —
. . . .

N
E G L SH F L K I L RE T ree s P lan ts
—
C on tents
F lowers T h e Moon—B i rd s A n i mals — —I — p
.

R e ti l e s
—
nsects
C harms Bi rth —Ba ti sm M — p
De ath Da s of th e — — y
k— — —
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Wee T he Months and the i r Wes er Lore Bells Mi scol
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E A T 01V P r ofessor D C of Yale C ol lege
O O
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T HE FE R S N
F N RT H A M ER C A llustra ted I I
by AM M
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wi th numer ous C olour ed P late s J E S H E ER T O N

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De m 4 to T o be com le ted i n 2 0 P arts u li sh ed at i n p p b
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ter val s ofa out two mon ths b

ri ce 5 s e ach p . .

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VE GE T A B LE K NGD M I
A rran ed un d er th e i r O
O
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p
re s e cti ve N atur al r d e rs,wi th the n ames 0 the P lants and
p
the ar ts used i n each case De m 8vo I s 6d . y , . .

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llustrate d wi th 4 38 Figures Demy 8 vo,cl oth ,

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7s 6 .

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7 011 N ST 01 V M D , .
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D AT OM S,P racti cal Di recti ons for C ollecti ng ,P ,
re ser vi ng
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0 c o

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EL Yfl V C 1 V M A ,
NO I O
. . .

A SY PS S F H E R A L DR Y Wi th 4 00 Engravi ngs
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C rown 8vo cloth 3s .

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E YT A C '

NO O OO O N O O
.

T ES N T H E GE L GY F R T H SH R P .

I p
SH R E , ,Fca 8 vo cloth 3s 6d
. . . .

P A L IE ON T OL OG I C A L M E M OI R S OF By C HA RLES
N,MD, F R S Ill t t d T w , ,
.

M U RCH O IS us ra e o Vols d em y
l th,
. . . . . .

c o £ a 2 s.
 H a r d wi cke a nd B og ue . II

FER N C OL L E C T OR S A LB M : A d escri ti ve Foli o for

’
U p
p
the r e ce ti on of N atural S e ci me ns p
contai n i ng on the ri ght
p p
hand ag e a d escri ti on of e ach Fern ri n ted i n C olours the p ,
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p e te colle cti on of thi s I n teresti ng famil of P la n ts
l Size y
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by
I I % in . i n handsomel . ound ri ce n e Gui n ea yb p .

FLE I SC II M A N N A M R C S , . . . .

P LA !
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F F C E SA V N G S B A
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K S wi th N otes of Deci si ons
an d A ward s mad e by
th e B arri ste r and th e Regi stra r of
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Fri en d l Soci e ti e s .y
Dem I amo cloth 7s 6d , , . .

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F RSA F T H; FRA N C E S 7 A N E .

T H E ST ’
U
DE N T S T W L G H T ; or T ales in Verse I I , . Fcap .

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8vo cloth 3s 6d . .

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F R Y HE RB E R T :
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R YA L G DE T UIT HE L D O C HA R T E S ON ON I I ,
1 8 78 9 — , p b
Showi ng i n al ha e ti cal ord er the i r N ame Date , ,
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of Found ati on A d d ress ,

ec ts A nnual n com e bj
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fici als &c , x
Si teen th A nn ual Ed i ti on
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GA T T Y,
M r s A LFRE D . .

I I
B R T SH SE A W E E D S Drawn from P rofe ssor H arve y ’
s
P hycolo gi a Bri tan ni ca llustra ted wi th 80 C olour ed I
,p
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,
P lates con tai n i ng 384 Fi gur es T wo Volumes su er ro al y
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8110 C loth £2 I os re d uce d r i ce

. I 1 7s 6d p . .

IN OU T L IN E OF L A W D my 8 ,l th , 6d
A P LA . e vo c o 2s
. .

GEOLOG I ST S A SSO C IA T ION ,P ’

di g f S roc e e n s o . ee

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GRA N VI LL E y M R T I M E R M D L R C P , ,
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1 8 7 5 - 6— , x, y
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p
from the d ate of i ts o e ni n g to the e nd of 1 8 75 T wo Vols
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d e m 8vo cloth 36s .
 B ooks P a blzsked by
‘

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HA M I L T UA ’
,R ,M D ,
F R S
NA T U R A L H I ST OR Y OF
. . . . .

T HE BR T I I SH F I SH E S
, p 8 ,l th,
.

Wi th 72 C oloure d P lates . T wo VolS fca .

9 . vo co s.

T he N
A T U R A L H ST R Y o f SE A LS I O ,
W A L R U SE S ,
&c Wi th 30 C oloured P lates Fcap 8vo
. . .
, cloth 4 s 6d , . .

T HE AT N RA L H ST URY F I O O W HA LE S and
o th e r C e ta ceas Wi th 3 2 C oloured P lates
. . Fca p . 8 vo ,
cl oth ,
4 s 6d
, O
. .

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.

T H E L K E E SS I N
F C H R ST Be i ng an B u q i n to I .

the ver i si mili tud e of th e r ecei ved li en ess of our B esse d k

Lo rd Edi te d . W E BA Y ISS F S A by YK llustrated wi th L , . . . I
p
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g ravi ngs o n W oo d f
r om o ri gi n al F re scoes M o sai c s P a te rae , , ,
and oth e r Wor s of A rt of the krst Si x C cu turi fi
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b
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HI B B E RD ,SHI RLE Y,R RJ LS .

B EA U I
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RA R E I
llustrated wi th 5 4 C oloured Engravi ngs
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I 5 s ; red uce d ri ce , , . p
1 8s 9d F or F i r st Ser i es see u nde r Lowe
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OI O
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Rare or other wi se nte resti ng E oti c P lants I
2 32 l arge an d x
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.

beautifull C olour ed P latesy T hr e e Volumes i m er ial 8 v0 p

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cloth e tra gi lt I5 r ed uce d ri ce £6 6s p .

SP E C IE S
F ILI C U M Bei ng Descri ti ons of the nown . p k
, p
F erns accom ani ed wi th 304 P late s con taini n
g n umer ous ,
Fi ur es
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n ce £4

H O
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K E R Si r W: a nd 7
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G B A K ER F L S ,
NO I
. . . . .

SY P S S F I L I C U M ; or A ,
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and O p O l
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d e ri ved fro m the K e w H er y

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P RA C T I C A L P H YSI OL OG Y A School M anual ofH eal th : ,

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B og ue .

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H E A LT H P R IM E RS .

E DI T OR S
J. L ANGDON DOWN ,M D . NRY P OWE R,
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J M.O
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G . W . BA LFOU ,M D R .
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OH C UR NOW ,
M D L ODO A N N Fox ,
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M D .
J M O . RT I ER G R NVI A,M D E .

W G REE N EIELD,M D
. S . M . . C W H EAT O
N,F C S . . . .

A Y A
H RR LE C H . M R C P G . . . . POORE ,M D , H E N RY . .

P O ER,
W M E, F W L P RVE S,M D
. . . . U . .
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R C I E P res Epi d l Soc &c ,C H R . . .

, . . . AL F E ,M . A . M D,. .

8 RI N G R,M D
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JOH N T WE EDY,F R C . . . S JOHN
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A mong tlze su b ects sel ected

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P r e m a tu re De a th : I ts P ro m o ti o n an d P re v e n ti on . [ N ow
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T h e H ea d .

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W a te r .

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Ed ite d b y a E T A YL R F L S . . O, . . FGS . . &c .

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Ed i
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A ssistan t Se cre tar y ofthe Ge ologi ca l Soci e t y.

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O i nte rest ,th e

PO PU LA R SC I E NC E R EV I E W con tai n s a C om ple te Re cord o f P ro

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I ll ustr a ted w i t}: 32 C olou r ed F ig u r es by Sower by , a nd 1 61 Woodc uts .

T hi s i s an altoge the r char mi ng boo ,full of wi sd om chee rfu l si m le , k , ,p

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I ts obj ect i s to
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cc p p .

wi th i n re ach ofthe ge ne ral pu h e In an a gr e e able form th e results ofth e most

p
r e ce n t and com re he n si ve bot n cal r se ar ch
a e T h i
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i
,
.

w hy flowe rs we r e ma d e an d Is n ot W thou t m e an s to answe r the q u e sti on r e

vere n tly an d tr uthf u ll y
H e conn ects the m , by th e ai d s tha t sci ence su li e s, p
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k y
.

wi th the hi stor ofcrea ti on and the r e cor d s of th e roc s, an d wi th the hi stor

of man and th e, p r ogr e ss of th e
ag r cu lt ral an d h orti cu ltu ral arts
u i
.

H e te lls
us how the , are I nflu e n c e d by 3 011 a d c l ma te , i p
.

n h ow C h an e d an d m u lti li ed b
d
i nse cts an oth er age nci es, how th ei r se e d s ar e blown a u t th e world and
y
,
,
h ow by innumerable d i vi n e apporntme n ts I t at last come s abou t tha t th e li fe ,
of a man i s e n vir one d a n d be a u ti fi e d Wl th flowe rs T he wor is ri ch in th e k
, pp y p
.

r esu lts of trave l an d i t ha i l con n e cts th e ve ge table rod ucts of th e globe

wi th the cond i ti ons that fa vour the m an d th e wan ts the sati sfy I t i s ther e fore y
a b oo k ,
for all ages an d for botani sts an d gard e ne rs, as we ll as f or su ch as ra the r
.

too glad ly con fess th e

y k
n ow n oth n g a bou t lan ts W i
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e e ry resp e ctab le f ami l ta ble In th e wh ole e n g th an d bre ad th of th e U ni te d

v
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—
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Lond on : HA RDW C K E 8: B GU E I O ,9 ,P i 1 2 ccadilly ,W .