Identifying Sojourner Change After a Study Abroad Experience

A Content Analysis Approach

David J. Comp
International Higher Education Consulting
http://ihec-djc.blogspot.com/
http://international.ed.consulting.googlepages.com/internationalhighereducationconsulting

© 2008 David J. Comp

 ABSTRACT

A qualitative approach was used to explore the personal changes that undergraduate

sojourners encounter as a result of their study abroad experience. Semi-structured interviews

were conducted with undergraduate students recently returned from studying abroad. Participant

interviews were coded and analyzed using a content analysis approach. The data suggest that

undergraduate sojourners experience various intellectual, psychological, social and/or physical

changes as a result of studying abroad. A theoretical model is proposed that explains, in part,

these changes.

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 INTRODUCTION

Educational opportunities abroad are becoming more accepted as an important aspect of

the undergraduate college experience. Numerous universities and colleges, governmental

agencies, and organizations across the United States offer a variety of study abroad programs at

foreign institutions of higher education. Study Abroad programs offer a wide variety of

opportunities for undergraduates to earn academic credit as well as learn about and experience

both the language and the culture of their host country.

A common belief among international educators is, when living and studying abroad

sojourners learn to appreciate different viewpoints as well as gain a global perspective. Hoffa

(1998) echoes this statement and concludes “study abroad can be for students a personally

transforming experience, a quantum leap in their intellectual and social development” (p. 21).

However, Hoffa notes that “no two students are likely to have the same experience or to respond

in the same way to that experience, regardless of their plans, motivations, and circumstances” (p.

21). It is important to realize and acknowledge that study abroad programs differ in many ways

from each other. These programmatic and host country differences undoubtedly influence

individual sojourners in different ways.

There are various reasons why students decide to study abroad. Jerry Carlson (1991)

describes many of the reasons 250 student respondents of the Study Abroad Evaluation Project

(SAEP) chose to study overseas. These student sojourners hoped to gain a cultural experience

and enhance their understanding of their host country, live in and make acquaintances from

another country, improve their foreign language abilities, and travel both during and after their

study abroad experience (p. 4). At the same time, there are also students who give “little

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thought to the ways in which they are going to change during their time abroad, or how they may

be different when they come back home” (Carsello & Creaser, 1976, p. 276). Whatever the

reasons for choosing to study abroad, pre-departure expectations of the study abroad experience

may or may not be realized by the sojourner.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Researchers in the fields of international education, anthropology, education, sociology,

psychology, psychiatry, political science, social work, and even family science have long been

aware of and have examined the study abroad phenomenon (Stimpfl & Engberg, 1997a;

Furnham & Bochner, 1986). The literature review was conducted under the assumption that

change does take place.

Intellectual Change

Undergraduate sojourners may experience both positive and negative intellectual changes

as a result of their study abroad experience. It is important to realize that the sojourner may not

recognize these intellectual changes as being negative. The majority of the literature focusing on

intellectual change resulting from a study abroad experience has concentrated on positive

change.

Several research studies offer support for sojourner intellectual change as a result of a

study abroad experience. One such study, as discussed in Opper, Tiechler, & Carlson (1990),

was the Study Abroad Evaluation Project (SAEP). The SAEP analyzed a large number of study

abroad programs promoting mobility between institutions of higher education in the United

Kingdom, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Sweden and the United States. The SAEP

also sought to evaluate the extent to which study abroad program outcomes can be considered

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successful. There were several outcomes found to be significantly linked to some of the

independent variables. These outcomes included: “change in opinion about the higher education

system of the study abroad program host country; increased knowledge about the culture and

society of the host country; enhanced proficiency in listening comprehension and speaking

proficiency in the language of the host country; less restraint in communicating with students,

teachers and in daily life of the host country; and the expectation that study abroad will

contribute positively toward achieving professional goals (Opper, Tiechler, & Carlson, 1990, p.

199).

Wilson (1993), in describing the American Field Service (AFS)

International/Intercultural Programs’ Impact Study on high school students, states the programs

“offer important support for the knowledge outcome of international experience” (p. 18). The

following four variables were found to be “strongly associated with the AFS homestay:

awareness and appreciation of host country and culture, foreign language appreciation and

ability, understanding other cultures, and international awareness” (p. 18). Wilson’s theory on

the impact of an international experience asserts “internationally experienced persons begin to

gain a global perspective (substantive knowledge and perceptual understanding) and develop self

and relationships (personal growth and interpersonal connections)” (p. 16).

Leonard (1964) studied five groups of students who were enrolled in the Adelphi

University program of foreign study and travel between 1957-1961. The Adelphi foreign study

and travel program was a combination of a summer and one semester of foreign study and travel.

All of the 85 students participating in the study went to Europe with the exception of one student

who went to Japan. Leonard (1964) concluded “foreign travel and study can produce a much

greater change in attitude in a far shorter time than can a regular program of campus study” (p.

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180). She based this conclusion, in part, on her findings which indicate that the most

conservative students had more of a pronounced shift in the liberal direction as a result of their

foreign study and travel program. Students who held the most liberal ideals actually recorded a

slight shift in the conservative direction. Leonard found that the greatest shift towards the liberal

direction occurred among the students who attended universities in Spain and Italy while those

students studying in England and Scotland demonstrated the least amount of shift in the liberal

direction.

A study by Flack (1976) based on his review of pertinent literature from 1967 through

1974 relating to study abroad students found that undergraduate sojourners experience

intellectual changes as a result of their study abroad experience. Flack concluded that:

The sojourn and educational experience tends to engender a more sophisticated,

differentiated, personalized, and concretized knowledge and perception of the host

society, its achievements and problems, its peoples and policies, and its ‘ways of life,’ as

compared to ‘knowledge’ and images held before. (p. 111)

Students also develop an increased interest in “events, developments, publications, and, general

news from or about the society of former residence and study” (Flack, 1976, p. 111).

Interestingly, Flack placed this type of sojourner change under the psycho-social realm of his

profile.

Psychological Change

There are a number of psychological changes that undergraduate sojourners experience as

a result of the study abroad experience. Again, these changes may be both positive and negative.

Wallace (1962) states that intercultural experiences present the sojourner with an “opportunity to

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examine objectively and in a new environment one’s own personality and characteristics and

their effect upon others” (p. 256).

There have been several research studies that offer support for undergraduate sojourner

psychological change as a result of studying abroad. Adler (1975), in describing his concept of a

transitional experience, suggests that “specific psychological, social, and cultural dynamics occur

when new cultures are encountered and these behavioral dynamics are, in large part, a function

of perceptions of similarities and differences as well as changed emotional states” (p. 15). The

model of transitional experience also suggests that successful cross-cultural experiences should

result in the movement of personality and identity to new consciousness of values, attitudes, and

understandings.

Carsello and Creaser (1976) studied 209 students, from various universities throughout

the United States, studying in Italy, France, Spain and Switzerland to determine the changes that

had taken place in their lives after their study abroad experience. They found that 63.6% of the

students believed to have had a “positive change in their self-concept, whereas only 8.1%

reported a negative change” (p. 278). Other significant findings of the study include: 37.3% of

the students reported greater peace of mind while 22.5% reported less peace of mind; 34.0% felt

that their emotional health had improved while 12.4% felt that their emotional health had been

adversely affected; and 19.1% of the students reported that their sleep was not as restful as it

previously had been (p. 278).

The phrase “culture shock” has been in existence for decades and is used to describe

cultural differences individuals experience while traveling, working, or studying abroad. It was

first posited by the anthropologist Kalvero Oberg in 1960 in order to describe the difficulties

experienced during cross-cultural sojourns. Furnham and Bochner (1986) note that the term

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culture shock refers to “the idea that entering a new culture is potentially a confusing and

disorientating experience” (p. 12). Various researchers have determined that an undergraduate

sojourner may experience a variety of symptoms related to culture shock. These symptoms

range from mild emotional disorders and stress related psychological ailments to psychosis

(Weaver, 1986, p. 111). Weaver (1986) goes on to suggest that:

Some people quickly develop useful coping strategies which allow them to easily adjust

while, at the other extreme, some resort to the use of progressively more inappropriate

and maladaptive neurotic defense mechanisms which may eventually develop into such

severe psychological disorders as psychosis, alcoholism, and even suicide. (p. 111)

Although the severity of culture shock may ultimately be determined by the psychological make-

up of the individual sojourner, it is important that sojourners recognize and anticipate cultural

differences and/or stressful events that may influence the severity of the reaction. Some

individuals have the ability to cope with a tremendous amount of stress caused by cultural

differences and unfamiliar environments while others lack this ability and require an unchanging,

unambiguous, predictable environment to feel psychologically secure (Weaver, 1986).

Social Change

Undergraduate sojourners studying abroad may also experience a variety of social

changes as a result of their experiences. Sojourners are placed in unfamiliar environments and

situations at times with few social supports available to them. Although they may have an

identified contact or resource person from the sending and/or host institutions such as a faculty

member or other classmates, they are often times on their own while navigating through the host

country and culture. This requires the sojourner to interact with individuals in ways they have

never experienced before.

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 There have been several research studies that offer support for undergraduate sojourner

social change as a result of a study abroad experience. Sharma and Jung (1984) view

international education as a “socialization process through which one person becomes informed

about another’s culture while remaining conscious of his own essential identity” (p. 20). They

also describe international education as a process of shared understanding. This view involves

“the helping of individuals to transcend circumscribing identities such as nation, race, or class in

order to establish rapport with one another” (p. 20). In a similar view, Wallace (1993),

advocating the importance of experiential education opportunities while abroad, notes that the

outcomes from such educational experiences include “an increased self-confidence, a deeper

awareness of one’s own strengths and weaknesses, and a heightened knowledge of effective

approaches to other human beings” (p. 13). All of these changes, Wallace notes, “come from

having functioned successfully in a strange environment and under a different set of ground rules

from those found in one’s own culture” (p. 13).

Flack’s (1976) review of foreign student literature from 1967-1974 revealed “the

establishment during the sojourn of acquaintances and relationships with host-country persons

(faculty, fellow students, community members, friends) or organizations, where maintained, has

been of assistance to the ex-student’s further activities” (p. 110). However, with time, many of

these relationships have a tendency to subside. Flack also notes that sojourner experience and

awareness of alternate and/or additional models of social institutions, behaviors, roles, and

values can “afford an expanded comparative vision and register of possible personal and

professional choices, and thus permits the returnee, within the leeway of home circumstances, a

greater resourcefulness in the realm of social diagnosis, innovation, or even invention” (p. 110).

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 Another study consisting of a random sample of 60 former participants of the Semester at

Sea program was conducted by Welds and Dukes (as cited in Welds, 1986). The researchers

found that the participants, following their return to the United States, were capable of:

Making choices more independently and experiencing more confidence in their own

abilities. At the same time, they expressed greater feelings of commitment to family

members. They noticed becoming less reliant on first impressions and felt more

accepting of unfamiliar attitudes, behaviors, and conditions. (p. 39)

These changes were a result of participants’ time at sea and at various ports of study.

Physical Change

There are few studies that suggest that physical changes occur during study abroad.

Furnham and Bochner (1986) acknowledge physical changes in study abroad participants and

state “foreign students do appear to experience more physical and mental ill-health as well as

more academic problems than native students” (p. 139). These physical and mental health

changes may have an effect on the sojourner well beyond their study abroad experience and

remain a continuous presence for the remainder of the sojourner’s life.

A study by James Citron (1996) focusing on the re-entry phenomenon as it is experienced

by returned study abroad students discovered mild physical changes. The participants in his

study were sixteen undergraduate students from a private research university in the northeastern

United States. These sojourners studied as a group at a university in Madrid, Spain during the

fall semester. Upon analyzing the data, Citron identified the following four dimensions relating

to sojourner re-entry experiences: the physical, the interpersonal, the cultural, and the personal.

Student re-entry experiences that fell into the physical dimension included:

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 Adjusting to changes in diet, climate, or time zones-or if there were physical

manifestations of the transition from the overseas environment to the home environment,

such as winter colds and flu which may have been furthered by the stress of travel, lack

of sleep, and physical exposure to people from different parts of the world. (p. 13)

The above mentioned physical changes experienced by the sojourners were relatively mild and

appeared to have had no long lasting effects on the students upon their return to the United

States.

An analysis of the completed questionnaires by Carsello and Creaser (1976) revealed

that 24.4% of the students reported that their health had “deteriorated during the time abroad” (p.

278). Carsello and Creaser attribute this decline in students’ health, in part, to change in the diet

or water or to students neglecting their regular health habits. Conversely, the study revealed that

11.0% of the students reported that their study abroad experience was beneficial to their physical

health.

METHODOLOGY

Sample

A sample of ten undergraduate students who participated on at least a semester long study

abroad program was selected for this study. Similar to Stimpfl and Engberg’s (1997b) study, all

of the undergraduate sojourners selected for the sample had returned to the United States no

earlier than three months before the interviews.

While obtaining a random sample of undergraduate sojourners who participated on the

same study abroad program or in the same foreign country may have been convenient, it was not

appropriate for this study. A purposeful sample was selected for this research project. Neuman

(1997) states that purposive sampling is an appropriate method of sampling if the researcher

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“uses it to select unique cases that are especially informative” (p. 206). The purposeful sample

included undergraduate sojourners who studied abroad in different countries and regions of the

world in order to represent the greatest variety of experiences available on study abroad

programs offered. In addition to the location of the study abroad experience, participant

selection for the purposeful sample also considered the following three variables: length of study,

participant gender, and age.

Data Collection

Similar to Stimpfl and Engberg’s (1997b, p.99) procedures for their participant

interviews, all of the semi-structured interviews and interpretation of the data were based on the

same three assumptions. The first assumption is that some change does take place as a result of

study abroad (Hull & Lemke, 1978). Second, change continues during a period of readjustment

upon return to the Untied States (Sell, 1983). Finally, study abroad participants will be able to

detect or at least demonstrate or explain those changes (Laubscher, 1994).

This investigation began while conducting an extensive review of the relevant literature.

In some cases, as Marshall and Rossman (1999) indicate, “the literature review yields cogent and

useful definitions, constructs, concepts, and even data collection strategies” (p. 53). During the

literature review, changes experienced by sojourners were identified. Semi-structured interviews

were then conducted with the participants of the study. The interview allowed the study

participants to describe changes, relevant to the investigation purposes, that they experienced

during their sojourn.

Data Analysis

The data obtained from the participant interviews were analyzed using a content analysis

approach. In addition, the researchers were open to inductively derived dimensions of change.

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In the case of this study, the literature review revealed data and themes relating to sojourner

change. These data were then assigned to initial conceptual categories or dimensions of change.

According to Bordens and Abbott (1999) content analysis is used “when you want to

analyze a written or spoken record for the occurrence of specific categories of events [sojourner

change], items, or behavior” (p. 167). With content analysis, “a researcher can compare content

across many texts and analyze it with quantitative techniques” (Neuman, 1997, p. 273). Content

analysis is primarily used in descriptive research. However, it may also be used for exploratory

and explanatory research (Neuman, 1997).

Again, the researchers were open to inductively derived dimensions of change. Robinson

(1951) describes the steps necessary when using an analytic induction/grounded theory approach

to data analysis. During the initial stages of the data collection process, the researcher develops

an initial conceptual framework that defines and explains the phenomenon under investigation.

As additional data are collected, the researcher incorporates these into the existing model while

comparing and contrasting the new data with the existing data. If the researcher identifies data

that do not fit with the existing framework, the definition and the explanation of the phenomenon

are modified so that the new data will fall under the framework. The conceptual framework is

continuously undergoing modifications as new data are collected and analyzed. It is essential

that the researcher search for cases that do not fit the existing framework. Actively seeking new

cases allows the researcher to redefine, reformulate, and “fine-tune the conceptual framework

until a predictive relationship describing the phenomenon is established” (Stimpfl & Engberg,

1997b, p. 98).

The data analysis process occurred in the following manner. Content analysis was used

to identify and subsequently organize sojourner changes from the participant interviews. All of

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the interview transcripts were reviewed and analyzed separately by the researcher and another

coder several times in a systemic search for any type of sojourner change. Coding methods were

developed throughout the data collection process (Miles and Huberman, 1994). As the interview

data were analyzed and incorporated into the existing model, it was discovered that the

framework required very few modifications.

Similar to Abbott and Slater’s (1999) preliminary investigation of Omaha Indian families

living on the reservation, the researchers analyzed the interview transcripts and quantified the

responses using a special type of equivalence reliability known as inter-coder or inter-rater

reliability. Inter-rater reliability “provides an empirical index of observer agreement” (Bordens

& Abbott, 1999, p. 150). Inter-rater reliability is calculated as the number of agrees minus the

number of disagrees divided by the number of agrees, for each of the dimensions of change

(Abbott & Slater, 1999, p.7). Inter-rater agreement is considered acceptable if the inter-rater

reliability equates to 0.70 or above (Bordens & Abbott, 1999). Despite lower inter-rater

reliability percentages for the social dimension of change and some of the sub-categories of

sojourner change, they are still included in the theoretical model. The researchers were not

overly concerned as this research was a preliminary investigation to find support for overall

dimensions of undergraduate sojourner change rather than fine-tuning the dimensions of change.

The identified sub-categories of change simply generate possible directions for future research.

The inter-rater reliability tables are based upon the responses of all 10 participants.

RESULTS

As the interview data were analyzed and incorporated into the existing model, it was

discovered that the initial framework required very few modifications. The results of the

research are organized by intellectual, psychological, social, and physical dimensions of change.

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 Table 1 - Dimensions of Change – Inter-rater Reliability

Dimensions of Change Participants Reliability

Reporting
Intellectual 10 100%
Psychological 9 100%
Social 10 57%
Physical 10 75%
Other Dimensions of 0 N/A
Change

Intellectual Change

Undergraduate sojourners experienced more intellectual changes as a result of

studying abroad than any other types of changes. Intellectual development is the primary goal of

most academic study abroad programs (Kauffman et al., 1992, p. 34). Most participants easily

identified specific intellectual changes they experienced as a result of their study abroad

experience. Intellectual changes were identified and sub-classified into the following seven

categories: perception/knowledge of host country, appreciation for life, foreign language

competency, perception of the U.S., perspective on future/life direction, cross-cultural

perspective, and academic performance.

Perception/Knowledge of Host Country

All 10 of the participants experienced a change in their perceptions of the host country.

All but 1 of the participants reported developing positive views towards the host country and its

people. In addition, all of the participants reported increasing their knowledge about the host

country. As a result of this change many of the participants developed the desire to discuss their

study abroad experience, more specifically their host country, with other people upon their return

to the United States.

Appreciation for Life

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 Nine of the 10 participants experienced a change in their appreciation for life. These

changes were expressed by the participants in terms of an expansion of the mind, a desire to

learn more, and developing an overall greater appreciation for life and its many wonders. All of

the reporting participants felt that this intellectual change was a change for the better.

Foreign Language Competency

Increased foreign language competency/proficiency is perhaps the widest known and

anticipated intellectual change resulting from a study abroad experience. Of the 8 participants

who studied in a non-English speaking country, all 8 reported experiencing an increase in their

foreign language competency or ability. In addition, 7 of the participants expressed a desire to

continue to learn the language of their host country and/or to learn additional foreign languages.

Many of the participants believed that their foreign language competency had increased

to the point where they considered themselves nearly fluent. All those who considered

themselves nearly fluent had studied the language of their host country prior to their study

abroad experience. Two participants had not studied the host country language prior to their

departure. Despite this fact, both felt that with the combination of their intensive language

courses and their immersion within the host culture, they were able to communicate effectively

with host country nationals as well as navigate through the country by the end of their sojourn.

All participants reported that their foreign language proficiency decreased since their return to

the United States. However, their foreign language proficiency remained at a much higher level

than prior to their study abroad experience.

Perception of the United States

Eight of the 10 participants experienced an intellectual change relating to their perception

of the United States. Of the 8 responding participants, 2 developed a more positive view towards

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the United States while the remaining 6 developed a more negative view. Those who developed

a more negative viewpoint of the United States had studied in non-English speaking countries.

This negative perspective was more apparent and easier for the participants to identify than those

who developed a more positive perspective of the United States.

Perspective on Future/Life Direction

Eight of the 10 participants experienced a change in their plans for the future or their life

goals. Participants reported experiencing changes in their future personal, academic and/or

professional plans as a result of their study abroad experience. These changes were identified as

relating to both the participants’ long and short-term goals. Five of the participants mentioned

their goal of returning to their host country and/or neighboring countries for both business and

pleasure. Participants also experienced changes relating to their academic future. Prior to their

study abroad experience, 2 of the participants did not have any interest in studying or researching

their current undergraduate honors thesis topics. They both established their final thesis topics

after they returned to the United States.

Cross-Cultural Perspective

Seven of the 10 participants experienced a change in their cross-cultural perspectives.

Participants reported experiencing changes in their views of other countries, cultures, and/or

peoples. These changes were identified as the development of both positive and/or negative

perceptions of other countries. Participants who developed negative cross-cultural views and

perspectives did not directly report these changes. These changes were identified from the

negative comments made about certain ethnic groups or countries. All 3 participants who

developed negative cross-cultural views were males. However, all 3 reported developing more

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positive/optimistic cross-cultural orientations which they each considered a positive intellectual

change.

Academic Performance

Five of the 10 participants experienced a change in their academic performance. All 5 of

the reporting participants felt that the importance that they placed on their academic grades had

changed or shifted since returning to the United States. These participants returned to the United

States much more interested in experiential learning opportunities rather than objective

observations in the classroom. Many of the participants reported an increase in their desire to

learn and developed an appreciation for gaining further knowledge.

Table 2 - Intellectual Change – Inter-rater Reliability

Types of Intellectual Change Participants Reliability

Reporting
Perception/knowledge of host country 10 100%
Appreciation for life 9 88%
Foreign language competency 8* 86%*
Perception of U.S. 8 86%
Perspective on future/life direction 8 67%
Cross-cultural perspective 7 60%
Academic performance 5 33%
*Based upon responses of the eight participants who studied in non-English speaking countries.

Psychological Change

Psychological changes were reported by 9 of the study participants. Five sub-categories

of psychological change were identified as: level of self-confidence, tolerance level,

homesickness, self-perception, and adaptability.

Level of Self-Confidence

Eight of the 10 participants experienced an increase in their level of self-confidence.

This change was originally identified and assigned to the social dimension of change during the

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literature review. However, upon further analysis of the interview data, this change was

determined to fall under the psychological dimension of change and the conceptual framework

was modified. Similar to Talbott’s (1991, p. 97) conclusions, this change was expressed most

often as an increase in the sojourners’ ability to operate independently in an international context

as well as in their daily lives back in the United States. None of the participants reported a

decrease in their level of self-confidence.

Tolerance Level

Seven of the 10 participants experienced a change in their tolerance level with certain

people and/or processes. Higher levels of tolerance was not realized by many of the participants.

In fact, most became more frustrated and/or impatient with people or situations back in the U.S.

as a result of their study abroad experience. This finding does not agree with that of Laubscher

(1994) whose participants “spoke about a heightened sense of tolerance and acceptance of others

as well as for difficult and unusual situations” (p. 79). Laubscher concluded that the participants

“generally felt that they had developed the ability to be more tolerant of differences” (p. 79).

The few who developed a higher level of tolerance were able to express this change rather easily.

Participants reporting to have become more patient or tolerant as a result of studying abroad

believe that this was a positive personal change. Increased levels of frustration or impatience

were identified as an adverse change for the reporting participants.

Homesickness

Seven of the 10 participants experienced homesickness during their study abroad

experience. Feelings of homesickness were exacerbated if there were complicated personal

and/or family circumstances occurring back home such as divorcing parents or family economic

problems which the sojourner felt they had little or no control over.

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Self-Perception

Six of the 10 participants experienced a change in their self-perception. All of the

reporting participants said that their self-perception increased and felt that this was a change for

the better. These changes were identified as becoming a happier person, increasing self-esteem,

and/or enjoying life much more. Many of the participants believed that they were now a more

whole or complete person as if they had found something for which they were looking for.

Adaptability

Five of the 10 participants experienced changes in their ability to adapt to new

situations and environments. These changes were identified as a change in the sojourners’

ability to adapt or to be flexible, both physically and mentally, to different situations and/or

environments coupled with a willingness to try new things. All of the reporting participants

experienced an increase in their ability to adapt. This was also seen as a positive change by the

participants.

Table 3 - Psychological Change – Inter-rater Reliability

Types of Psychological Change Participants Reporting Reliability

Level of self-confidence 8 86%
Tolerance level 7 60%
Homesickness 7 60%
Self-perception 6 50%
Adaptability 5 50%

Social Change

Social changes were reported by all 10 of the study participants. Three sub-categories of

social change emerged from the data to include: interactions with internationals, interpersonal

communications, and relationships/friendships.

Interactions with Internationals

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 All 10 of the participants experienced a change in their interactions with foreign

individuals while abroad and upon their return to the U.S. These changes were identified as

maintaining contact with host nationals or other international friends, developing new

relationships with foreigners, and an overall increase in interactions with foreigners. There

were several participants who reported that they continue to maintain contact with host nationals

and/or other international students they developed friendships with while abroad. However, with

the passage of time, these contacts have gradually decreased in frequency. This is very similar to

Flack’s (1976) findings that “the establishment during the sojourn of acquaintances and

relationships with host-country persons or organizations, were maintained….In many instances,

however….such relationships tend to subside with time” (p. 110).

Interpersonal Communications

Eight of the 10 participants experienced a change in their interpersonal communication.

This change was identified as becoming more extroverted as well as developing better methods

to establish rapport with other individuals. These findings are similar to those of Kauffmann,

Martin, and Weaver (1992) who found that, “some opened themselves to a broader range of

people, some changed friendship groups upon return, and others improved their communication

skills, which enhanced their relationships with existing friends and helped them to make new

ones.”

Relationships/Friendships

Six of the 10 participants experienced a change in their relationships with a significant

other and/or friendships as a result of their study abroad experience. This is in line with

Kauffmann et al. (1992) who note that “some students upon their return to campus form new

patterns of affiliation; the old groups are no longer adequate” (p. 116). Three of the participants

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reported experiencing a change in their relationships with a significant other while they were

abroad. Participants reported changes in friendships back home in the United States as both

developing and gaining new friendships and decreasing or terminating previous friendships.

Table 4 - Social Change – Inter-rater Reliability

Types of Social Change Participants Reporting Reliability

Interactions with internationals 10 75%
Interpersonal communications 8 67%
Relationships/friendships 7 83%

Physical Change

Physical changes were reported by all 10 of the study participants. However, similar to

Citron’s (1996) findings, all of the reported changes were relatively mild and had no long lasting

effect on the sojourners upon their return to the United States. Participants reported experiencing

changes in body weight, hair style, eating habits, and their tolerance for alcohol. The most

notable physical change, reported by 6 of the 10 participants, was that of changes in their body

weight. Of the 6 reporting participants, 2 males reported weight loss while 4 females reported

weight gain.

Table 5 - Physical Change – Inter-rater Reliability

Types of Physical Change Participants Reporting Reliability

Body weight 6 100%
Hair style 5 75%
Allergies 1 100%
Eating habits 1 100%
Increased tolerance for alcohol 1 100%
Fatigue 1 100%

CONCLUSION

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 This was a preliminary study investigating undergraduate sojourner change and the

results should be viewed as tentative and exploratory. The research question asked in this study

was: What types of change do undergraduate sojourners experience as a result of their study

abroad experience? The data suggest that undergraduate sojourners experience intellectual,

psychological, social and/or physical changes as a result of their study abroad experience.

A theoretical model is proposed that explains, in part, what changes undergraduate sojourners

experience as a result of a study abroad experience (see Figure 1). The following theoretical

model explaining sojourner change was derived from a review of the relevant literature and an

in-depth analysis of interviews with former sojourners. In sum, the model does not prove the

occurrence of the identified dimensions of change. It simply generates initial conceptual

categories and sub-categories of change for future research.

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 Working Theoretical Model of Undergraduate Sojourner Change

Intellectual Change
1. Perception/knowledge of host country
2. Appreciation for life
3. Foreign language competency
4. Perception of U.S.
5. Perspective on future/life direction
6. Cross-cultural perspective
7. Academic performance

Psychological Change
1. Level of self-confidence
2. Tolerance level
3. Homesickness
4. Self-perception
5. Adaptability

Study
Abroad
Experience
Social Change
1. Interactions with internationals
2. Interpersonal communications
3. Relationships/friendships

Physical Change
1. Body weight
2. Hair style
3. Allergies
4. Eating habits
5. Increased tolerance for alcohol
6. Fatigue

24
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