Chapter 20

Induced Voltages and

Inductance
 Induced Fields
Magnetic fields may vary in time.
Experiments conducted in 1831 showed that an emf can be

induced in a circuit by a changing magnetic field.

 Experiments were done by Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry.

The results of these experiments led to the Faraday’s Law of

Induction.
An induced current is produced by a changing
magnetic field.
There is an induced emf associated with the induced
current.
A current can be produced without a battery present in the
circuit.
Faraday’s law of induction describes the induced emf.
Michael Faraday
 1791 – 1867
 Great experimental
scientist
 Invented electric
motor, generator
and transformers
 Discovered
electromagnetic
induction
 Discovered laws of
electrolysis
Faraday’s Experimental
Set Up
 A current can be produced by a
changing magnetic field
 First shown in an experiment by Michael
Faraday
 A primary coil is connected to a battery
 A secondary coil is connected to an ammeter
 Faraday’s Experiment
 The purpose of the secondary circuit is to
detect current that might be produced by
the magnetic field
 When the switch is closed, the ammeter
reads a current and then returns to zero
 When the switch is opened, the ammeter
reads a current in the opposite direction
and then returns to zero
 When there is a steady current in the
primary circuit, the ammeter reads zero
Induced Current: an alternative
but similar experiment
Faraday’s Conclusions
 An electrical current is produced by a
changing magnetic field
 The secondary circuit acts as if a source
of emf were connected to it for a short
time
 It is customary to say that an induced
emf is produced in the secondary
circuit by the changing magnetic field

Videos 1 and 2
Current change through a
coil
Moving a magnet through
a coil
Magnetic Flux
 The emf is actually induced by a change
in the quantity called the magnetic flux
rather than simply by a change in the
magnetic field
 Magnetic flux is defined in a manner
similar to that of electrical flux
 Magnetic flux is proportional to both the
strength of the magnetic field passing
through the plane of a loop of wire and
the area of the loop
Video 3
Magnetic flux
 Magnetic Flux, 2

 You are given a loop of

wire
 The wire is in a uniform
magnetic field B
 The loop has an area A
 The flux is defined as

 ΦB = BA = B A cos θ (1)

 θ is the angle between B

and the normal to the
plane
 Magnetic Flux, 3

 When the field is perpendicular to the plane of the

loop, as in a, θ = 0 and ΦB = ΦB, max = BA
 When the field is parallel to the plane of the loop, as
in b, θ = 90° and ΦB = 0
 The flux can be negative, for example if θ = 180°
 SI units of flux are T. m² = Wb (Weber)
Magnetic Flux, final
 The flux can be visualized with respect
to magnetic field lines
 The value of the magnetic flux is
proportional to the total number of
lines passing through the loop
 When the area is perpendicular to the
lines, the maximum number of lines
pass through the area and the flux is a
maximum
 When the area is parallel to the lines,
no lines pass through the area and the
flux is 0
Ways of Inducing an emf
The magnitude of the magnetic
field can change with time.
The area enclosed by the loop can

change with time.

The angle between the magnetic

field and the normal to the loop can

change with time.
Any combination of the above can
occur.
 Faraday’s Law of Induction
– Statements
The instantaneous emf induced in a circuit is directly
proportional to negative of the time rate of change of the
magnetic flux through the circuit.
Mathematically, dFB
ε
dt (2)
Remember FB is the magnetic flux through the circuit and is

found by
FB   B  dA (3)……also see eq (1)

If the circuit consists of N loops, all of the same area, and if FB is the
flux through one loop, an emf is induced in every loop and Faraday’s
law becomes dFB
ε  N
dt (4) Video FL
Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s Law and Lenz’
Law
 The change in the flux, ΔΦB, can be
produced by a change in B, A or θ
 Since ΦB = B A cos θ
 The negative sign in Faraday’s Law is
included to indicate the polarity of the
induced emf, which is found by Lenz’ Law
 The current caused by the induced emf travels
in the direction that creates a magnetic field
with flux opposing the change in the original
flux through the circuit
Video LL
Lenz’s Law
Lenz’ Law – Example
 The magnetic field,
B , becomes
smaller with time
 This reduces the
flux
 The induced
current will
produce an induced
field, Bind , in the
same direction as
the original field
 Applications of Faraday’s
Law – Electric Guitar
 A vibrating string induces
an emf in a coil
 A permanent magnet
inside the coil
magnetizes a portion of
the string nearest the
coil
 As the string vibrates at
some frequency, its
magnetized segment
produces a changing flux
through the pickup coil
 The changing flux
produces an induced emf
that is fed to an amplifier
 Applications of Faraday’s Law
– Ground Fault Interrupters
 The ground fault
interrupter (GFI) is a
safety device that
protects against electrical
shock
 Wire 1 leads from the wall
outlet to the appliance
 Wire 2 leads from the appliance
back to the wall outlet
 The iron ring confines the
magnetic field, which is
generally 0
 If a leakage occurs, the field is
no longer 0 and the induced
voltage triggers a circuit
breaker shutting off the current
 Applications of Faraday’s
Law – Apnea Monitor
 The coil of wire
attached to the chest
carries an alternating
current
 An induced emf
produced by the
varying field passes
through a pick up coil
 When breathing stops,
the pattern of induced
voltages stabilizes and
external monitors
sound an alert
 Application of Faraday’s
Law: Motional emf

A motional emf is the

emf induced in a
conductor moving
through a constant
magnetic field.

The electrons in the

conductor experience a
force, F  qv  B that
is directed along ℓ .
 Motional emf, cont
 A straight conductor of
length ℓ moves
perpendicularly with
constant velocity
through a uniform field
 The electrons in the
conductor experience a
magnetic force
 F = q v B (Chapter 19)
 The electrons tend to
move to the lower end
of the conductor (due
to the Lorentz Force)
 Right Hand Rule #1
Chapter 19
 Point your fingers in the
direction of v
 Curl the fingers in the
direction of the
magnetic field, B
 Your thumb points in
the direction of the
force, F , on a positive
charge
 If the charge is
negative, the force is
opposite to that
determined by the
right hand rule
 Motional emf, final (video 4)

Under the influence of the force, the electrons move to the lower end of
the conductor and accumulate there, and a net positive charge exists at the
upper end of the conductor
As a result of the charge separation, an electric field is produced inside the
conductor.
The charges accumulate at both ends of the conductor until they are in

equilibrium with regard to the electric and magnetic forces.

For equilibrium, qE = qvB or E = vB.

The electric field is related to the potential difference across the ends of
the conductor: ΔV = E ℓ =B ℓ v. (5)
 The upper end is at a higher potential than the lower end
A potential difference is maintained between the ends of the conductor as
long as the conductor continues to move through the uniform magnetic
field.
If the direction of the motion is reversed, the polarity of the potential
difference is also reversed.
Motional emf
 Motional emf in a Circuit


Video 5
Motional emf in a circuit
 Motional emf in a Circuit,
cont
 The changing magnetic
flux through the loop and
the corresponding induced
emf in the bar result from
the change in area of the
loop
 The induced, motional, emf
acts like a battery in the
circuit
B v (6)
  B v and I 
R
 Sliding Conducting Bar,
Energy Considerations
The applied force does work on the conducting bar.
 Model the circuit as a nonisolated system.

This moves the charges through a magnetic field

and establishes a current.
The change in energy of the system during some
time interval must be equal to the transfer of
energy into the system by work.
The power input is equal to the rate at which
energy is delivered to the resistor.
ε2
P  Fappv   I B  v  (7)
R
 Lenz’ Law Revisited –
Moving Bar Example
 As the bar moves to
the right, the magnetic
flux through the circuit
increases with time
because the area of
the loop increases
 The induced current
must be in a direction
such that it opposes
the change in the
external magnetic flux
Lenz’ Law, Bar Example,
cont
 The flux due to the external field is
increasing into the page
 The flux due to the induced current
must be out of the page
 Therefore the current must be
counterclockwise when the bar moves
to the right
 Lenz’ Law, Bar Example,
final
 The bar is moving
toward the left
 The magnetic flux
through the loop is
decreasing with time
 The induced current
must be clockwise to
to produce its own
flux into the page
Lenz’ Law Revisited,
Conservation of Energy
 Assume the bar is moving to the right
 Assume the induced current is clockwise
 The magnetic force on the bar would be to
the right
 The force would cause an acceleration and
the velocity would increase
 This would cause the flux to increase and
the current to increase and the velocity to
increase…
 This would violate Conservation of
Energy and so therefore, the current
must be counterclockwise
 Lenz’ Law – Moving
Magnet Example

 A bar magnet is moved to the right toward a stationary loop

of wire (a)
 As the magnet moves, the magnetic flux increases with time
 The induced current produces a flux to the left, so the current
is to the left, shown (b)
 Reversing the direction of the movement will reverse the
direction of the induced flux
Lenz’ Law, Final Note
 When applying Lenz’ Law, there
are two magnetic fields to consider
 The external changing magnetic field
that induces the current in the loop
 The magnetic field produced by the
current in the loop
 Application – Tape
Recorder
 A magnetic tape moves past
a recording and playback
head
 The tape is a plastic ribbon
coated with iron oxide or
chromium oxide
 To record, the sound is
converted to an electrical
signal which passes to an
electromagnet that
magnetizes the tape in a
particular pattern
 To playback, the magnetized
pattern is converted back
into an induced current
driving a speaker
Generators
 Alternating Current (AC) generator
 Converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy
 Consists of a wire loop rotated by some
external means
 There are a variety of sources that can
supply the energy to rotate the loop
 These may include falling water, heat by burning
coal to produce steam
 AC Generators, cont
 Basic operation of the
generator
 As the loop rotates, the
magnetic flux through it
changes with time
 This induces an emf and a
current in the external circuit
 The ends of the loop are
connected to slip rings that
rotate with the loop
 Connections to the external
circuit are made by stationary
brushes in contact with the
slip rings
 AC Generators – Detail of
Rotating Loop
 The magnetic force
on the charges in the
wires AB and CD is
perpendicular to the
length of the wires
 An emf is generated
in wires BC and AD
 The emf produced in
each of these wires is
ε= B ℓ v= B ℓ v sin θ
 AC Generators, final
 The emf generated by the
rotating loop can be found
by
ε =2 B ℓ v=2 B ℓ v sin θ
 If the loop rotates with a
constant angular speed, ω,
and has N turns (θ = ω t,
and v = r ω with r = a/2)

ε = N B A ω sin ω t (8)

 ε = εmax when the loop is

parallel to the field
 ε = 0 when when the loop
is perpendicular to the field
 Induced emf in a Rotating
Loop, cont.

 max occurs when wt = 90o or 270o
 This occurs when the magnetic field is in
the plane of the coil and the time rate of
change of flux is a maximum.
  = 0 when wt = 0o or 180o
 This occurs when the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the plane of the coil and
the time rate of change of flux is zero.
Rotating loop: B and A
remain constant
DC Generators
 Components are essentially the same as that
of an ac generator
 The major difference is the contacts to the
rotating loop are made by a split ring, or
commutator
 DC Generators, cont
 The output voltage
always has the same
polarity
 The current is a
pulsing current
 To produce a steady
current, many loops
and commutators
around the axis of
rotation are used
 The multiple outputs
are superimposed and
the output is almost
free of fluctuations
Motors
 Motors are devices that convert
electrical energy into mechanical
energy
 A motor is a generator run in reverse
 A motor can perform useful
mechanical work when a shaft
connected to its rotating coil is
attached to some external device
 Motors and Back emf
 The phrase back emf
is used for an emf
that tends to reduce
the applied current
 When a motor is
turned on, there is
no back emf initially
 The current is very
large because it is
limited only by the
resistance of the coil
Motors and Back emf, cont
 As the coil begins to rotate, the induced
back emf opposes the applied voltage
 The current in the coil is reduced
 The power requirements for starting a
motor and for running it under heavy
loads are greater than those for running
the motor under average loads
 Hybrid Drive Systems
In an automobile with a hybrid drive system, a gasoline engine
and an electric motor are combined to increase the fuel economy
of the vehicle and reduce its emissions.
Power to the wheels can come from either the gasoline engine or

the electric motor.

In normal driving, the electric motor accelerates the vehicle from

rest until it is moving at a speed of about 15 mph.

During the acceleration periods, the engine is not running, so

gasoline is not used and there is no emission.

At higher speeds, the motor and engine work together so that the
engine always operates at or near its most efficient speed.
The result is significantly higher gas mileage than a traditional

gasoline-powered automobile.
Self-inductance
 Self-inductance occurs when the
changing flux through a circuit
arises from the circuit itself
 As the current increases, the magnetic flux
through a loop due to this current also increases
 The increasing flux induces an emf that opposes
the change in magnetic flux (Lenz´s law)
 As the magnitude of the current increases, the
rate of increase lessens and the induced emf
decreases
 This opposing emf results in a gradual (though
slow) increase of the current
 Self-Inductance, cont

When the switch is closed, the

current does not immediately
reach its maximum value.
Faraday’s law of

electromagnetic induction can

be used to describe the effect.
As the current increases with

time, the magnetic flux through

the circuit loop due to this
current also increases with
time.
This increasing flux creates an

induced emf in the circuit.

 Self-Inductance, cont.
The direction of the induced emf is such that it would cause
an induced current in the loop which would establish a
magnetic field opposing the change in the original magnetic
field.
The direction of the induced emf is opposite the direction of

the emf of the battery.

This results in a gradual increase in the current to its final
equilibrium value.
This effect is called self-inductance.

 Because the changing flux through the circuit and the

resultant induced emf arise from the circuit itself.

The emf εL is called a self-induced emf.
Self-inductance cont
 The self-induced emf must then be
proportional to the time rate of change
of the current

I
  L (9)
t
 L is a proportionality constant called the
inductance of the device
 The negative sign indicates that a changing
current induces an emf in opposition to that
change
Self-inductance, final
 The inductance of a coil depends
on geometric factors
 The SI unit of self-inductance is
the Henry
 1 H = 1 (V · s) / A
 You can determine an expression
for L
F B NFB
LN  (10)
I I
 Joseph Henry
 1797 – 1878
 First director of the
Smithsonian
 First president of the
Academy of Natural
Science
 First to produce an electric
current with a magnetic
field
 Improved the design of
the electro-magnet and
constructed a motor
 Discovered self-inductance
Some Terminology
Use emf and current when they are
caused by batteries or other
sources.
Use induced emf and induced
current when they are caused by
changing magnetic fields.
When dealing with problems in
electromagnetism, it is important to
distinguish between the two
situations.
Inductor in a Circuit
 Inductance can be interpreted as a
measure of opposition to the rate of
change in the current
 Remember resistance R is a measure of
opposition to the current
 As a circuit is completed, the current
begins to increase, but the inductor
produces an emf that opposes the
increasing current
 Therefore, the current doesn’t change from
0 to its maximum instantaneously
 RL Circuit
 When the current
reaches its
maximum, the rate
of change and the
back emf are zero
 The time constant, ,
for an RL circuit is
the time required for
the current in the
circuit to reach
63.2% of its final
value
RL Circuit, cont
 The time constant depends on R
and L
L (11)
 
R
 The current at any time can be
found by


I  1  e  t /   (12)
R
 RL Circuit, Current-Time
Graph, Charging

The equilibrium value

of the current is  /R
and is reached as t
approaches infinity.
The current initially
increases very rapidly.
The current then
gradually approaches
the equilibrium value.
 RL Circuit, Current-Time
Graph, Discharging

The time rate of change of the

current is a maximum at t = 0.
It falls off exponentially as t

approaches infinity.
In general,

d I ε t τ
 e
dt L
 RL Circuit Without A
Battery

Now set S2 to position b

The circuit now contains

just the right hand loop .

The battery has been

eliminated.
The expression for the

current becomes
ε tτ t
I  e  Ii e τ (13)
R
Energy in a Magnetic Field
In a circuit with an inductor, the
battery must supply more energy
than in a circuit without an inductor.
Part of the energy supplied by the
battery appears as internal energy
in the resistor.
The remaining energy is stored in

the magnetic field of the inductor.

 Energy in a Magnetic Field,
cont.
 Looking at this energy (in terms of rate)
dI
I ε  I 2 R  LI (14)
dt

 I is the rate at which energy is being supplied

by the battery.
 I2R is the rate at which the energy is being
delivered to the resistor.
 Therefore, LI (dI/dt) must be the rate at
which the energy is being stored in the
magnetic field.
Energy in a Magnetic Field,
final
Let U denote the energy stored in
the inductor at any time.
The rate at which the energy is

stored is
dU dI
 LI
dt dt

To find the total energy, integrate

and U  L I d I  1 LI
I
2
0 2
Energy Stored in a
Magnetic Field
 The emf induced by an inductor
prevents a battery from establishing an
instantaneous current in a circuit
 The battery has to do work to produce a
current
 This work can be thought of as energy
stored by the inductor in its magnetic field
 PEL = ½ L I2 (15)
 Energy Storage Summary
A resistor, inductor and capacitor all
store energy through different
mechanisms.
 Charged capacitor
 Stores energy as electric potential energy

 Inductor
 When it carries a current, stores energy as magnetic

potential energy
 Resistor
 Energy delivered is transformed into internal energy

Video The Aurora

The Aurora