CONTENTS

 Basic Concepts
 Marriage, Family and Kinship
 Social Stratification
 Types of Society
 Economy and Society
 Industrial and Urban Society
 Social Demography
 Political Processes
 Weaker Section and Minorities
 Social Change
 Scientific Study of Social Phenomena
 Techniques of Data Collection
 Women and Society
 Sociology: The Discipline
 Social Mobility
 Religion
 Tribal society in India

CHAPTER-1
 BASIC CONCEPTS
INTRODUCTION:-
Sociology (from Latin: socius, "companion"; and the suffix -ology, "the
study of", from Greek λόγος, lógos, "knowledge" [1]) is the scientific
study of society, including patterns of social relationships, social interaction,
and culture[2]. Areas studied in sociology can range from the analysis of
brief contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of
global social interaction. Numerous fields within the discipline concentrate
on how and why people are organized in society, either as individuals or as
members of associations, groups, and institutions. As an academic
discipline, sociology is usually considered a branch of social science.
Sociological research provides educators, planners, lawmakers,
administrators, developers, business leaders, and people interested in
resolving social problems and formulating public policy with rationales for
the actions that they take.

SOCIETY:-
The term society is most fundamental to sociology. It is derived from the Latin word
socius which means companionship or friendship. Companionship means sociability.
According to George Simmel it is this element of sociability which defines the true
essence of society. It indicates that man always lives in the company of other people.
Man is a social animal said Aristotle centuries ago. Man needs society for his living,
working and enjoying life. Society has become an essential condition for human life to
continue. We can define society as a group of people who share a common culture,
occupy a particular territorial area and feel themselves to constitute a unified and distinct
entity. It is the mutual interactions and interrelations of individuals and groups.

DEFINATION OF SOCIETY:-
August Comte the father of sociology saw society as a social organism possessing a
harmony of structure and function.Emile Durkheim the founding father of the modern
sociology treated society as a reality in its own right. According to Talcott Parsons
Society is a total complex of human relationships in so far as they grow out of the action
in terms of means-end relationship intrinsic or symbolic.G.H Mead conceived society as
an exchange of gestures which involves the use of symbols. Morris Ginsberg defines
society as a collection of individuals united by certain relations or mode of behavior
which mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from
them in behavior. Cole sees Society as the complex of organized associations and
institutions with a community. According to Maclver and Page society is a system of
usages and procedures of authority and mutual aid of many groupings and divisions, of
controls of human behavior and liberties. This ever changing complex system which is
called society is a web of social relationship

TYPES OF SOCIETY:-
Writers have classified societies into various categories Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft of
Tonnies, mechanical and organic solidarities of Durkheim, status and contract of Maine,
and militant and industrial societies of Spencer. All these thinkers have broadly divided
society into pre-industrial and post-industrial societies. Sociologists like Comte based
their classification of societies on intellectual development.

Most of them concede the evolutionary nature of society- one type leading to the other.
One more way of dividing societies is that of Marx. His classification of society is based
on the institutional framework of society as determined by a group of people who control
the means of production. Marx distinguishes five principal types of societies: primitive,
Asiatic, ancient, feudal and capitalist.

Following these classifications, sociologists often refer to societies as primitive or

modern non-literate or literate. A more recent kind of classification which is also used
while distinguishing societies into types is the one between open and closed societies. A
closed society is the one which is a traditional and simple society or a totalitarian State
tends to resist change, while an open society admits change.

None of these classifications is accurate; for every major type have number of sub-types.
One type like the capitalist can be of various kinds like carboniferous type, finance
capital, and the modern neo-colonial or multi-national type.Further, it is to be borne in
mind that the chief task of a sociologist is not that of identifying societies but finding out
whether a particular kind of society has the potential to nurture, defend and survive. Such
a study alone can reveal the sociological aspects of societies and thereby facilitating
understanding of societies as they are, and, if need be, activate the required changes. In
other words, sociology based on values relies on objective analysis of societies.

However, in recent years there have been several studies of what are variously called
irrigation civilization or hydraulic societies. These studies have been related to the
general study of bureaucracy, but little has yet been done in the way of large scale
comparative work of various complex organized societies. It is not enough, however, to
characterize pre-British India as an irrigation civilization with a centralized bureaucracy
and a village system of production. The unity and stability of Indian society depended
also upon two other factors, caste and religion. There, the aspect of caste to be
emphasized is not so much its rigid hierarchical character and the way in which it divided
groups from each other, as its integrating function, closely connected with religion.
M.N.Srinivas, in a discussion of Indian social structure, observes that caste guarantees
autonomy to a community into relation with numerous other communities all going to
form a hierarchy. The importance of such an institution is obvious in a vast country like
India which has been the meeting place of many different cultures in the past and which
has always had considerable regional diversity. While the autonomy of a sub- caste was
preserved it was also brought into relation with others and the hierarchy was also a scale
of generally agreed values.

The work of K. Wittfoged suggests that many important similarities can be found, in
ancient Egypt, in Byzantium and elsewhere especially in the social functions of the
priests and in the elements and caste revealed in detailed regulation of the division of
labor. Each human group develops its own social and political structure in terms of its
own culture and history. There broad types of social structures may be distinguished.
First, the tribal society represented by the social structures of African tribes second, the
agrarian social structure represented by the traditional Indian society. And the third, the
industrial social structure represented by the industrially advanced countries Europe and
U.S.A. Sociologists also speak of yet another type, called post industrial society, which is
emerging out of the industrial society.

COMMUNITY:-
The term community is one of the most elusive and vague in sociology and is by now
largely without specific meaning. At the minimum it refers to a collection of people in a
geographical area. Three other elements may also be present in any usage.
(1) Communities may be thought of as collections of people with a particular social
structure; there are, therefore, collections which are not communities. Such a notion often
equates community with rural or pre-industrial society and may, in addition, treat urban
or industrial society as positively destructive.
(2) A sense of belonging or community spirit.
(3) All the daily activities of a community, work and non work, take place within the
geographical area, which is self contained. Different accounts of community will contain
any or all of these additional elements.
We can list out the characteristics of a community as follows:

1:- Territory
2:- Close and informal relationships
3:- Mutuality
4:- Common values and beliefs
5:- Organized interaction
6:- Strong group feeling
7:- Cultural similarity

Talcott Parsons defined community as collectivity the members of which share a

common territorial area as their base of operation for daily activities. According to
Tonnies community is defined as an organic natural kind of social group whose members
are bound together by the sense of belonging, created out of everyday contacts covering
the whole range of human activities. He has presented ideal-typical pictures of the forms
of social associations contrasting the solidarity nature of the social relations in the
community with the large scale and impersonal relations thought to characterize
industrializing societies. Kingsley Davis defined it as the smallest territorial group that
can embrace all aspects of social life. For Karl Mannheim community is any circle of
people who live together and belong together in such a way that they do not share this or
that particular interest only but a whole set of interests.

ASSOCIATION:-
Men have diverse needs, desires and interests which demand satisfaction. There are three
ways of fulfilling these needs. Firstly they may act independently each in his own way
without caring for others. This is unsocial with limitations. Secondly men may seek their
ends through conflicts with one another. Finally men may try to fulfill their ends through
cooperation and mutual assistance.
This cooperation has a reference to association.

When a group or collection of individuals organize themselves expressly for the purpose
of pursuing certain of its interests together on a cooperative pursuit an association is said
to be born. According to Morris Ginsberg an association is a group of social beings
related to one another by the fact that they possess or have instituted in common an
organization with a view to securing a specific end or specific ends. The associations may
be found in different fields. No single association can satisfy all the interests of the
individual or individuals. Since Man has many interests, he organizes various
associations for the purpose of fulfilling varied interests. He may belong to more than one
organization.

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSOCIATION:-

Association:- An association is formed or created by people. It is a social group.
Without people there can be no association. It is an organized group. An unorganized
group like crowd or mob cannot be an association.

Common interest:- An association is not merely a collection of individuals. It

consists of those individuals who have more or less the same interests. Accordingly those
who have political interests may join political association and those who have religious
interests may join religious associations and so on.

Cooperative spirit:- An association is based on the cooperative spirit of its members.

People work together to achieve some definite purposes. For example a political party has
to work together as a united group on the basis of cooperation in order to fulfill its
objective of coming to power.

Organization:- Association denotes some kind of organization. An association is

known essentially as an organized group. Organization gives stability and proper shape to
an association. Organization refers to the way in which the statuses and roles are
distributed among the members.

Regulation of relations:- Every association has its own ways and means of
regulating the relation of its members. Organization depends on this element of
regulation. They may assume written or unwritten forms.

Association as agencies:- Associations are means or agencies through which their

members seek to realize their similar or shared interests. Such social organizations
necessarily act not merely through leaders but through officials or representatives as
agencies. Associations normally act through agents who are responsible for and to the
association.

Durability of association:- An association may be permanent or temporary. There

are some long standing associations like the state; family, religious associations etc.Some
associations may be temporary in nature.

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS:-
A social institution is a complex, integrated set of social norms organized around the
preservation of a basic societal value. Obviously, the sociologist does not define
institutions in the same way as does the person on the street. Lay persons are likely to use
the term "institution" very loosely, for churches, hospitals, jails, and many other things as
institutions.
Sociologists often reserve the term "institution" to describe normative systems that
operate in five basic areas of life, which may be designated as the primary institutions.

(1) In determining Kinship;

(2) in providing for the legitimate use of power;
(3) in regulating the distribution of goods and services;
(4) in transmitting knowledge from one generation to the next; and
(5) in regulating our relation to the supernatural.

In shorthand form, or as concepts, these five basic institutions are called the family,
government, economy, education and religion.

The five primary institutions are found among all human groups. They are not always as
highly elaborated or as distinct from one another as into the United States, but, in
rudimentary form at last, they exist everywhere. Their universality indicates that they are
deeply rooted in human nature and that they are essential in the development and
maintenance of orders. Sociologists operating in terms of the functionalist model society
have provided the clearest explanation of the functions served by social institutions.
Apparently there are certain minimum tasks that must be performed in all human groups.

Unless these tasks are performed adequately, the group will cease to exist. An analogy
may help to make the point. We might hypothesize that cost accounting department is
essential to the operation of a large corporation. A company might procure a superior
product and distribute it then at the price which is assigned to it, the company will soon
go out of business. Perhaps the only way to avoid this is to have a careful accounting of
the cost of each step in the production and distribution process.

CULTURE:-
As Homo sapiens, evolved, several biological characteristics particularly favorable to the
development of culture appeared in the species. These included erect posture; a favorable
brain structure; stereoscopic vision; the structure of the hand, a flexible shoulder; and
year round sexual receptivity on the part of the female. None of these biological
characteristics alone, of course, accounts for the development of culture. Even in
combination, all they guarantee is that human beings would be the most gifted members
of the animal kingdom.
The distinctive human way of life that we call culture did not have a single definite
beginning in time any more than human beings suddenly appearing on earth. Culture
evolved slowly just as some anthropoids gradually took on more human form.
Unmistakably, tools existed half a million years ago and might be considerably older. If,
for convenience, we say that culture is 500,000 years old, it is still difficult day has
appeared very recently.

The concept of culture was rigorously defined by E.B. Taylor in 1860s. According to
him culture is the sum total of ideas, beliefs, values, material cultural equipments and
non-material aspects which man makes as a member of society. Taylor's theme that
culture is a result of human collectivity has been accepted by most anthropologists.
Tylarian idea can be discerned in a modern definition of culture - culture is the man-made
part of environment (M.J. Herskovits).

From this, it follows that culture and society are separable only at the analytical level: at
the actual existential level, they can be understood as the two sides of the same coin.
Culture, on one hand, is an outcome of society and, on the other hand, society is able to
survive and perpetuate itself because of the existence of culture. Culture is an ally of man
in the sense that it enhances man's adaptability to nature. It is because of the adaptive
value of culture that Herskovits states that culture is a screen between man and nature.
Culture is an instrument by which man exploits the environment and shapes it
accordingly.

In showing affection, the Maori rub noses; the Australians rub faces; the Chinese place
nose to cheeks; the Westerners kiss; some groups practice spitting on the beloved. Or,
consider this; American men are permitted to laugh in public but not to cry; Iroquois men
are permitted to do neither in public; Italian men are permitted to do both. Since this is
true, physiological factors have little to do with when men laugh and cry and when they
do not do either. The variability of the human experience simply cannot be explained by
making reference to human biology, or to the climate and geography. Instead, we must
consider culture as the fabric of human society.
Culture can be conceived as a continuous, cumulative reservoir containing both material
and non-material elements that are socially transmitted from generation to generation.
Culture is continuous because cultural patterns transcend years, reappearing in successive
generations. Culture is cumulative because each generation contributes to the reservoir.
An inherent paradox exists within the social heritage where culture tends to be both static
and dynamic. Humans, once having internalized culture, attach positive value judgments
to it and are more or less reluctant to change their established ways of life. Through most
of recorded history men have apparently considered that change per say is undesirable
and that the ideal condition is stability. The prospect of change can seem threatening, yet
every human culture is subject to and does experience change. Those who speak of a
generation gap portray two generations at odds with each other.
According to this view, the parent generation embodied the dynamic dimension. We
contend that if, in fact, a generation gap does exist in modern societies, and the
differences are of degree and not of substance. Part of the social heritage of almost every
modern society is the high value placed on progress. Parents encourage young people to
seek progress, and progress is a form of social change. Debates between generations in
modern societies are seldom about whether any change should occur. The debates are
usually about how such change should occur, how fast it should occur, and which
methods should be used for bringing about change.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE:-

The distinctive human way of life that we call culture did not have a single definite
beginning. This is to say that human beings did not suddenly appear on earth. Culture
evolved slowly just as anthropoids gradually took on more human form. The earliest tools
cannot be dated precisely. Australopithecus may have used stones as weapons as long as
five million years ago. Stones that have been used as weapon do not differ systematically
from other stones, however, and there is no way to tell for sure. The first stones that show
reliable evidence of having been shaped as tools trace back some 500,000 to 600,000
years. The use of fire can be dated from 200,000 to 300,000 years ago.

Tools of bone had come into existence by 100,000 B.C. the age of Neanderthals. The
Neanderthals also apparently had some form of languages and buried their deal with an
elaborateness that indicates the possibility of religious ceremonies. Cro-Magnon,
dating from 35,000 years ago, was a superior biological specimen and had a
correspondingly more elaborate culture. Their cave paintings have been found. They also
made jewellery of shells and teeth, and carved statuettes of women that emphasized
pregnancy and fertility. They made weapons of bone, horn, and ivory, and used needle in
the fabrication of garments.

Thus, a striking parallel appears between the evolution of Homo sapiens and the
development of culture. The parallel cannot be drawn in detail because all inferences to
the period before the dawn of history must be made from material artifacts, and these tell
little about the total way of life of the people who used them. Moreover, the parallel
between biological and cultural evolution should not be overdrawn. Cro-Magnon's brain
capacity, for example, was large, but factors having to do with the growth of culture itself
were sufficient to prevent any quantum leap in the development of learned behaviour.

DIFFUSION:-
In spite of the fact that invention occupied a dominant place in culture growth over such a
long period of time, most of the content of modern cultures appears to have been gained
through diffusion. The term diffusion refers to the borrowing of cultural elements from
other societies in contrast to their independent invention within a host society.
In order for diffusion to operate on a substantial scale, there must be separate societies
that have existed long enough to have elaborated distinctive ways of life. Moreover, those
societies must be in contact with one another so that substantial borrowing is possible.
These conditions probably developed late in the evolutionary process. Once begun,
however, culture borrowing became so pervasive that most of the elements of most
modern cultures, including our own, originated with other people.
Culture has grown, then, through a combination of invention and diffusion. It grew
slowly at first, mostly as the result of invention. As the culture base expanded and
societies became differentiated, the large -scale diffusion of traits become possible and
the rate of growth speeded up. In modern times, and particularly in the Western world,
the rate of culture growth has become overwhelming.

CULTURAL LAG:-
The role played by material inventions, that is, by technology, in social change probably
received most emphasis in the work of William F. Ogburn. It was Ogburn, also, who
was chiefly responsible for the idea that the rate of invention within society is a function
of the size of the existing culture base. He saw the rate of material invention as increasing
with the passage of time.Ogburn believed that material and non-material cultures change
in different ways. Change in material culture is believed to have a marked directional or
progressive character. This is because there are agreed-upon standards of efficiency that
are used to evaluate material inventions. To use air-planes, as an example, we keep
working to develop planes that will fly, higher and faster, and carry more payloads on a
lower unit cost. Because airplanes can be measured against these standards, inventions in
this area appear rapidly and predictably.

In the area of non-material culture, on the other hand there often are no such generally
accepted standards. Whether one prefers a Hussain, a Picasso, or a Gainsborough, for
example, is a matter of taste, and styles of painting fluctuate unevenly. Similarly, in
institutions such as government and the economic system there are competing forms of
styles, Governments may be dictatorships, oligarchies, republics or democracies.
Economic system includes communist, socialist, feudal, and capitalist ones. As far as can
be told, there is no regular progression from one form of government or economic system
to another. The obvious directional character of change in material culture is lacking in
many areas of non-material culture.
BASIC CONCEPTS:-
In addition to the difference in the directional character of change, Ogburn and others
believe that material culture tends to change faster than non-material culture. Certainly
one of the imperative aspects of modern American life is the tremendous development of
technology. Within this century, life has been transformed by invention of the radio, TV,
automobiles, airplanes, rockets, transistors, and computers and so on. While this has been
happening in material culture, change in government, economic system, family life,
education, and religion seems to have been much slower.
This difference in rates of cultural change led Ogburn to formulate the concept of culture
lag. Material inventions, he believed bring changes that require adjustments in various
areas of non-material culture.Invention of the automobile, for instance, freed young
people from direct parental observation, made it possible for them to work at distances
from their homes, and, among other things, facilitated crime by making escape easier.
Half a century earlier, families still were structured as they were in the era of the family
farm when young people were under continuous observation and worked right on the
homestead.

Culture lag is defined as the time between the appearance of a new material invention and
the making of appropriate adjustments in corresponding area of non-material culture.
This time is often long. It was over fifty years, for example, after the typewriter was
invented before it was used systematically in offices. Even today, we may have a family
system better adapted to a farm economy than to an urban industrial one, and nuclear
weapons exist in a diplomatic atmosphere attuned to the nineteenth century. As the
discussion implies, the concept of culture lag is associated with the definition of social
problems. Scholars envision some balance or adjustment existing between material and
non-material cultures. That balance is upset by the appearance of raw material objects.
The resulting imbalance is defined as a social problem until non-material culture changes
in adjustment to the new technology.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM:-
This is a method whereby different societies or cultures are analyzed objectively without
using the values of one culture to judge the worth of another. We cannot possibly
understand the actions of other groups if we analyze them in terms of our motives and
values. We must interpret their behavior in the light of their motives, habits and values if
we are to understand them. Cultural relativism means that the function and meaning of a
trait are relative to its cultural setting. A trait is neither good nor bad in itself. It is good or
bad only with reference to the culture in which it is to function. Fur clothing is good in
the Arctic but not in the tropics. In some hunting societies which occasionally face long
periods of hunger to be fat is good; it has real survival value and fat people are admired.
In our society to be fat is not only unnecessary but is known to be unhealthful and fat
people are not admired.

The concept of cultural relativism does not mean that all customs are equally valuable,
nor does it imply that no customs are harmful. Some patterns of behavior may be
injurious everywhere, but even such patterns serve some purpose in the culture and the
society will suffer unless a substitute is provided. The central point in cultural relativism
is that in a particular cultural setting certain traits are right because they work well in that
setting while other traits are wrong because they would clash painfully with parts of that
culture.

ETHNOCENTRISM:-
Closely related to the concept of cultural relativity is the concept of ethnocentrism. The
world ethno comes from Greek and refers to a people, nation, or cultural grouping, while
centric comes from Latin and refers, of course to the centre. The term ethnocentrism then
refers to the tendency for each society to place its own culture patterns at the centre of
things.
Ethnocentrism is the practice of comparing other cultural practices with those of one's
own and automatically finding those other cultural practices to be inferior. It is the habit
of each group taking for granted the superiority of its culture. It makes our culture into a
yardstick with which to measure all other cultures as good or bad, high or low, right or
queer in proportion as they resemble ours.

Ethnocentrism is a universal human reaction found in all known societies, in all groups
and in practically all individuals. Everyone learns ethnocentrism while growing up. The
possessiveness of the small child quickly translates "into my toys are better than your
toys" Parents; unless they are quite crude, outwardly discourage their children from
verbalizing such beliefs. But in private, they may reassure their off springs that their
possessions are indeed very nice. Much of the learning of ethnocentrism is indirect and
unintended, but some of it is deliberate. History for example, is often taught to glorify the
achievements of one's own nation, and religious, civic and other groups disparage their
competitors openly. Among adults, ethnocentrism is simply a fact of life.

Once one becomes conscious of ethnocentrism, the temptation is strong to evaluate it in

moral terms; to label it with epithets such as bigoted chauvinistic, and so on, and to imply
that one who has not discovered and compensated for his or her ethnocentric biases is not
worthy. This incidentally, is another form of ethnocentrism. The important point,
however, is that ethnocentrism is one of the features of culture and , like the rest of
culture , it needs to be evaluated in terms of its contribution to the maintenance of social
order and the promotion of social change.

The functions of ethnocentrism in maintaining order are more apparent than those which
promote social change. First, ethnocentrism encourages the solidarity of the
group.Believing that one's own ways are the best, encourages a "we" feeling with
associates and strengthens the idea that loyalty to comrades and preservation of the basis
for superiority are important values. Positively, ethnocentrism promotes continuance of
the status quo negatively, it discourages change.

ETHNOCENTRISM:-
Second, ethnocentrism hinders the under standing of the cooperation with other groups. If
the ways of one's own group are best, there is little incentive to interact with inferior
groups. In fact, attitudes of suspicion, disdain and hostility are likely to be engendered.
Extreme ethnocentrism is likely to promote conflict, as the records of past wars, and
religious and racial conflicts reveal.

Conflict, of course often leads to social change and in that sense ethnocentrism becomes
a vehicle for the promotion of social change. It does so, however, through encouragement
of its peaceful evolution. There is little doubt that most social scientists are biased in
favor of peaceful social change and are opposed to conflict. Consequently, they tend even
if subtly, to denigrate ethnocentrisms and to imply that students must rid themselves of it
if they are to learn effectively.

In so doing, sociologists operate implicitly from a combination of evolutionary and

functionalist models. Recent years have seen this stance called into question. The
revolutionary efforts of groups who see themselves as downtrodden blacks, the poor,
women, and young people have included deliberate efforts to foster ethnocentrism as a
means of strengthening themselves.

Slogans such as' "black power" conflict model of society from which they operate.

ACCULTURATION:-
This term is used to describe both the process of contacts between different cultures and
also the customs of such contacts. As the process of contact between cultures,
acculturation may involve either direct social interaction or exposure to other cultures by
means of the mass media of communication. As the outcome of such contact,
acculturation refers to the assimilation by one group of the culture of another which
modifies the existing culture and so changes group identity. There may be a tension
between old and new cultures which leads to the adapting of the new as well as the old.

From a purely sociological perspective, the terms "culture" and "acculturation" do not
carry the negative connotations they often have in sectarian theological discourse. Culture
refers to the total way of life of a human group or society, including its material products
(tools, dwellings, clothing, etc.) and its nonmaterial products (language, ceremonies,
beliefs, etc.). Every group, including the original group of Christ's disciples, has a culture,
or subculture, e.g., the way the disciple group rooted its kingdom lifestyle in its Jewish
heritage.

SOCIAL GROUPS:-
A social group consists of two or more people who interact with one another and who
recognize themselves as a distinct social unit. The definition is simple enough, but it has
significant implications. Frequent interaction leads people to share values and beliefs.
This similarity and the interaction cause them to identify with one another. Identification
and attachment, in turn, stimulate more frequent and intense interaction. Each group
maintains solidarity with all to other groups and other types of social systems.
Groups are among the most stable and enduring of social units. They are important both
to their members and to the society at large. Through encouraging regular and predictable
behavior, groups form the foundation upon which society rests. Thus, a family, a village,
a political party a trade union is all social groups. These, it should be noted are different
from social classes, status groups or crowds, which not only lack structure but whose
members are less aware or even unaware of the existence of the group. These have been
called quasi-groups or groupings. Nevertheless, the distinction between social groups and
quasi-groups is fluid and variable since quasi-groups very often give rise to social groups,
as for example, social classes give rise to political parties.
It is categorized into three groups:-
(1) Primary Groups
(2) Secondary Groups
(3) Reference Groups
PRIMARY GROUPS:-
If all groups are important to their members and to society, some groups are more
important than others. Early in the twentieth century, Charles H. Cooley gave the name,
primary groups, to those groups that he said are characterized by intimate face-to-face
association and those are fundamental in the development and continued adjustment of
their members. He identified three basic primary groups, the family, the child's play
group, and the neighborhoods or community among adults. These groups, he said, are
almost universal in all societies; they give to people their earliest and most complete
experiences of social unity; they are instrumental in the development of the social life;
and they promote the integration of their members in the larger society.

Since Cooley wrote, over 65 years ago, life in the United States has become much more
urban, complex, and impersonal, and the family play group and neighborhood have
become less dominant features of the social order. Secondary groups, characterized by
anonymous, impersonal, and instrumental relationships, have become much more
numerous. People move frequently, often from one section of the country to another and
they change from established relationships and promoting widespread loneliness. Young
people, particularly, turn to drugs, seek communal living groups and adopt deviant
lifestyles in attempts to find meaningful primary-group relationships. The social context
has changed so much so that primary group relationship today is not as simple as they
were in Cooley's time.

SECONDARY GROUPS:-
An understanding of the modern industrial society requires an understanding of the
secondary groups. The social groups other than those of primary groups may be termed
as secondary groups. They are a residual category. They are often called special interest
groups.Maclver and Page refers to them as great associations.
They are of the opinion that secondary groups have become almost inevitable today.
Their appearance is mainly due to the growing cultural complexity. Primary groups are
found predominantly in societies where life is relatively simple. With the expansion in
population and territory of a society however interests become diversified and other types
of relationships which can be called secondary or impersonal become necessary. Interests
become differentiated. The services of experts are required. The new range of the
interests demands a complex organization. Especially selected persons act on behalf of all
and hence arises a hierarchy of officials called bureaucracy. These features characterize
the rise of the modern state, the great corporation, the factory, the labor union, a
university or a nationwide political party and so on. These are secondary
groups.Ogburn and Nimkoff defines secondary groups as groups which provide
experience lacking in intimacy. Frank D. Watson writes that the secondary group is
larger and more formal ,is specialized and direct in its contacts and relies more for unity
and continuance upon the stability of its social organization than does the primary group.

CHARCTERISTICS OF SECONDARY GROUPS:-

Dominance of secondary relations:- Secondary groups are characterized by
indirect, impersonal, contractual and non-inclusive relations. Relations are indirect
because secondary groups are bigger in size and members may not stay together.
Relations are contractual in the sense they are oriented towards certain interests

Largeness of the size:- Secondary groups are relatively larger in size. City, nation,
political parties, trade unions and corporations, international associations are bigger in
size. They may have thousands and lakhs of members. There may not be any limit to the
membership in the case of some secondary groups. Membership: Membership in the case
of secondary groups is mainly voluntary. Individuals are at liberty to join or to go away
from the groups. However there are some secondary groups like the state whose
membership is almost involuntary.

No physical basis:- Secondary groups are not characterized by physical proximity.

Many secondary groups are not limited to any definite area. There are some secondary
groups like the Rotary Club and Lions Club which are international in character. The
members of such groups are scattered over a vast area.
Specific ends or interest:- Secondary groups are formed for the realization of some
specific interests or ends. They are called special interest groups. Members are interested
in the groups because they have specific ends to aim at. Indirect communication:
Contacts and communications in the case of secondary groups are mostly indirect. Mass
media of communication such as radio, telephone, television, newspaper, movies,
magazines and post and telegraph are resorted to by the members to have communication.

Communication may not be quick and effective even. Impersonal nature of social
relationships in secondary groups is both the cause and the effect of indirect
communication.

Nature of group control:- Informal means of social control are less effective in
regulating the relations of members. Moral control is only secondary. Formal means of
social control such as law, legislation, police, court etc are made of to control the
behavior of members. The behavior of the people is largely influenced and controlled by
public opinion, propaganda, rule of law and political ideologies.
Group structure:- The secondary group has a formal structure. A formal authority is
set up with designated powers and a clear-cut division of labor in which the function of
each is specified in relation to the function of all. Secondary groups are mostly organized
groups. Different statuses and roles that the members assume are specified. Distinctions
based on caste, colour, religion, class, language etc are less rigid and there is greater
tolerance towards other people or groups.

Limited influence on personality:- Secondary groups are specialized in character.

People involvement in them is also of limited significance.Members's attachment to them
is also very much limited. Further people spend most of their time in primary groups than
in secondary groups. Hence secondary groups have very limited influence on the
personality of the members.

REFERENCE GROUPS:-
According to Merton reference groups are those groups which are the referring
points of the individuals, towards which he is oriented and which influences his opinion,
tendency and behaviour.The individual is surrounded by countless reference groups. Both
the memberships and inner groups and non memberships and outer groups may be
reference groups.

SOCIAL SYSTEM:-
A social system basically consists of two or more individuals interacting directly or
indirectly in a bounded situation. There may be physical or territorial boundaries, but the
fundamental sociological point of reference is that the individuals are oriented, in a whole
sense, to a common focus or inter-related foci. Thus it is appropriate to regard such
diverse sets of relationships as small groups, political parties and whole societies as social
systems.
Social systems are open systems, exchanging information with, frequently acting with
reference to other systems. Modern conceptions of the term can be traced to the leading
social analysts of the nineteenth century, notably Auguste Comte, Karl Marx,
Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim; each of whom elaborated in some form
or other conceptions of the major units of social systems (mainly societies) and the
relationships between such units- even though the expression social system was not a key
one.

Thus, in Marx's theory, the major units or components of the capitalist societies with
which he was principally concerned were socio-economic classes, and the major
relationships between classes involved economic and political power. The most
influential conceptualization of the term has been that of Talcott Parsons. Parsons'
devotion to this issue has two main aspects. First, what is called the problem of social
order; i.e. the nature of the forces giving rise to relatively stable forms of social
interaction and organization, and promoting orderly change. Parsons took Thomas
Hobbes Leviathan, 1651, as his point of departure in this part of his analysis. Hobbes had
maintained that man's fundamental motivation was the craving for power and that men
were always basically in conflict with each other. Thus order could only exist in strong
government.

To counter this Parsons invoked the work of Max Weber and, in particular, Durkheim,
who had placed considerable emphasis on the functions of normative, factors in social
life, such as ideals and values. Factors of this kind came to constitute the mainspring in
Parsons Delineation of a social system. Thus in his major theoretical work, The Social
system, 1951, he defines a social system as consisting in a plurality of individual actors
interacting with each other in a situation which has at least a physical or environmental
aspect, actors, who are motivated in terms of a tendency to the optimization of
gratification and whose relations to their situations, including each other, is defined and
mediated in terms of a system of culturally structured and shared symbols. The major
units of a social system are said to be collectivities and roles (i.e. not individuals as such);
and the major patterns or relationships linking these units are values (ends or broad
guides to action) and norms (rules governing role performance in the context of system
values).
Parsons second major interest has been to make sociology more scientific and
systematic, by developing abstract conceptions of the social system; one of this points
being that even though Weber placed much emphasis upon normative factors as guiding
action, there was in Weber's sociology no elaboration of a theoretically integrated total
system of action.
Hence the attempt to combine in one framework both a conception of actors in social
situations and an overall, highly abstract, outside view of the major factors involved in a
social system as a going concern. Various points in Parsons' formulation have been
criticized. Notably, objections have been made to the emphasis upon normative
regulation, and it has been alleged that Parsons neglected social conflict under the
pressure of his systematic perspective; i.e. pre-occupation with system ness and analytical
elegance which blinds the sociologist to disconsensus in real life and spurs him to stress
integrative phenomena in his analyses. However, it is widely agreed that sociologists
should operate with some clearly defined conception of what constitutes a social system.
Thus, for many sociologists the term social system is not by any means restricted to those
situations where there is binding normative regulation; but in order to qualify as social
system it must involve a common focus, or set of foci, or orientations and a shared mode
of communication among a majority of actors. Thus, on this basis there can be a system
of conflict.

SOCIAL DISTANCE:-
Bogardus developed the concept of social distance to measure the degree of closeness
or acceptance we feel toward other groups. While most often used with reference to racial
groups social distance refers to closeness between groups of all kinds. Social distance is
measured either by direct observation of people interacting or more often by
questionnaires in which people are asked what kind of people they would accept in
particular relationships. In these questionnaires a number of groups may be listed and the
informants asked to check whether they would accept a member of each group as a
neighbor, as a fellow worker as a marriage partner and so on through a series of
relationships. The social distance questionnaires may not accurately measure what people
actually would do if a member of another group sought to become a friend or
neighbour.The social distance scale is only an attempt to measure one's feeling of
unwillingness to associate equally with a group. What a person will actually do in a
situation also depends upon the circumstances of the situation.

SOCIAL NORMS:-
Social norms grow out of social value and both serve to differentiate human social
behavior from that of other species. The significance of learning in behavior varies from
species to species and is closely linked to processes of communication. Only human
beings are capable of elaborate symbolic communication and of structuring their behavior
in terms of abstract preferences that we have called values. Norms are the means through
which values are expressed in behavior.
Norms generally are the rules and regulations that groups live by. Or perhaps because the
words, rules and regulations, call to mind some kind of formal listing, we might refer to
norms as the standards of behavior of a group. For while some of the appropriate
standards of behavior in most societies are written down, many of them are not that
formal. Many are learned, informally, in interaction with other people and are passed
"that way from generation to generation.

The term "norms" covers an exceedingly wide range of behaviour. So that the whole
range of that behaviour may be included. Sociologists have offered the following
definition. Social norms are rules developed by a group of people that specify how people
must, should, may, should not, and must not behave in various situations. Some norms
are defined by individual and societies as crucial to the society. For example, all members
of the group are required to wear clothing and to bury their dead. Such "musts" are often
labeled "mores", a term coined by the American sociologist William Graham Sumner.

Many social norms are concerned with "should "; that is, there is some pressure on the
individual to conform but there is some leeway permitted also. The 'should behaviors' are
what Sumner called "folk-ways"; that is, conventional ways of doing things that are not
defined as crucial to the survival of either the individual or the society. The 'should
behaviors' in our own society include the prescriptions that people's clothes should be
clean, and that death should be recognized with public funerals. A complete list of the
should behaviors in a complex society would be virtually without end.

The Word “ May " in the definition of norms indicates that, in most groups, there is a
wide range of behaviors in which the individual is given considerable choice. To continue
the illustration, in Western countries girls may select to wear dresses or halters and jeans.
Funerals may be held with or without flowers, with the casket open or closed, with or
without religious participation, and so on. We have confined our examples to just two
areas, but students should be able to construct their own examples from all areas of life.
The remainder of the definition, including the 'should-not' and the 'must-not' behaviours,
probably does not require lengthy illustration because such examples are implicit in what
has already been said. One should not belch in public, dump garbage in the street, run
stop signs, or tell lies. One must not kill another person or have sexual intercourse with
one's sister or brother.
Social norms cover almost every conceivable situation, and they vary from standards
where almost complete conformity is demanded to those where there is great freedom of
choice. Norms also vary in the kinds of sanctions that are attached to violation of the
norms. Since norms derive from values, and since complex societies have multiple and
conflicting value systems, it follows that norms frequently are in conflict also.

Taking the illustration of American sex norms, two proscriptive norms prohibit
premarital intercourse and extramarital intercourse. But many boys also have been taught
that sex is good and that they should seek to "score" with girls whenever possible.
Somewhat similarly, girls have been taught that promiscuous intercourse before marriage
is bad; but they have also been taught that sex is acceptable within true love relationships.
Members of both sexes, then, find themselves faced with conflicting demands for
participation in sex and for abstinence from it. They also discover that there are sanctions
associated with either course of action.

Normative conflict is also deeply involved in social change. As statistical norms come to
differ too blatantly from existing prescriptive norms, new prescriptive norms give
sanction to formerly prohibited behaviour and even extend it. Recent changes in the sex
norms of teenage and young adult groups provide examples. The change is more apparent
in communal living groups where sometimes there is an explicit ideology of sexual
freedom and the assumption that sexual activities will be shared with all members of the
group. In less dramatic fashion, the change is evident among couples who simply begin to
live together without the formality of a marriage ceremony.

STATUS & ROLE:-

The term has two sociological uses:

(1). R. Linton (1936) defined status simply as a position in a social system, such as
child or parent. Status refers to what a person is, whereas the closely linked notion of role
refers to the behaviour expected of people in a status.

(2). Status is also used as a synonym for honor or prestige, when social status denotes
the relative position of a person on a publicly recognized scale or hierarchy of social
worth. (See 'Social Stratification').

It is the first meaning of the term status, status as position, which we are going to refer to
in the following paragraphs. Status as honour or prestige is a part of the study of social
stratification.

A status is simply a rank or position that one holds in a group. One occupies the status of
son or daughter, playmate, pupil, radical, militant and so on. Eventually one occupies the
statuses of husband, mother bread-winner, cricket fan, and so on, one has as many
statuses as there are groups of which one is a member. For analytical purposes, statuses
are divided into two basic types:

• Ascribed and
• Achieved.

ASCRIBED STATUSES:-
Ascribed statuses are those which are fixed for an individual at birth. Ascribed
statuses that exist in all societies include those based upon sex, age, race ethnic group and
family background.

Similarly, power, prestige, privileges, and obligations always are differentially distributed
in societies by the age of the participants. This has often been said about the youth culture
in the U.S. because of the high value Americans attach to being young. Pre-modern
China, by contrast, attached the highest value to old age and required extreme
subordination of children. The perquisites and obligations accompany age change over
the individual's lifetime, but the individual proceeds inexorably through these changes
with no freedom of choice.

As the discussion implies, the number and rigidity of ascribed statuses vary from one
society to another. Those societies in which many statuses are rigidly prescribed and
relatively unchangeable are called caste societies, or at least, caste like. Among major
nations, India is a caste society. In addition to the ascribed statuses already discussed,
occupation and the choice of marriage partners in traditional India are strongly
circumscribed by accident of birth. Such ascribed statuses stand in contrast to achieved
statuses.
Achieved statuses are those which the individual acquires during his or her lifetime as
a result of the exercise of knowledge, ability, skill and/or perseverance. Occupation
provides an example of status that may be either ascribed or achieved, and which serves
to differentiate caste-like societies from modern ones. Societies vary in both the number
of statuses that are ascribed and achieved and in the rigidity with which such definitions
are held. Both ascribed and achieved statuses exist in all societies. However, an
understanding of a specific society requires that the interplay among these be fully
understood. For Weber class is a creation of the market situation. Class operates in
society independently of any valuations. As Weber did not believe in the economic
phenomena determining human ideals, he distinguishes status situation from class
situation.

According to Linton, status is associated with distinctive beliefs about the expectations
of those having status, as for example, the status of children. Other common bases for
status are age, sex, birth, genealogy and other biological constitutional characteristics.
However, status, according to Linton, is only a phenomenon, not the intrinsic
characteristic of man but of social organization. What matters is not what you really are,
but what people believe you to be. At times, some confuse the two terms, status and role.
Status defines who a person is, as for example, he is a child or a Negro, or a doctor;
whereas, role defines what such a person is expected to do, as for example, he is too
young to work, he should care about parents etc.

A common method of identifying the statuses in a social system is to discover the list of
status-designators, as for example, kinship status typically begins with a list of kin terms
and their usage. One other characteristic feature of status, as understood today, is that any
person can have more than one status. Generally, no status in any social situation
encompasses one person. Also, it has to be kept in mind those statuses and persons are
not only distinct concepts but also at distinct levels of analysis. Besides, in sociology it is
status, rather than person, which is more useful as a tool of analysis.

Why we should treat these two terms as separate can be argued on various grounds. First,
two persons having quite different characters may possess similar observable conduct if
they have the same status, as for example, very acquisitive and very altruistic doctors
may behave in much the same way. Secondly, two persons having the same character,
very often, have different observable conduct because of having two different statuses.

ACHIEVED STATUSES:-
Thirdly, even two persons having similar characters but having two different statuses
show very often different observable conduct, as for example, a docile son and a kind
father.
Thus, in society, which in reality is a social system where interaction occurs between
actors, status but not person in important. If we treat person as the unit of such a system
we must discover a basic personality structure which is an impossible task. On the other
hand, it is easy to comprehend status although it is an abstract concept. Status is the most
elementary component of the social system which is equally abstract.

Interaction between two actors occurs not as persons but as two having statuses. A social
position is always defined in relation to a counter position, as for example, a doctor to a
patient, to a nurse, and to the hospital administrator. In other words, the basic unit of
analysis for social system is not status itself but the relation of two statuses. The first
writer to do considerable work in this field was Merton in 1957. According to him,
there are three aspects of status. To illustrate, Mr. Pandey is a doctor must have social
relations with nurses, patients, other doctors, hospital administrators, and so on, that is, a
role set. If Mr. Pandey is also a husband, a father, a member of Hare-Krishna cult and
a municipal councilor, it is a status set. And the process, by which Mr. Pandey became a
doctor, required that he first be a medical student, then an intern and then a resident, that
is, a status sequence. Since what is known as status is related to other statuses, the
interaction of statuses is a very crucial one. Stable interaction systems depend on the
emergence of normative expectations. Once it emerges, such expectations are not created
anew every time. Two new actors encounter each other. The idea underlying this
statement is that every actor is sensitive to the attitudes others will have towards him.
Every actor, therefore, tends to feel tense and upset if he is unable to define the social
situation in such a way that the behaviour of the other is predictable.
A more dynamic feature of this series of social interactions is the idea that each action
implies a status and each status action. Therein each actor reveals how he defines a
situation by the way he behaves, and thus provides other actors with cues to their own
statuses in the situation.

Although the interaction of statuses is normally satisfactory, at times, confusion might

arise because of status ambiguity. If, however, an actor has more than one status, the
attitudes of any two statuses may be either compatible or incompatible with their
demands on the person. If two statuses that are activated in the same situation are
incompatible it would be difficult for each status occupant to know how to interact with
the other, because it will be difficult for him to know which status is the basis of their
interaction. Such ambiguities are a source of strain and discomfort and people either get
out of such situations or wish that they be changed.
The term social role is borrowed by social scientists originally from the Greek Drama.
The word person comes from the Latin word persona, which originally meant a
mask. Greek actors wore masks when they performed in their drama. This leads us
directly to the definition of the concept of social role.
A social role is a set of social norms that govern a person's behaviour in a group and
determine his relationships with other group members. Put somewhat differently a role is
the expected pattern of behavior associated with a given social status. Status and role are
reciprocal aspects of the same phenomenon. Status, or position, is the static aspect that
fixes the individual's position in a group; role is the dynamic behavioral aspect that
defines how the person who occupies the status should behave in different situations.

Individuals in a society behave according to certain standard patterns of behaviour or

roles. These standard patterns of behaviour are determined by the social position or the
status which the individual occupies in society because it is these social positions which
lay down norms by indicating which individual should observe which norms. In other
words, status refers to a collection of norms; and each society classifies its members into
a more or less elaborate system of statuses. Each of the statuses involves a role, set of
behaviour or action-patterns that people belonging to a given status are expected to
perform. One plays as many roles as he has statuses. A given man may both concurrently
and sequentially enact the roles of husband, father bread-winner, and football fan and so
on. Social roles may be linked to blue-prints for behaviour that are handed to the
individual, hypothetically, when he becomes a member of a group. As such these
constitute the group's expectations concerning how one would behave. Thus, whereas the
status of a person tells us what he is, his role will tell us what he does as a member of a
status group. Despite this fundamental difference between the two, statuses and roles are
very closely interlinked. There are no roles without statuses and no statuses without roles.
Indeed, there are some exceptions. Though all statuses imply some role or roles, it is not
always possible to infer people's statuses from what they do, as for example, two persons,
who bear the title of knighthood and thus holding same social positions, might be
performing completely different roles. Also, many statuses are wholly or partly defined
with reference to roles which their occupants are expected to perform. Example:-
policemen, poets, etc.
The importance of role was recognized from 1936 when Linton presented the first
systematic statement identifying role as a segment of culture. He also held the view that
role was related to social status. Much work has been done after Linton in the form of
experimental study. Many studies have shown that lack of clarity and consensus in role
conceptions is a contributory factor in reducing organizational effectiveness and morale.
Since the concept is being extensively used, some differences appear in its usage. Some
writers treat role and actual behavior of an individual to be one and the same. Most of the
writers treat role as expected behavior and role behavior as an enactment. Another
interpretation is that role is a specific behavior or conditioned response. Finally, some
treat role as a part to be learnt and played.

Despite these differences, all sociologists agree to the following characteristics of role. It
is believed that when roles are stabilized, the role structure persists regardless of changes
in the actors. In some families when the parents become disorganized and become
childish, a child suddenly blossoms into responsibility and helps to supply the family
leadership. As the roles get stabilized, an individual adopts a given role; and if he fails to
fulfill the role expectation, he will be regarded as a violator of the terms of interaction.

The above functioning of the role is determined, to some extent, by the organizational
setting which supplies both direction and constraint to the working of the as for said
processes. If the role structure is incorporated in an organizational setting, the latter's
goals tend to become the crucial criteria for role differentiation, legitimacy of
expectation, and judgments of adequacy.

Secondly, depending on the level of integration with the organizational setting, roles get
linked with statuses in the organization.

Thirdly, depending on the extent to which the roles are incorporated with an
organizational setting, each tends to develop a pattern of adaptation to incorporate other
roles. A teacher in a public school must incorporate within his role pattern, his role
adaptations to pupils, parents, other teachers and the principal. Merton describes several
mechanisms that are employed to minimize conflict in the role-set.
Fourthly, when roles are incorporated with the organisational setting they persist as
tradition and formalization. Finally, the place of role is determined by society itself; for,
society is based on accommodation among many organizations. Society introduces
multiple organisational references for roles, and multiplies roles for the actor.
A view from society's perspective shows that roles in different contexts tend to become
merged. One example is our tendency to speak of male and female roles of heroic and
unheroic roles while seeking meaning and order in simple human interactions. Viewed
from the perspective of society, differentiation of roles gets linked with social values. If
the societies and the individuals' assigned roles are consistent with each other the roles
tend to get merged with social values. A glaring example is our tendency to use age, sex
and occupation as qualifying criteria for the allocation of other roles.

In the end we have to say that it is actor who faces the strain; for, the dynamic hinges on
his management of the several roles in his repertoire. This may come about through
failure of role cues, gross lack of consensus and so forth. This situation results in an
individual adopting his own repertoire of role relationship as a framework for his own
behaviour, and as a perspective for the interpretation of the behaviour of others. When the
individual forms a self-conception by selective identification of certain roles as his own
to be held in his repertoire, the individual is said to develop a sense of personal prestige,
which is likely to be reflected in his bearing, his self-assurance and other aspects of his
interpersonal relations.

In general, the concept of role is crucial in all sociological analyses which attempt to link
the functioning of the social orders with the characteristics and behaviour of the
individuals who belong to that order. A study of roles provides a comprehensive pattern
of social behaviour and attitudes. It constitutes a strategy for coping with a recurrent type
of situation. It is socially identified as an entity. It can be played recognizably by
different individuals, and it supplies a major basis for identifying and placing persons in a
society.

CONFLICT:-
Conflict is goal-oriented, just as cooperation and competition are, but, there is a
difference, in conflict, one seeks deliberately to harm and/ or destroy one's antagonists.
The rules of competition always include restrictions upon the injury that may be done to a
foe. But in conflict these rules break down; one seeks to win at any cost. In talking about
conflict, the notion of a continuum or scale is again useful.
It is useful in at least two ways: in differentiating conflict from competition; and in
differentiating personal form group and organizational conflict. If we have the data with
which to do it, all rival situations probably could be ranged along a continuum defined at
one end by pure competition and at the other end by pure conflict. There might be a few
situations that would be located near to each end of the continuum, but many would
prove to be mixed types and would cluster near the centre. Conflict also tends to be more
or less personal, just as is the case with cooperation and competition. First, fights and
'shoot-out' illustrate highly personal conflicts. The conflicts within football games
generally are a little less personal, and the conflict between students and campus police at
a sit-in or rally is personal. Yet, when two labor unions or two corporations set out to
destroy each other, personal conflict may be almost completely submerged in
organizational struggle. Perhaps the most impersonal of all conflicts is war between
nations, where the enemy is perceived to be almost faceless. Again, rather than being
discrete types of personal and impersonal conflicts, conflicts probably range almost
imperceptibly along a continuum from the purely personal to the completely impersonal.

Probably the most striking thing about conflict is its destructive potential. The word
'conflict' itself often conjures up images of heads being broken, of buildings burning, and
of deaths and destruction. Moreover, the destructiveness that accompanies conflicts
quickly cumulates. In a confrontation between police and students, for example, things
may be orderly until the first blow is struck. Once that happens, however, a frenzy of
skull cracking, shootings, burning, and destroying may follow. Because the immediate
results of conflict often are so horrible, there is a tendency to see it, not as a normal and
universal process of social interaction, but as pathological process. It is very difficult for
the unsophisticated not to imply value judgments in discussing these social processes
because our society as a whole tends to do so. Cooperation and competition are more
often perceived to be socially useful; but conflict, to be harmful.

The situation, however, it is not that simple. Few would defend the cooperation of a
group of men in the rape of a woman. And the school drop-out problem is hardly a
beneficial effect of competition. Thus, competition and cooperation, which otherwise
receive a good deal of social approval, also have untoward effects. So it is, also with
conflict. Conflict is an abnormal and universal form of social interaction as are any of the
others. Analysis of conflict needs to describe both the ways in which it is harmful and
destructive and the way in which it is useful and socially integrative

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF CONFLICT:-

The harmful effects probably are easier to see. We have already indicated that conflict
tends to cumulate rapidly. This snowballing tendency may lead to complete breakdown
before the self-limiting features of most inter-personal exchanges have a chance to
operate. Before people can decide that the pain is not worth it, people may have been
killed and property destroyed. Establishments may be closed or they may find themselves
in chaos. Similarly, a company of soldiers may shoot down women and children in an
orgy of destruction.
A second negative feature of conflict, closely related to the first, is that it is often
extremely costly. War probably provides the best example, for nothing else in human
experience exacts such a toll. The third negative feature has to do with social costs.
Conflict is inherently divisive. It sets person against person and group against group in
ways that threaten to destroy organized social life. United States has seen conflict so
widespread as to raise questions whether anarchy might prevail. Youth against the
establishment, blacks against whites, the poor against the affluent, and Jews against
Arabs represent something of the range of conflicts. In such situations, the question
becomes not simply how many people will be killed, how much property destroyed, or
who will win; it becomes one of the societal survival. Can race wars be avoided? Can the
police maintain order? Can universities operate? And can presidents keep the support of
the populace? Whatever else they may be, these are real questions. And the answers are
by no means obvious. Conflict threatens the existence of society itself.

USEFUL FUNCTIONS OF CONFLICT:-

The explosiveness, the outward costs, and the divisiveness of conflict are so great that it
is often difficult to see the ways in which conflict fulfils socially useful functions. Yet it
does at least the following three things. First, it promotes loyalty within the group.
Second, it signals the needs for and helps promote short-run social change. And third, it
appears intimately involved in moving societies towards new levels of social integration.
If conflict pits groups and organizations against one another, it also tends to promote
unity within each of the conflicting groups. The necessity to work together against a
common foe submerges rivalries within the group and people, who otherwise are
competitors, to work together in harmony. Competing football halfbacks flock for each
other, rival student leaders work together to win concessions from the administration, and
union leaders join forces against management. Nations that are torn by dissent in
peacetime rally together when they are attacked by other countries. Thus, conflict is not
simply divisive, it works to unify groups.

A second positive function of conflict is that it serves to notify the society that serious
problems exist that is not being handled by the traditional social organization. It forces
the recognition of those problems and encourages the development of new solutions to
them.

The third general positive function of conflict is closely related to the second. And it is
much more problematic. One view of human history tends to focus upon conflict
particularly upon war - as a primary mechanism through which nations have developed.
In other words, war was the mechanism that permitted the consolidation of scattered,
weak societies into large, powerful ones. Similar arguments have been advanced that war
was necessary during the early modern period in Europe to permit the formation of
nations as we know them.

LAW:-
In our times state is the sole upholder of social control and conformity, and the principal
means at its disposal is law. Since law is enforced by State, force is present. Roscoe
Pound explains law as social control through systematic application of the force of a
politically organized society. In a lighter vein Bertrand Russell remarks that the good
behaviour of even the most exemplary citizen owes much to the existence of a police
force. Much earlier, Durkheim was the first sociologist to show that law is the means to
enforce the collective conscience or collectivity which makes society an entity by itself,
almost God.
Law is closely associated with morality and religion. Legislation always rests on social
doctrines and ideals which have been derived from religion and morality, and judicial
decisions always rely on the fundamental moral ideas of society expressed as reason,
natural law, natural justice, and equality and, in more recent times, as public policy or
public interest litigation as in India.Law, therefore, rests upon moral sentiments derived
from religion and is influenced by institutional arrangements of society; and it brings
about, by its precision and sanction, such a degree of certainty in human behaviour that
cannot be attained through other types of social control. On occasions, law enforces
social attitudes and contracts which initially were those of a small minority of reformers.
In Russia, law has established new morals of behaviour which were originally the
aspirations of small group of revolutionaries. In democratic societies, too, social
reformers played an important part in influencing social behaviour, later on approved by
law.

One more characteristic of law is the changed outlook towards punishment. As societies
are becoming more confident of their powers to maintain order as a result of rising
material standards, declining class differences and spread of education and extension of
rights, more and more stress is being laid on the willing cooperation of people with state
and its law. This development has been further augmented by studies in sociology and
psychology which have shown that crimes are projection of society rather than the results
of individual violation. That is why the new discipline, called criminology, has developed
as an applied branch of sociology.

Lastly, law as it is today, does not primarily deal with individuals alone. Very often it
regulates conflicts between individuals and groups as well as between individuals and
large organisations whether public or private. The role of property in social life has been
modified by the changes that have accrued in the relations between the employer and the
worker through the abolition of the crime of conspiracy, the recognition of collective
bargaining, social security and direct limitations on the use of private property, all
through legislation.
The law as it exists today partly contributes to social change. As already remarked above,
the change in the role of property has led to a great social change in man's social
behavior. Secondly, individual initiative is no longer on the premium in modern
societies.
Mammoth organizations and corporations undertake the vast socio-economic
activities of modern times. Taking into account these changes, American sociologists
have introduced expressions such as the 'Other-directed man' and the organization
man. As the social complex of modern communities is transforming itself, law, too, is
keeping pace with them in making the interaction between the other direct man and the
mammoth organizations or the corporations to be smooth and efficient.

In developing societies the role of law in contributing to social change is much more. In
all countries there is a continuous rationalization of the existing law by modification,
introduction of foreign codes, and systematic legislation in relation to customary and
traditional law. The Indian Constitution is an embodiment of such monumental change.
The philosophy governing social changes, implied as well as explicitly stated in the
Constitution, is governed by the principles stated in the Preamble which are entirely
secular and which bear the imprint of the leading minds of the world like the 18th century
French philosophers, liberal thinkers of the 19th century, the Fabian socialists of the 20th
century, and individual thinkers like Thoreau, Tolstoy and Mahatma Gandhi.

Although law has an important role in maintaining social order or conformity, there are a
few weaknesses in the existing law. It no longer has charismatic qualities which it earlier
had, although our courts resound with expressions like the Majesty and the sanctity of
law, your Lordships and so on. Second, people do not feel collectively and directly
involved when any law is violated. It is more in the form of keeping each individual in
his limits. Lastly, law does not enable the criminal to be finally reconciled to society.
Modern Law, as it has developed, is increasingly being separated from custom and
religion. It is only when legislation and litigation, the two processes concerned with law,
are harmonized that they take their appropriate place in social control.

CUSTOM:-
Once a habit is established, it becomes a role or norm of action. Customs often involve
binding reciprocal obligations. Also, custom supports law, without which it becomes
meaningless. In the words of Maclver and Page, custom establishes a social order of
its own so that conflict arising between custom and law is not a conflict between law and
lawlessness, but between the orders of reflection (law) and the order of spontaneity
(custom).
In general, customs regulate the whole social life of man. Law itself cannot cover the
whole gamut of social behavior. It is the customary practices that contribute to the
harmonious social interactions in a society which normal times of peace and tranquility.
The influence of custom, at times, extends beyond one's own community. In certain
communities custom determines the relations between two communities at war. The
Bedouins of the African desert will never destroy a water-well of the enemy.

Some of the customs do not play any role in social control. They just exist because of
their ancient nature just as all people bathing in an unhygienic tank or a lake just because
of an established religious custom. Even the custom of performing Shradha in India
has no meaning if people do not know how to respect what the past has given us as well
as accept our moral obligation to the future generations. However, in most of the
traditional societies the customary practices are all emptied of their meaning.

In brief, although custom is regarded as one of the less formal types of control like public
opinion, its influence on social life is very significant as it alone contributes to the textual
part of social behavior.

VALUES:-
The term 'value' has a meaning in sociology that is both similar to and yet distinct from
the meaning assigned to it in everyday speech. In sociological usage, values are group
conceptions of the relative desirability of things. Sometimes 'value' means 'price'. But the
sociological concept of value is far broader than here neither of the objects being
compared can be assigned a price.

What is the value, for illustration, of the right of every human being to dignity in
comparison to the need to improve the technical aspects of education? This issue is
directly involved in the desegregation of the public schools and has been debated bitterly.
Some attempts have been made to estimate the dollar costs of the old system of
segregated schools and, more recently, estimates have been made of the costs of using
both black and white children to end segregation. Most of the social costs of the two
systems, however, defy statement in monetary terms and most people take their stand on
the issue in terms of deeply held convictions about what is important in life.
The idea of deeply held convictions is more illustrative of the sociological concept of
value than is the concept of price. In addition, there are four other aspects of the
sociological concept of value.

They are:-
(1) values exist at different levels of generality or abstraction;
(2) values tend to be hierarchically arranged.
(3) values are explicit and implicit in varying degrees; and
(4) values often are in conflict with one another.

GENERAL & SPECIFIC VALUES:-

Such values as democracy, freedom, and the right to dissent are stated at a very broad
level of generality. Each of them pervades many aspects of life and each is anything but
situationally specific. If a comprehensive list of values were prepared, a large proportion
of them would be found to be very general and abstract. Values are, however, also stated
in fairly specific terms. Thus, we may define values as physical health or affluence. On
more specific levels yet, we may value between symphonies or powerful automobiles.
We may also value silk rather than nylon or the writing of a particular novelist rather than
that of another.

MEAN VALUES,END VALUES & ULTIMATE

VALUES:-
Values tend to be hierarchically arranged. This may be shown through use of the concepts
of means values and ends values. As the words themselves imply, means values are
instrumental values in that they are sought as part of the effort to achieve other values.
Ends values are both more general and more important in the eyes of the groups who are
doing the valuing. Thus, if health is an American value, then the maintenance of good
nutrition, the securing of proper rest and the avoidance of carcinogenic and mind-
destroying substances all become means to that end.

The distinction between means values and ends values is a matter of logic and relates to
the context of a particular discussion. When the context shifts, so also may change the
definition of particular values as means values or ends values. To a narcotics agent, the
avoidance of hallucinogenic substances might be defined as an end in itself requiring no
further justification. To a religious person, health might not be an end in itself but only a
means to the continued worship of the deity.

One additional distinction may be useful that implied in the concept of ultimate values.
The concept of ultimate value is arrived at by following the same logical procedures used
in distinguishing between means values and end values, and continuing the process until
it can be pursued no further. If good nutrition is sought as a means to health, health as a
means to longevity, and long life to permit one to be of service to God, is there any
higher or more ultimate value than service to the deity? Regardless of which way the
question is answered, it is obvious that one is about to arrive at an ultimate value that can
no longer be justified in terms of other values.

VALUES CONFLICT WITH ONE ANOTHER:-

The examples of the right to dissent, conformity, and respect for authority as American
values illustrate the point that values frequently are in conflict with one another. At least
in complex societies, there is generally not just one value system but multiple,
overlapping, and sometimes opposing ones.
In America, for example, the problem is not that they value religions working over
personal gratification or vice versa, but that they value them both at the same time; along
with the achievement of status, the accumulation of wealth, and a host of other values.
These potentially conflicting values are so pervasive that it is virtually impossible to
pursue some of them without violating others. Societies probably differ in the extent to
which their value systems are internally consistent and in small homogeneous societies
than in large heterogeneous ones. American society has long had the reputation of
embracing many and deep value conflicts.

CONFORMITY:-
The genesis of the study of social conformity or stability is the assumption that there is
order in nature and it can be discovered, described and understood. Applying this analogy
to society what sociologists aim is to discover, describe and explain the order which
characterizes the social life of man.

It is justifiable search because members of any large society perform millions and billions
of social acts in the course of a single day. The outcome of such social activity is not
chaos but rather a reasonable approximation of order. Sociology is concerned with an
explanation of how this wonder comes about. In doing so, sociologists talk of social
system which means that the coordination and integration of social structure which ends
in order rather than in chaos. It is also to be borne in mind that when sociologists study
social conformity, it is not their business to condemn or justify it. Logically, sociologists
do study social stability in totalitarian societies too.

The means by which individuals or groups are induced and/or compelled to confirm to
certain norms and values are numerous. The most obvious and uniform manifestations of
social control are found in social institutions. Some of the prominent ones are law,
government, religion, marriage, family, education and social classes. Also, caste
distinctions and classes provide effective control over the behavior of individuals. These
work in two ways. These distinctions create patterns of behavior within limits which
govern each class in its relation with other classes. The importance of these patterns
largely depends on the social setting of a potent means of enforcing conformity, but it
would be of little importance in enforcing conformity in the impersonal life of an
American metropolis.
In studying the values and norms that contribute to the order or conformity of society,
sociologists select only those of the social facts which are of sociological value. One's
conscience, too, can be regarded as a power that restrains and inhibits, but this cannot be
a subject-matter of sociology since it relates only to individuals. Hence the first pre-
requisite for any social fact to be regarded as one that has a bearing on social order is that
it should affect every member of society in one way or other.
Social decontrol or disorder is a part and parcel of the study of social control and
conformity. No social system is perfect in the sense that it is very orderly and stable.
Social decontrol is endemic in social life, as some norms are not followed, some values
are not fulfilled, and some goals are not attained. And in some societies the majority
violates socially and/or legally defined standards and value of life. Almost all societies
experience riots, civil war, mob violence, terror, crime and general disorganization,
whether for short or long periods. It should also be kept in mind that social disorder does
not necessarily mean chaos.
All social groups show some absence or uniformity both in standards and effectiveness of
social control. There are always some mal by adjustments and conflicts, as illustrated
psychopaths, eccentrics and criminals. Moreover, in times of rapid social change the
deviations may be numerous and wide spread so as to be characterized as social
disorganization. When pre-literate people come under domination of a complex
civilization the old norms and/or controls may become weak so as to destroy all incentive
for ordinary activities of life apart from zest of living.

The order of any social system consists of both regularized patterns of action and
institutions that control and channelize the conflict produced by persistent strains. The
coordination that exists in a society at a single point of time is perhaps miraculous. More
wondrous is the fact that system persists over relatively long periods of time. However,
societies do change. And when they change, certain amount of disorder creeps in. The
concept of control and conformity, therefore, includes the efforts to retain it and the
departures from it.

DEVIANCE:-
In everyday language to deviate means to stray from an accepted path. Many sociological
definitions of deviance simply elaborate upon this idea. Thus deviance consists of those
areas which do not follow the norms and expectations of a particular social group.
Deviance may be positively sanctioned (rewarded), negatively sanctioned (punished), or
simply accepted without reward or punishment. In terms of the above definition of
deviance, the soldier on the battlefield who risks his life above and beyond the normal
call of duty may be termed deviant, as the physicist who breaks the rules of his discipline
and develops a new theory. Their deviance may be positively sanctioned; the soldier
might be rewarded with a medal, the physicist with a Noble prize.
In one sense, though, neither is deviant since both conform to the values of society, the
soldier to the value of courage; the physicist to the value of academic progress. By
comparison, a murderer deviates not only from society's norms and expectations but also
from its values, in particular the value placed on human life. His deviance generally
results in widespread disapproval and punishment. A third form of deviance consists of
acts which depart from the norms and expectations of a particular society but are
generally tolerated and accepted. The little old lady with a house full of cats or the old
gentleman with an obsession for collecting clocks would fall into this category. Usually
their eccentricities are neither rewarded nor punished by others. They are simply defined
as a 'bit odd' but harmless, and therefore tolerated.
Deviance is relative:-. This means that there is no absolute way of defining a deviant
act. Deviance can only be defined in relation to a particular standard, but no standards are
fixed or absolute. As such deviance varies from time to time and place to place. In a
particular society an act which is considered deviant today may be defined as normal in
the future. An act defined as deviant in one society may be seen as perfectly normal in
another. Put another way, deviance is culturally determined and cultures change over
time and vary from society to society. The following examples will serve to illustrate the
above points.
Sometimes ago in Western society it had been considered deviant for women to smoke,
use make-up and consume alcoholic drinks in public. Today this is no longer the case. In
the same way, definitions of crime change over time. Homosexuality was formerly a
criminal offence in Britain. Since 1969, however, homosexual acts conducted between
consenting adults in private are no longer illegal. A comparison of modern Western
culture with the traditional culture of the Teton Sioux Indians of the USA illustrates how
deviance varies from society to society. As part of their religions rituals during the annual
Sun Dance Ceremony Sioux Warriors mutilated their bodies, leather thongs were inserted
through strips of flesh on the chest and attached to a central pole, and warriors had to
break free by tearing their flesh and in return they were granted favors by the
supernatural powers.
Similar actions by members of Western society may well be viewed as masochism or
madness. In the same way behaviour accepted as normal in Western society may be
defined as deviant within primitive society.
In the West the private ownership of property is an established norm; members of society
strive to accumulate wealth and substantial property holding brings power and prestige.
Such behaviour would have incurred strong disapproval amongst the Sioux and those
who acted in terms of the above norms would be regarded as deviant. Generosity was a
major value of Sioux culture and the distributed rather than accumulation of wealth was
the route to power and prestige.

Chiefs were expected to distribute gifts of horses, beadwork and weapons to their
followers. The norms of Sioux culture prevented the accumulation of Wealth. The Sioux
had no conception of the individual ownership of land; the produce of the hunt was
automatically shared by all members of the group. Emile Durkheim developed his
view on deviance in his discussion of crime in The Rules of Sociological Method. He
argues that crime is an inevitable and normal aspect of social life; it is an integral part of
all healthy societies. It is inevitable because not every member of society can be equally
committed to the 'collective sentiments, the shared values and beliefs of society. Since
individuals are exposed to different influences and circumstances, it is impossible for all
to be alike. Therefore, not everybody shares the same restraints about breaking the law.

Crime is not only inevitable, it can also be functional. Durkheim argues that it only
becomes dysfunctional when its rate is unusually high. He argues that all social change
begins with some form of deviance. In order for change to occur, Yesterday's deviance
must become today's normality. Since a certain amount of change is healthy for society,
so it can progress rather than stagnate. So for change to occur, the collective sentiments
must not be too strong, or too hostile. Infact, they must have only moderate energy'
because if they were to strong they would crush all originality both of the criminal and of
the genius. Thus the collective sentiments must not be sufficiently powerful to block the
expression of people like Jesus, William Wilberforce, Martin Luther King
and Mother Teresa. Durkheim regarded some crime as and anticipation of the
morality of the future.
Thus heretics who were denounced by both the state and the established church may
represent the collective sentiments of the future. In the same way terrorists of freedom
fighters may represent a future established order .If crime is inevitable, what is the
function of punishment. Durkheim argues that its function is not to remove crime in
society. Rather it is to maintain the collective sentiments at their necessary level of
strength. In Durkheim's words, punishment 'serves to heal the wounds done to the
collective sentiments'. Without punishment the collective sentiments would lose their
force to control behaviour and the crime rate would reach the point where it becomes
dysfunctional. Thus in Durkheim's view, a healthy society requires both crime and
punishment, both are inevitable, both are functional.
Following Durkheim, Merton argues that deviance results not from pathological
personalities but from the culture and structure of society itself. He begins from the
standard functionalist position of value consensus, that is, all members of society share
the same values. However, since members of society are placed in different positions in
the social structure, for example, they differ in terms of class position; they do not have
the same opportunity of realizing the shared value. This situation can generate deviance.
In Merton's words: 'The social and cultural structure generates pressure for
socially deviant behaviour upon people variously located in that structure.
Using USA as an example, Merton outlines his theory as follows. Members of American
Society share the major values of American culture. In particular they share the goal of
success for which they all strive and which is largely measured in terms of wealth and
material possessions. The 'American Dream' states that all members of society have an
equal opportunity of achieving success, of owning a Cadillac, a Beverley Hills mansion
and a substantial bank balance. In all societies there are institutionalized means of
reaching culturally defined goals. In America the accepted ways of achieving success are
through educational qualifications, talent, hard work, drive, determination and ambition.
In a balanced society an equal emphasis is placed upon both cultural goals and
institutionalized means, and members are satisfied with both. But in America great
importance is attached to success and relatively less importance is given to the accepted
ways of achieving success. As such, American society is unstable, unbalanced. There is a
tendency to reject the 'rules of the game' and to strive for success by all available means.

The situation becomes like a game of cards in which winning becomes so important that
the rules are abandoned by some of the players. When rules cease to operate a situation of
normlessness or 'anomie' results. In this situation of anything norms no longer direct
behavior and deviance is encouraged. However, individuals will respond to a situation of
anomie in different ways. In particular, their reaction will be shaped by their position in
the social structure. Merton outlines five possible ways in which members of American
society can respond to success goals. The first and most common response is conformity.
Members of society conform both to success goals and the normative means of reaching
them. A second response is 'innovation'.
This response rejects normative means of achieving success and turns to deviant means,
crime in particular. Merton argues that members of the lower social strata are most likely
to select this route to success.
Merton uses the term 'ritualism' to describe the third possible response. Those who
select this alternative are deviant because they have largely abandoned the commonly
held success goals. The pressure to adopt this alternative is greatest on members of the
lower middle class. Their occupations provide less opportunity for success than those of
other members of the middle class. However, compared o members of the working class,
they have been strongly socialized to conform to social norms. This prevents them from
turning to crime. Unable to innovate and with jobs that offer little opportunity for
advancement, their only solution is to scale down or abandon their success goals. Merton
terms the fourth and least common response, 'retreatism'.

It applies to psychotics, artists, pariahs, drug addicts. They have strongly internalized
both the cultural goals and the institutionalized means but is unable to achieve success.
They resolve the conflict of their situation by abandoning both the goals and the means of
reaching them. They are unable to cope with challenges and drop out of society defeated
and resigned to their failure. They are deviant in two ways: they have rejected both the
cultural goals and the institutionalized means. Merton does not relate retreatism to social
class position. Rebellion forms the fifth and final response. It is a rejection of both the
success goals and the institutionalized means and their replacement by different goals and
means. Those who adopt this alternative want to create a new society. Thus urban
guerillas in Western European capitalist societies adopt deviant means- terrorism- to
reach deviant goals such as a communist society. Merton argues that it is typically
members of a rising class rather than the most depressed strata who organize the resentful
and rebellious into a revolutionary group.

To summarize, Merton claims that his analysis shows how the culture and structure of
society generates deviance.

COOPERATION:-
Cooperation involves individuals or groups working together for the achievement of
their individual or collective goals. In its simplest form, cooperation may involve only
two people who work together towards a common goal. Two college students working
together to complete a laboratory experiment, or two inter-city youths working together
to protect their 'turf' from violation by outsiders are examples.
In these cases, solidarity between the collaborators is encouraged and they share
jointly the reward of their cooperation. Again at the level of two-person interactions, the
goals towards which the cooperation parties work may be consistent with each other, but
they may not be identical or shared.

From the college experience again, student and professor may cooperate towards the
student's mastery of professor's discipline, but the student may be working to make a
good grade while the professor is working to establish or reinforce his/her reputation as a
good teacher. If some of their rewards are shared, some also are individual but attainable
only through joint effort. The cooperating parties in this case may be either neutral or
kindly disposed towards one another but their relationship is not likely to have lasting
solidarity.
Man can't associate without cooperating, without working together in the pursuit of like
to common interests. It can be divided into five principal types.

(1). DIRECT COOPERATION:-

Those activities in which people do like things together play together, worship together,
labor together in myriad ways. The essential character is that people do in company, the
things which they can also do separately or in isolation. They do them together because it
brings social satisfaction.

(2). INDIRECT COOPERATION:-

Those activities in which people do definitely unlike tasks toward a single end. Here the
famous principle of the 'division of labour' is introduced, a principle that is imbedded in
the nature of social revealed wherever people combine their difference for mutual
satisfaction or for a common end.

(3). PRIMARY COOPERATION:-

It is found in primary groups such as family, neighborhood, friends and so on. Here, there
is an identity end. The rewards for which everyone works are shared or meant to be
shared, with every other member in the group. Means and goals become one, for
cooperation itself is a highly prized value.
(4).SECONDARY COOPERATION:- It is the characteristic feature of
the modern civilized society and is found mainly in social groups. It is highly formalized
and specialized. Each performs his/her task, and thus helps others to perform their tasks,
so that he/she can separately enjoy the fruits of his/her cooperation.

(5)TERTIARY COOPERATION:-
It may be found between 2 or more political parties, castes, tribes, religions groups etc. It
is often called accommodation. The two groups may cooperate and work together for
antagonistic goals.

Cooperation is important in the life of an individual that it is difficult for man to survive
without it. C.H. Cooley says that Cooperation arises only when men realize that they
have a common interest. They have sufficient theme, intelligence and self control, to seek
this interest through united action.

ASSIMILATION:-
The term 'assimilation' again is in general use, being applied most often to the process
whereby large numbers of migrants from Europe were absorbed into the American
population during the 19th and the early part of the 20th century. The assimilation of
immigrants was a dramatic and highly visible set of events and illustrates the process
well. There are other types of assimilation, however, and there are aspects of the
assimilation of European migrants that might be put in propositional form.
(1).Assimilation is a two-way process.
(2).Assimilation of groups as well as individuals takes place.
(3).Some Assimilation probably occurs in all lasting interpersonal situations.
(4).Assimilation is often incomplete and creates adjustment problems for individuals. &
(5).Assimilation does not proceed equally rapidly and equally effectively in all inter-
group situations.

DEFINATIONS OF ASSIMILATION:-
(1). According to Young and Mack:- Assimilation is the fusion or blending of two
previously distinct groups into one.
(2). According to Bogardus:- Assimilation is the social process whereby attitudes of
many persons are united and thus develop into a united group.
(3). According to Biesanz :- Assimilation is the social process whereby individuals or
groups come to share the same sentiments and goals.
(4). According to Ogburh and Nimkoff:- Assimilation is the process whereby
individuals or groups once dissimilar become similar and identified in their interest and
outlook.

Assimilation is a slow and a gradual process. It takes time. For example, immigrants take
time to get assimilated with majority group. Assimilation is concerned with the
absorption and incorporation of the culture by another.

Accomodation:-
The term 'Accommodation' refers to several sorts of working agreements between
rival groups that permit at least limited cooperation between them even though the issues
dividing them remain unsettled. It does not technically end the conflict, but holds it in
abeyance.
The accommodation may last for only a short time and may be for the purpose of
allowing the conflicting parties to consolidate their positions and to prepare for further
conflict. Or, as is more often the case, the initial accommodation agreed upon by the
parties may be part of the process of seeking solutions to the issues that divide them. If
those solutions are not found, the accommodation itself may become permanent.

DEFINATION OF ACCOMODATION:-
(1). The famous psychologist J.M. Baldwin was the first to use the concept of
accommodation. According to him, the term denotes acquired changes in the behaviour
of individuals which help them to adjust to their environment.
(2). Mac Irer says that the term accommodation refers particularly to the process in
which man attains a sense of harmony with his environment.

(3). Lundberg is of the opinion that the word accommodation has been used to
designate the adjustments which people in groups make to relieve the fatigue and
tensions of competition and conflict.

(4). According to Ogburn and Nimkoff Accommodation is a term used by the

sociologists to describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups.

It is clear from the above that accommodation assumes various forms. Without
accommodation social life could hardly go on. Accommodation checks conflicts and
helps persons and groups to maintain cooperation. It enables person and groups to adjust
themselves to changes functions and status which is brought about by changed
conditions. The only way in which conflicts between groups may be eliminated
permanently is through assimilation. Formally, assimilation is the process whereby group
differences gradually disappear. Issues are based upon differences. When the differences
disappear so do the issue and the conflict.

COMPETITION:-
Just as cooperation exists as a universal form of social interaction, so is competition
found in all societies. Competition grows out of the fact that human needs and desires
appears to be insatiable and the goods, prestige, and perquisites that are the rewards for
successful competition always are in short supply. People everywhere compete for
dwelling space, for mates, for elaborate clothing and other bodily ornaments, and for
wealth whether defined in terms of land, animals, money or even cockle shells.
Although all societies acknowledge and support the value of competition in some areas of
life, they differ in the relative emphasis that they place on competition and cooperation,
cooperation and competition always exist as reciprocal aspects of the same general
experience. European capitalist society, generally, has accepted the view that the
collective interest further by individual and group competition spurs people on to
accomplish more than can be managed under other circumstances.

This stands in marked contrast to the beliefs of some other societies; to that of the Zuni
Indians of the American South west. The Zunis discouraged the accumulation of wealth
and they minimize status differences among themselves. They also regard overt
competitiveness as a matter of taste in their children. There is some justification for this
reaction to competition. Competition, however, is an ideal type. An ideal type is a form
of concept that is constructed by taking one or more characteristics of a phenomenon and
accentuating those characteristics to their logical maximum or reducing them to their
logical minimum. The type thus constructed does not represent reality because the very
process of its construction involves exaggeration.

Ideal types, nevertheless, are very useful as logical standards by which reality can be
measured. This often is done by making a pair of ideal types and letting them represent
the ends of a continuum or scale. Because the ends of the scale are defined in terms of
logical extremes, no existing case falls at either end of the continuum, but all cases may
be ranged somewhere along the continuum between the two end points.

NATURE & CHARACTERISTICS OF

COMPETITION:-
(1). Scarcity as a condition of competition:- Wherever there are commonly
desired goods and services, there is competition. Infact economics starts with its
fundamental proposition that while human wants are unlimited the resources that can
satisfy these wants are strictly limited. Hence people compete for the possession of these
limited resources. As Hamilton has pointed out competition is necessitated by a
population of insatiable wants and a world of stubborn and inadequate resources.
( 2). Competition is continuous:- it is found virtually in every area of social
activity and social interaction- particularly, competition for status, wealth and fame is
always present in almost all societies.

(3). Competition is a cause of social change:- Competition is a cause of social

change in that; it causes persons to adopt new forms of behavior in order to attain desired
ends. New forms of behavior involve inventions and innovations which naturally bring
about social change.

(4). Competition may be personal or impersonal:- Competition is normally

directed towards a goal and not against any individual. Some times, it takes place without
the actual knowledge of other's existence. It is impersonal as in the case of civil service
examination in which the contestants are not even aware of one another's identity.
Competition may also be personal as when two individuals contest for election to an
office. As competition becomes more personal it leads to rivalry and shades into conflict.
Competition in the social world is largely impersonal.

(5). Competition is always governed by norms:- Competition is not limitless

nor is it un- regulated. There is no such thing as unrestricted competition. Such a phrase
is contradiction in terms. Moral norms or legal rules always govern and control
competition. Competitors are expected to use fair tactics and not cut throat devices.

Some sociologists have also spoken of cultural competition. It may take place between
two or more cultural groups. Human history provides examples of such a competition for
example; there has always been a keen competition between the culture of the native and
that of the invaders. Like cooperation, competition occurs at personal, group, and
organizational levels. People competing for affection, a promotion, or public office all are
examples of personal competition. The competitors are likely to know one another and to
regard others defeat as essential to the attainment of their own goals.

INTEGRATION:-
Integration is defined as a process of developing a society in which all the social
groups share the socioeconomic and cultural life. The integration of the communities is
facilitated by the factors that help assimilation. Alcott Parsons defined integration as a
mode of relation of the units of the system by virtue of which on the one hand they act
collectively to avoid disrupting the system and making it impossible to maintain the
stability and on the other hand to cooperate to promote its functioning as a unity. He
believed that the kinship group, family, profession, the state and religion are visible social
structures and these perform the function of integration in various forms.

CHAPTER-2
Marriage, Family and Kinship
MARRIAGE TYPES & NORMS:-
Marriage is one of the universal social institutions established to control and regulate
the life of mankind. It is closely associated with the institution of family.Infact both the
institutions are complementary to each other. It is an institution with different
implications in different cultures.
Its purposes, functions and forms may differ from society to society but it is present
everywhere as an institution. Westermarck in 'History of Human marriage' defines
marriage as the more or less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond
the mere act of propagation till after the birth of offspring. According to Malinowski
marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance of children. Robert Lowie
describes marriage as a relatively permanent bond between permissible mates. For
Horton and Hunt marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more persons
establish a family.
TYPES OF MARRIAGE:-
POLYGYNY:-

It is a form of marriage in which one man marries more than one woman at a given time.
It is of two types =>
(1). SORONAL POLYGYNY
(2). NON SORONAL POLYGYNY
SORONAL POLYGYNY:-

It is a type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the sisters. It is often called
sororate.

NON SORONAL POLYGYNY:-

It is a type of marriage in which the wives are not related as sisters.

POLYANDRY:-

It is the marriage of one woman with more than one man. It is less common than
polygyny. It is of two types---- Fraternal Polyandry and non fraternal polyandry.

(1) FRATERNAL POLYANDRY:-

When several brothers share the same wife the practice can be called alelphic or fraternal
polyandry. This practice of being mate, actual or potential to one's husband's brothers is
called levirate. It is prevalent among Todas.

(2) NON FRATERNAL POLYANDRY:-

In this type the husband need not have any close relationship prior to the marriage. The
wife goes to spend some time with each husband. So long as a woman lives with one of
her husbands; the others have no claim over her.
MONOGAMY:-

It is a form of marriage in which one man marries one woman .It is the most common and
acceptable form of marriage.

SERIAL MONOGAMY:-

In many societies individuals are permitted to marry again often on the death of the first
spouse or after divorce but they cannot have more than one spouse at one and the same
time.

STRAIGHT MONOGAMY:-
In this remarriage is not allowed.

GROUP MARRIAGE:-

It means the marriage of two or more women with two or more men. Here the husbands
are common husbands and wives are common wives. Children are regarded as the
children of the entire group as a whole.

RULES OF MARRIAGE:-

No society gives absolute freedom to its members to select their partners. Endogamy and
exogamy are the two main rules that condition marital choice.

ENDOGAMY:-
It is a rule of marriage in which the life-partners are to be selected within the group. It is
marriage within the group and the group may be caste, class, tribe, race, village, religious
group etc.We have caste endogamy, class endogamy, sub caste endogamy, race
endogamy and tribal endogamy etc.In caste endogamy marriage has to take place within
the caste. Brahmin has to marry a Brahmin. In sub caste endogamy it is limited to the sub
caste groups.
EXOGAMY:-:

It is a rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group. It
prohibits marrying within the group. The so-called blood relatives shall neither have
marital connections nor sexual contacts among themselves.

FORMS OF EXOGAMY:-

(1) GOTRA EXOGAMY:- The Hindu practice of one marrying outside one's own
gotra.

(2) PRAVARAEXOGAMY:- Those who belong to the same pravara cannot marry
among themselves.

(3) VILLAGE EXOGAMY:- Many Indian tribes like Naga,Garo,Munda etc have the
practice of marrying outside their village.

(4) PINDA EXOGAMY:- Those who belong to the same panda or sapinda( common
parentage) cannot marry within themselves.
(5) ISOGAMY:- It is the marriage between two equals (status)

(6) ANISOGAMY:- It is an asymmetric marriage alliance between two individuals

belonging to different social statuses. It is of two forms - Hypergamy and Hypogamy.
(7) HYPERGAMY:- It is the marriage of a woman with a man of higher Varna or
superior caste or family.

(8) HYPOGAMY:- It is the marriage of high caste man with a low caste woman.

(9) ORTHOGAMY:- It is the marriage between selected groups.

(10) CEROGAMY:- It is two or more men get married to two or more women.

(11) ANULOMA MARRIAGE:- It is a marriage under which a man can marry from his
own caste or from those below, but a woman can marry only in her caste or above.

(12) PRATILOMA MARRIAGE:- It is a marriage of a woman to a man from a lower

caste which is not permitted.

HINDU MARRIAGE:-
The Hindu community has been giving great importance for marriage since time
immemorial. There are different forms of marriage -

• Brahma Vivaha is where a father marries his daughter to a learned man of good moral
character.

• Asura Vivaha is marriage by paying bride price.

• Rakshasa Vivaha is by capture or abduction without obtaining the consent of a girl or

her parents.

• Gandharva Vivaha is based on mutual love.

• Prajapatya Vivaha is where no ceremony is performed but the groom is honoured.

• Arsh Vivaha is where the groom gives a pair of cattle or bull to the bride's father before
the marriage.

• Daiva Vivaha is where the girl is given in marriage to a priest instead of dakshina or a
gift.

MUSLIM MARRIAGE:-
In the Muslim community marriage is universal for it discourages celibacy. Muslims call
their marriage Nikah. Marriage is regarded not as a religious sacrament but as a secular
bond. The bridegroom makes a proposal to the bride just before the wedding ceremony in
the presence of two witnesses and a maulavi or kazi.The proposal is called ijab and its
acceptance is called qubul.
It is necessary that both the proposal and its acceptance must take place at the same
meeting to make it a sahi Nikah.It is a matter of tradition among the Muslims to have
marriage among equals. Though there is no legal prohibition to contract marriage with a
person of low status, such marriages are looked down upon.

The run-away marriages called kifa when the girls run away with boys and marry them
on their own choice are not recognized. Marrying idolaters and slaves is also not
approved. There is also provision of preferential system in mate selection. The parallel
cousins and cross cousins are allowed to get married.

Marriage that is held contrary to the Islamic rules is called batil or invalid
marriage.Meher or dower is a practice associated with Muslim marriage. It is a sum of
money or other property which a wife is entitled to get from her husband in consideration
of the marriage.

Muta is a special type of marriage for pleasure which is for a specified period only.Iddat
is the period of seclusion for three menstrual periods for a woman after the death /divorce
by her husband to ascertain whether she is pregnant or not. Only after this period she can
remarry.

Muslim marriage can be dissolved in the following ways:-

Divorce as per the Muslim law but without the intervention of the court: They are of two
types:-
(1) Kula where divorce is initiated at the instance of the wife &
(2) Mubarat where initiative may come either from the wife or from the husband.

Talaq represents one of the ways according to which a Muslim husband can give divorce
to his wife as per the Muslim law by repeating the dismissal formula thrice. The talaq
may be affected either orally by making some pronouncements or in writing by
presenting talaqnama.

Divorce as recognized by Shariah Act 1937 provides for three forms of divorce:-
(1)Illa, (2) Zihar & (3) Lian. There is also provision of divorce as per the
Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act 1939.

TRIBAL MARRIAGE:-
• Marriage by exchange.
• Marriage by capture is where a man forcibly marries a woman.
• Marriage by intrusion is where a woman forcibly marries a man.
• Marriage by probation allow a man to stay at woman place for weeks together after
which if they decide to get married.
• Marriage by purchase or giving b ride price. A man is required to give an agreed
amount of cash/kind to the parents of the bride as price which usually varies according to
the physical beauty and utility of the bride.
• Marriage by service is where the man serves at his father-in-law's house before
marriage.
• Marriage by trial.
• Marriage by mutual consent.
• Marriage by elopement.

FAMILY:-
The family forms the basic unit of social organization and it is difficult to imagine how
human society could function without it. The family has been seen as a universal social
institution an inevitable part of human society.

According to Burgess and Lock the family is a group of persons united by ties of
marriage, blood or adoption constituting a single household interacting with each other in
their respective social role of husband and wife, mother and father, brother and sister
creating a common culture.

G.P Murdock defines the family as a social group characterized by common residence,
economic cooperation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes at least two of
whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and one or more children own or
adopted of the sexually co-habiting adults.

Nimkoff says that family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife with
or without child or of a man or woman alone with children. According to Maclver family
is a group defined by sex relationships sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the
procreation and upbringing of children.Kingsley Davis describes family as a group of
persons whose relations to one another are based upon consanguinity and who are
therefore kin to one another.

Malinowski opined that the family is the institution within which the cultural traditions
of a society is handed over to a newer generation. This indispensable function could not
be filled unless the relations to parents and children were relations reciprocally of
authority and respect. According to Talcott Parsons families are factories which produce
human personalities.

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY:-

UNIVERSALITY:-

There is no human society in which some form of the family does not appear.Malinowski
writes the typical family a group consisting of mother, father and their progeny is found
in all communities,savage,barbarians and civilized. The irresistible sex need, the urge for
reproduction and the common economic needs have contributed to this universality.

EMOTIONAL BASIS:-

The family is grounded in emotions and sentiments. It is based on our impulses of

mating, procreation, maternal devotion, fraternal love and parental care. It is built upon
sentiments of love, affection, sympathy, cooperation and friendship.

LIMITED SIZE:-

The family is smaller in size. As a primary group its size is necessarily limited. It is a
smallest social unit.

FORMATIVE INFLUENCE:-
The family welds an environment which surrounds trains and educates the child. It shapes
the personality and moulds the character of its members. It emotionally conditions the
child.

NUCLEAR POSITION IN THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE:-

The family is the nucleus of all other social organizations. The whole social structure is
built of family units.

RESPONSIBILITY OF THE MEMBERS:-

The members of the family has certain responsibilities, duties and obligations.Maclver
points out that in times of crisis men may work and fight and die for their country but
they toil for their families all their lives.

SOCIAL REGULATION:-

The family is guarded both by social taboos and by legal regulations. The society takes
precaution to safeguard this organization from any possible breakdown.

TYPES & FORMS OF THE FAMILY:-

On the basis of marriage, family has been classified into three major types:-

    • Polygamous or polygynous family

    • Polyandrous family

    • Monogamous family

(

On the basis of the nature of residence, family can be classified into three main
forms:-

    • Family of matrilocal residence

    • Family of patrilocal residence

    • Family of changing residence

On the basis of ancestry or descent, family can be classified into two main types:-

    • Matrilineal family

    • Patrilineal family

On the basis of size or structure and the depth of generations, family can be
classified into two main types:-

    • Nuclear or the single unit family

    • Joint family

On the basis of the nature of relations among the family members, the family
can be classified into two main types:-

    • The conjugal family which consists of adult members among there exists sex
relationship.

    • Consanguine family which consists of members among whom there exists blood
relationship- brother and sister, father and son etc.
KINSHIP:-
Kinship is the relation by the bond of blood, marriage and includes kindered ones. It
represents one of the basic social institutions. Kinship is universal and in most societies
plays a significant role in the socialization of individuals and the maintenance of group
solidarity. It is very important in primitive societies and extends its influence on almost
all their activities.A.R Radcliffe Brown defines kinship as a system of dynamic relations
between person and person in a community, the behavior of any two persons in any of
these relations being regulated in some way and to a greater or less extent by social
usage.
AFFINAL & CONSANGUINEOUS KINSHIP:-

Relation by the bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship such as parents and their
children and between children of same parents. Thus son, daughter, brother, sister,
paternal uncle etc are consanguineous kin. Each of these is related through blood.
Kinship due to marriage is affinal kinship. New relations are created when marriage takes
place. Not only man establishes relationship with the girl and the members of her but also
family members of both the man and the woman get bound among themselves. Kinship
includes Agnates (sapindas, sagotras); cognates (from mother's side) and bandhus
(atamabandhus, pitrubandhus, and matrubandhus).
DESCENT:-
A descent group is any social group in which membership depends on common descent
from a real or mythical ancestor. Thus a lineage is a unilineal descent group in which
membership may rest either on matrilineal descent (patrilineage) or on matrilineal
descent (matrilineage). In a cognatic descent, all descendants of an ancestor\ancestress
enjoy membership of a common descent group by virtue of any combination of male or
female linkages. However, cognatic descent is sometimes used synonymously with either
'bilateral' or 'consanguine descent.

A clan is a unilineal descent groups the members of which may claim either partilineal
(Patriclan) or matrilineal descent (Matriclan) from a founder, but do not know the
genealogical ties with the ancestor\ancestress. A phratry is a grouping of clans which are
related by traditions of common descent. Mythical ancestors are thus common in clans
and phratries. Totemic clans, in which membership is periodically reinforced by common
rituals such as sacred meals, have been of special interest to social anthropologists and
sociologists of religion. Where the descent groups of a society are organized into two
main divisions, these are known as moieties (halves). The analysis of descent groups is
crucial for any anthropological study of pre-industrial society, but in most Western
industrial societies the principle of descent is not prominent and descent groups are
uncommon.

PRIMARY,SECONDARY & TERTIARY KINS:-

PRIMARY KINS:-

Every individual who belong to a nuclear family finds his primary kins within the family.
There are 8 primary kins- husband-wife, father-son, mother-son, father-daughter, mother-
daughter, younger brother-elder brother, younger sister-elder sister and brother-sister.
SECONDARY KINS:-

Outside the nuclear family the individual can have 33 types of secondary relatives. For
example mother's brother, brother's wife, sister's husband, father's brother.

TERTIARY KINS:-

Tertiary kins refer to the secondary kins of our primary kins.For example wife's brother's
son, sister's husband's brother and so on. There are 151 types of tertiary kins.

KINSHIP USAGES:-

Kinship usages or the rules of kinship are significant in understanding kinship system.
They serve two main purposes:
  • They create groups or special groupings or kin. For example- family extended family,
clan etc.

  • Kinship rules govern the role of relationships among the kins.

Kinship usage provides guidelines for interaction among persons in these social
groupings. It defines proper and acceptable role relationships. Thus it acts as a regulator
of social life. Some of these relationships are: avoidance, teknonymy, avunculate,
amitate, couvades and joking relationship.

AVOIDANCE:-

It means that two kins normally of opposite sex should avoid each other. In almost all
societies avoidance rules prescribe that men and women must maintain certain amount of
modesty in speech, dress and gesture in a mixed company. Thus a father-in-law should
avoid daughter-in-law. The purdah system in Hindu family in the north illustrates the
usage of avoidance.
TEKNONYMY:-

According to the usage of this usage a kin is not referred directly but is referred to
through another kin. In a traditional Hindu family wife does not directly utter the name of
her husband but refers to her husband as the father of so and so.
AVUNCULATE:-

It refers to the special relationship that persists in some societies between a man and his
mother's brother. This usage is found in a matriarchal system in which prominence is
given to the maternal uncle in the life of his nephews and nieces.

AMITATE:-

The usage of amitate gives special role to the father's sister. Here father's sister is given
more respect than the mother. Among Todas the child gets the name not through its
parents but through the father's sister. Naming the child is her privilege.

CONVADE:-

The usage of couvades prevalent among the Khasi and the Todas tribes makes the
husband to lead the life of an invalid along with his wife whenever she gives birth to a
child. He refrains from the active work, takes diet and observes some taboos which are
observed by his wife. According to Malinowski the usage of couvade contributes to a
strong marital bond between the husband and wife.

JOKING RELATIONSHIP:-

A joking relationship involves a particular combination of friendliness and antagonism

between individuals and groups in certain social situations. In these situations one
individual or group is allowed to mock or ridicule the other without offence being taken.
The usage of the joking relationship permits to tease and make fun of the other.

THINGS TO REMEMBER:-
• A person referred to as the parent of his or her child indicates the practice of
Teknonymy.

• Rivers has given the explanation of kinship terms referring to social usages which are
antecedent to their use.

• The residence rule which gives choice to the newly -weds to live with the parents of
either the groom or the bride is known as biolocal.
• When both patrilineal and matrilineal rules apply jointly it is called double descent.

• Rivers has defined the clan as an exogamous division of tribe.

• Social recognition is important in determining consanguineous kinship.

• In double descent system one inherits fathers' patrilineal relatives and mother's
matrilineal relatives.
• Maclver said that kinship creates society and society creates the state.
• Weiser stressed that clan is usually associated with totemism.
• Levi Strauss has regarded preferential mating as a device for strengthening group
solidarity.
• Westermarck has written the history of human marriage.
• Westermarck has listed various causes of polygyny including variety of women.
• Murdock has distinguished between the family of orientation and the family of
procreation.
• Morgan suggested historical evolution of the form of marriage and family.
• Tribes such as Mundas and Nagas do not permit marriage between persons from the
same village.
• According to Westermarck marriage is itself rooted in the family rather than family in
marriage.
• According to D.N Majumdar the Hindu society presently recognizes only two forms of
marriage the Brahma and Asura.
• A Tarawad splits into smaller units called Tavazhis.
• When one becomes the member of the consanguineal relatives of both father and
mother, it is known as bilateral descent.
• The rule of residence generally followed in India is patrilocal.
• When not mutual, a joking relationship assumes the form of social control.
• Where father's sister is given more respect than the mother the relationship is called
amitate.

• Neolocal rule of residence is generally followed in western countries.

• People bond together in groups based on reproduction refers to kinship.
• Experimental marriage is known as privileged relationship.
• Marriage of one man with a woman and her several sisters are called sororal polygamy.
• The marriage of a Hindu is illegal if his or her spouse is alive. This restriction is
according to Hindu Marriage Act.
• Marriage of a man of high caste with a woman of lower caste is called Anuloma
marriage.
• Levi Strauss believed that no society was perfectly unilineal.
• Radcliff Brown introduced the term lineage group to designate the living members of a
group.
• Morgan believed the earliest form of kin group to be the clan.
• Rivers has listed belief in common descent and possession of a common totem as
characterizing a clan.
• Murdock has called the clan a compromise kin group.
• Radcliffe Brown defines sib as a consanguineous group not sharing a common
residence.
• Horton and Hunt described the marriage as the approved social pattern whereby two
or more persons establish a family.
• A nomenclature of the family function is symbolic of system to reckoning descent.
 CHAPTER-3
Social Stratification

INTRODUCTION:-
Social inequality is a universal phenomenon in all societies.
It can exist either in form of a hierarchy of groups or individuals or it may exist without
the creation of a hierarchy. In the former case it is called social hierarchy. While in the
latter case it is known as social differentiation for in almost all societies men and women
are treated unequally. If social inequality manifests itself in the form of a hierarchy
involving ranking of groups then it is known as social stratification, thus social
stratification is a particular case of the social inequality.

Social stratification is essentially a group phenomena.According to Ogburn and Nimkoff

the process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less enduring
hierarchy of status is known as stratification. Melvin Tumin defines social stratification
as an arrangement of any social group or society into a hierarchy of positions that are
unequal with regard to power, property, social evaluation and psychic gratification.
According to Lundberg a stratified society is one marked by inequality by differences
among people that are evaluated by them as being lower and higher.

There are two approaches to the study of stratification:

Conflict Approach under which Karl Marx and Weber's theories come.

Functionalist Approach under which Talcott Parsons and Davis and Moore's fall.

CONFLICT THEORIES:-
According to Karl Marx in all stratified societies there are two major social groups: a
ruling class and a subject class. The ruling class derives its power from its ownership and
control of the forces of production. The ruling class exploits and oppresses the subject
class. As a result there is a basic conflict of interest between the two classes. The various
institutions of society such as the legal and political system are instruments of ruling class
domination and serve to further its interests. Marx believed that western society
developed through four main epochs-primitive communism, ancient society, feudal
society and capitalist society. Primitive communism is represented by the societies of
pre-history and provides the only example of the classless society. From then all societies
are divided into two major classes - master and slaves in ancient society, lords and serfs
in feudal society and capitalist and wage labourers in capitalist society.
Weber sees class in economic terms.He argues that classes develop in market economies
in which individuals compete for economic gain. He defines a class as a group of
individuals who share a similar position in market economy and by virtue of that fact
receive similar economic rewards. Thus a person's class situation is basically his market
situation.
Those who share a similar class situation also share similar life chances. Their economic
position will directly affect their chances of obtaining those things defined as desirable in
their society. Weber argues that the major class division is between those who own the
forces of production and those who do not. He distinguished the following class grouping
in capitalist society:-

(1) The propertied upper class.

(2) The property less white collar workers.
(3) The petty bourgeoisie.
(4) The manual working class.

FUNCTIONALIST THEORIES:-
Talcott Parsons believe that order, stability and cooperation in society are based on
value consensus that is a general agreement by members of society concerning what is
good and worthwhile. Stratification system derives from common values it follows from
the existence of values that individuals will be evaluated and therefore placed in some
form of rank order. Stratification is the ranking of units in a social system in accordance
with the common value system. Those who perform successfully in terms of society's
values will be ranked highly and they will be likely to receive a variety of rewards and
will be accorded high prestige since they exemplify and personify common values.
According to Kingsley Davis and Moore stratification exists in every known human
society. All social system shares certain functional prerequisites which must be met if the
system is to survive and operate efficiently. One such prerequisite is role allocation and
performance. This means that all roles must be filled. They will be filled by those best
able to perform them. The necessary training for them is undertaken and that the roles are
performed conscientiously. Davis and Moore argue that all societies need some
mechanism for insuring effective role allocation and performance. This mechanism is
social stratification which they see as a system which attaches unequal rewards and
privileges to the positions in society. They concluded that social stratification is a device
by which societies insure that the most important positions are conscientiously filled by
the most qualified persons.

Forms and functions:-

Social stratification can be classified into four forms - slavery, estates, caste and class.

• The slavery system

• The estate system
• The caste system

THE SLAVERY SYSTEM:-

It is an extreme form of inequality in which some individuals are owned by others as their
property.

The slave owner has full control including using violence over the slave.L.T Hobhouse
defined slave as a man whom law and custom regard as the property of another. In
extreme cases he is wholly without rights. He is in lower condition as compared with
freemen. The slaves have no political rights he does not choose his government, he does
not attend the public councils. Socially he is despised. He is compelled to work. The
slavery system has existed sporadically at many times and places but there are two major
examples of slavery - societies of the ancient world based upon slavery (Greek and
Roman) and southern states of USA in the 18th and 19th centuries. According to H.J
Nieboer the basis of slavery is always economic because with it emerged a kind of
aristocracy which lived upon slave labour.

THE ESTATE SYSTEM:-

The estate system is synonymous with Feudalism. The feudal estates had three important
characteristics .In the first place they were legally defined; each estate had a status with
legal rights and duties, privileges and obligations. Secondly the estates represented a
broad division of labor and were regarded as having definite functions. The nobility were
ordained to defend all, the clergy to pray for all and the commons to provide food for all.
Thirdly the feudal estates were political groups. An assembly of estates possessed
political power. From this point of view the serfs did not constitute an estate until 12th
century. This period saw the emergence of third estate -burghers who were a distinctive
group within the system. Thus the three estates -clergy, nobility and commoners
functioned like three political groups.

THE CASTE SYSTEM:-

Caste is closely connected with the Hindu philosophy and religion, custom and tradition
.It is believed to have had a divine origin and sanction. It is deeply rooted social
institution in India. There are more than 2800 castes and sub-castes with all their
peculiarities. The term caste is derived from the Spanish word caste meaning breed or
lineage.

The word caste also signifies race or kind. The Sanskrit word for caste is varna which
means colour.The caste stratification of the Indian society had its origin in the
chaturvarna system. According to this doctrine the Hindu society was divided into
four main varnas - Brahmins, Kashtriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.The Varna system
prevalent during the Vedic period was mainly based on division of labour and occupation.

The caste system owns its origin to the Varna system. Ghurye says any attempt to define
caste is bound to fail because of the complexity of the phenomenon. According to Risely
caste is a collection of families bearing a common name claiming a common descent
from a mythical ancestor professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded
by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous
community.

According to Maclver and Page when status is wholly predetermined so that men are
born to their lot without any hope of changing it, then the class takes the extreme form of
caste. Cooley says that when a class is somewhat strictly hereditary we may call it
caste.M.N Srinivas sees caste as a segmentary system. Every caste for him divided into
sub castes which are the units of endogamy whose members follow a common
occupation, social and ritual life and common culture and whose members are governed
by the same authoritative body viz the panchayat.

According to Bailey caste groups are united into a system through two principles of
segregation and hierarchy. For Dumont caste is not a form of stratification but as a
special form of inequality. The major attributes of caste are the hierarchy, the separation
and the division of labour. Weber sees caste as the enhancement and transformation of
social distance into religious or strictly a magical principle.

For Adrian Mayer caste hierarchy is not just determined by economic and political
factors although these are important.

MAIN FEATURES OF CASTE SYSTEM:-

Caste system hierarchically divides the society.

A sense of highness and lowness or superiority and inferiority is associated with this
gradation or ranking. The Brahmins are placed at the top of the hierarchy and are
regarded as pure or supreme. The degraded caste or the untouchables have occupied the
other end of the hierarchy.
The status of an individual is determined by his birth and not by selection nor by
accomplishments. Each caste has its own customs, traditions practices and rituals.It has
its own informal rules, regulations and procedures. The caste panchayats or the caste
councils regulate the conduct of members.

The caste system has imposed certain restrictions on the food habitats of the members
these differ from caste to caste. In North India Brahmin would accept pakka food only
from some castes lower than his own. But he would not accept kachcha food prepared
with the use of water at the hands of no other caste except his own.

As a matter of rule and practice no individual would accept kachcha food prepared by an
inferior casteman.The caste system put restriction on the range of social relations also.
The idea of pollution means a touch of lower caste man would pollute or defile a man of
higher caste. Even his shadow is considered enough to pollute a higher caste man.

The lower caste people suffered from certain socio-religious disabilities. The impure
castes are made to live on the outskirts of the city and they are not allowed to draw water
from the public wells. In earlier times entrance to temples and other places of religious
importance were forbidden to them. Educational facilities, legal rights and political
representation were denied to them for a very long time.

If the lower castes suffer from certain disabilities some higher caste like the Brahmins
enjoy certain privileges like conducting prayers in the temples etc.There is gradation of
occupations also. Some occupations are considered superior and sacred while certain
others degrading and inferior.

For a long time occupations were very much associated with the caste system. Each caste
had its own specific occupations which were almost hereditary. There was no scope for
individual talent, aptitude, enterprise or abilities. The caste system imposes restrictions on
marriage also. Caste is an endogamous group.

Each caste is subdivided into certain sub castes which are again endogamous. Intercaste
marriages are still looked down upon in the traditional Indian society.

FUNCTIONS OF THE CASTE SYSTEM:-

The caste system is credited to ensure the continuity of the traditional social organization
of India.
It has accommodated multiple communities including invading tribes in the Indian
society. The knowledge and skills of the occupations have passed down from one
generation to the next. Through subsystems like Jajmani system the caste system
promoted interdependent interaction between various castes and communities with in a
village. The rituals and traditions promoted cooperation and unity between members of
the different castes.

THE DYSFUNCTIONS:-
Caste system promoted untouchability and discrimination against certain members of the
society. It hindered both horizontal and vertical social mobility forcing an individual to
carry on the traditional occupation against his or her will and capacity. The status of
women was affected and they were relegated to the background. The caste system
divided the society into mutually hostile and conflicting groups and subgroups.

DOMINANT CASTE:-
This concept given by M.N Srinivas holds that a caste is dominant when it is numerically
higher than the other castes. In the Mysore village he described the peasant Okkalinga
composed of nearly half of the population made up of nineteenth jati group. The
Okkalinga were the biggest land owner. The chief criteria of domination of a caste are

1. Economic strength
2. Political power
3. Ritual purity
4. Numerical strength

The dominant caste also wields economic and political power over the other caste groups.
It also enjoys a high ritual status in the local caste hierarchy. The dominant caste may not
be ritually high but enjoy high status because of wealth, political power and numerical
strength. The presence of educated persons and high occupation rate also play an
important role in deciding its dominance over other caste groupings. Sometimes a single
clan of dominant caste controls a number of villages in areas.

The dominant caste settle dispute between persons belonging to their own and other
jati.The power of the dominant caste is supported by a norm discouraging village from
seeking justice from area,govt official, court or police located outside the village. The
members of the dominant caste particularly those from the wealthy and powerful families
are representative of this village in dealing with the officials.

PURITY & POLLUTION:-

The notions of purity and pollution are critical for defining and understanding caste
hierarchy.

According to these concepts, Brahmins hold the highest rank and Shudras the lowest in
the caste hierarchy.

The Varna System represents a social stratification which includes four varnas namely-
Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Shudras.The Shudras were allocated the lowest
rank of social ladder and their responsibilities included service of the three Varnas. The
superior castes tried to maintain their ceremonial purity.

Dumont holds the notion of purity and pollution interlinked with the caste system and
untouchability.The hierarchy of caste is decided according to the degree of purity and
pollution. It plays a very crucial role in maintaining the required distance between
different castes. But the pollution distance varies from caste to caste and from place to
place.

Dipankar Gupta observes that the notion of purity and pollution as Dumont observed is
integrally linked with the institution of untouchability .But unlike untouchability the
notion of purity and pollution is also a historical accretion. Over time this notion freed
itself from its specific and original task of separating untouchables from the others and
began to be operative at different planes of the caste system.

The concept of purity and pollution plays a very crucial role in maintaining the required
distance between different castes. But the pollution distance varies from caste to caste
and from place to place.

SANSKRITIZATION:-
Prof M.N Srinivas introduced the term sanskritization to Indian Sociology. The term
refers to a process whereby people of lower castes collectively try to adopt upper caste
practices and beliefs to acquire higher status. It indicates a process of cultural mobility
that is taking place in the traditional social system of India.M.N Srinivas in his study of
the Coorg in Karnataka found that lower castes in order to raise their position in the caste
hierarchy adopted some customs and practices of the Brahmins and gave up some of their
own which were considered to be impure by the higher castes.

For example they gave up meat eating, drinking liquor and animal sacrifice to their
deities. They imitiated Brahmins in matters of dress, food and rituals. By this they could
claim higher positions in the hierarchy of castes within a generation. The reference group
in this process is not always Brahmins but may be the dominant caste of the
locality.Sanskritization has occurred usually in groups who have enjoyed political and
economic power but were not ranked high in ritual ranking. According to Yogendra
Singh the process of sanskritization is an endogenous source of social change .Mackim
Marriot observes that sanskritic rites are often added on to non-sanskritic rites without
replacing them. Harold Gould writes, often the motive force behind sanskritisation is not
of cultural imitation per se but an expression of challenge and revolt against the
socioeconomic deprivations.

CLASS SYSTEM:-
The class system is universal phenomenon denoting a category or group of persons
having a definite status in society which permanently determines their relation to other
groups.
The social classes are de facto groups (not legally or religiously defined and sanctioned)
they are relatively open not closed.

Their basis is indisputably economic but they are more than economic groups. They are
characteristic groups of the industrial societies which have developed since 17th century.
The relative importance and definition of membership in a particular class differs greatly
over time and between societies, particularly in societies that have a legal differentiation
of groups of people by birth or occupation.

In the well-known example of socioeconomic class, many scholars view societies as

stratifying into a hierarchical system based on occupation,economic status, wealth, or
income.According to Ogburn and Nimkoff a social class is the aggregate of persons
having essentially the same social status in a given society.

Marx defined class in terms of the extent to which an individual or social group has
control over the means of production.In Marxist terms a class is a group of people
defined by their relationship to the means of production.Classes are seen to have their
origin in the division of the social product into a necessary product and a surplus product.

Marxists explain history in terms of a war of classes between those who control
production and those who actually produce the goods or services in society (and also
developments in technology and the like). In the Marxist view of capitalism this is a
conflict between capitalists (bourgeoisie) and wage workers (proletariat).
Class antagonism is rooted in the situation that control over social production necessarily
entails control over the class which produces goods -- in capitalism this is the exploitation
of workers by the bourgeoisie. Marx saw class categories as defined by continuing
historical processes. Classes, in Marxism, are not static entities, but are regenerated daily
through the productive process.

Marxism views classes as human social relationships which change over time, with
historical commonality created through shared productive processes.
A 17th-century farm labourer who worked for day wages shares a similar relationship to
production as an average office worker of the 21st century.
In this example it is the shared structure of wage labour that makes both of these
individuals "working class.

"Maclver and Page defines social class as any portion of the community marked off
from the rest by social status.Max Weber suggest that social classes are aggregates of
individuals who have the same opportunities of acquiring goods, the same exhibited
standard of living. He formulated a three component theory of stratification with social,
status and party classes (or politics) as conceptually distinct elements.

• Social class is based on economic relationship to the market (owner, renter, employee,
etc.)

• Status class has to do with non-economic qualities such as education, honour and
prestige

• Party class refers to factors having to do with affiliations in the political domain

According to Weber a more complex division of labour made the class more
heterogeneous.In contrast to simple income--property hierarchies, and to structural class
schemes like Weber's or Marx's, there are theories of class based on other distinctions,
such as culture or educational attainment.

At times, social class can be related to elitism and those in the higher class are usually
known as the "social elite".

For example, Bourdieu seems to have a notion of high and low classes comparable to
that of Marxism, insofar as their conditions are defined by different habitus, which is in
turn defined by different objectively classifiable conditions of existence.

In fact, one of the principal distinctions Bourdieu makes is a distinction between

bourgeoisie taste and the working class taste.Social class is a segment of society with all
the members of all ages and both the sexes who share the same general status.Maclver
says whenever social intercourse is limited by the consideration of social status by
distinctions between higher and lower there exists a social class.

CHRACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CLASS:-

A social class is essentially a status group.

Class is related to status. Different statuses arise in a society as people do different

things, engage in different activities and pursue different vocations. Status in the case of
class system is achieved and not ascribed. Birth is not the criterion of status.
Achievements of an individual mostly decide his status.

Class is almost universal phenomenon. It occurs in all the modern complex societies of
the world. Each social class has its own status in the society. Status is associated with
prestige. The relative position of the class in the social set up arises from the degree of
prestige attached to the status. A social class is relatively a stable group.

A social class is distinguished from other classes by its customary modes of

behaviour.This is often referred to as the life-styles of a particular class. It includes mode
of dress, kind of living the means of recreation and cultural products one is able to enjoy,
the relationship between parent and children. Life-styles reflect the specialty in
preferences, tastes and values of a class.

Social classes are open- groups. They represent an open social system. An open class
system is one in which vertical social mobility is possible. The basis of social classes is
mostly economic but they are not mere economic groups or divisions. Subjective criteria
such as class- consciousness, class solidarity and class identification on the on hand and
the objective criteria such as wealth, property, income, education and occupation on the
other hand are equally important in the class system.

Class system is associated with class consciousness. It is a sentiment that characterizes

the relations of men towards the members of their own and other classes. It consists in the
realization of a similarity of attitude and behavior with members of other classes.

Sociologists have given three-fold classification of classes which consists of - upper

class, middle class and lower class. Sorokin has spoken of three major types of class
stratification -they are economic, political and occupational classes. Lloyd Warner
shows how class distinctions contribute to social stability.

Veblen analyzed the consumption pattern of the rich class by the concept of conspicuous
consumption. Warner has classified classes into six types- upper-upper class, upper-
middle class, upper-lower class, lower-upper class, the lower middle class and lower
class. Anthony Giddens's three class model is the upper, middle and lower (working)
class.

JAJMANI SYSTEM:-
William H Wiser introduced the term Jajmani system in the vocabulary of Indian
sociology through his book The Hindu Jajmani system where he described in detail how
different caste group interact with each other in the production and exchange of goods
and services.
In different parts of India different terms are used to describe this economic interaction
among the castes for example in Maharashtra the term Balutadar is used.

However in sociological literature jajmani system has come to be accepted as a general

term to describe the economic interaction between the castes at the village level. This
system is also a ritual system concerned with the aspects of purity and pollution as with
economic aspects. It functions so that the highest caste remains pure while the lowest
castes absorb pollution from them.

Villages are composed of number of jatis each having its occupational speciality.Jajmani
system is essentially an agriculture based system of production and distribution of goods
and services. Through jajmani relations these occupational jatis get linked with the land
owning dominant caste. The jajmani system operates around the families belonging to the
land owning dominant caste the numbers of which are called jajmans.

The land owning caste occupy a privileged position in the jajmani relations. The
interaction between occupational castes and the land owning castes take place within the
framework of non-reciprocal and asymmetrical type of relations. The land owning castes
maintain a paternalistic attitude of superiority towards their occupational castes that are
called Kamins in North India. The term Kamin means one who works for somebody or
serves him.

In terms of Karl Polanyi's classification of exchange system -Jajmani exchange can be

termed as redistributive system of exchange. The Functionalist view of jajmani system
regards it as the basis of self-sufficiency, unity, harmony and stability in the village
community.

However the Marxist scholars hold a very different opinion. They regard the jajmani
system as essentially exploitative, characterized by a latent conflict of interest which
could not crystallize due to the prevalent social setup. Thus if in future the conditions of
the lower caste improve an open conflict between the lower and upper caste is inevitable.

Oscar Lewis who studied Rampur village near Delhi and Biedelmn has been critical of
the Jajmani system which they regard as exploitative. According to them the members of
occupational jatis are largely landless labourers and have no resources to wage a struggle
against the dominant caste out of the compulsion of the need for survival.
They succumb to all injustice perpetuated by the landowning dominant caste who enjoy
both economic and political power.
( Scholars like Berreman, Harold Gould and Pauline Kolenda etc accept that there
is an element of truth in both the functionalist and Marxist views of the jajmani system.
They believe that consensus and harmony as well as conflict and exploitation are
prevalent in the village society.

According to Dumont jajmani system makes use of hereditary personal relationships to

express the division of labour.This system is a ritual expression rather than just an
economic arrangement. S.C Dube refers to the system as corresponding to the
presentation and counter presentation by which castes as a whole are bound together in a
village which is more or less universal in nature. Leach believes that the system
maintains and regulates the division of labour and economic interdependence of castes.

DEFINATIONS & THINGS TO REMEMBER:-

Peculium:-
An institution in the estate system where a sum of money or some property was given to
a slave by his master.
Cartel:-
A group of industrialists who together monopolize or gain complete control over the
market.
Differential mobilization:-
A process takes place when the changes that caste has and undergoing carries it beyond
the traditional ascriptive definition.
Dahrendorf held that the differential distribution of authority leads to class formation
and class conflict.
Hiller observed that when a class system becomes closed to vertical mobility, it becomes
a caste.
Marx was the first one to introduce the concept of alienation into sociological theory.
Srinivas termed independence among castes as vertical unity.
It was Hutton who pointed out that the exclusivity and range of the caste panchayat led
to an arrangement in which the members of the caste ceased to be members of the
community as a whole.
Aristotle classified the society into three strata- guardians, auxiliaries and workers.
Max Weber characterized caste as a closed status group.
Davis and Moore stressed that stratification served to ensure effective role allocation and
performance.
Senart advocated the religious theory of the origin of caste.
Parsons held that society would rank highly and reward those who perform successfully
in terms of society's values.
According to Tawney in estate system inequality is not primarily economic but judicial.
Nesfield gave the concept of occupational theory of caste.
Marx categorized India under the Asiatic Mode of Production.
Pelham stated that the higher the class one belongs the lessen is the pretence because
there is less to pretend to.This is chief reason why our manners are better than other
persons.
Proudhon stated property is theft.
Durkheim advocated a form of guild socialism.
Utilitarianism is a theoretical outlook associated with the name of J Benthem.

CHAPTER-4
TYPES OF SOCIETY
TYPES OF SOCIETY:-
Socilogy recognises many types of Society and defines these types of society in a very
clear manner.
Following are some of those types of Society and their characteristics:-

• Tribal Society
• Agrarian society
• Industrial society
• Post -Industrial Society
Tribal Society:-
According to Ralph Linton tribe is group of bands occupying a contiguous territory or
territories having a feeling of unity deriving from numerous similarities in culture
,frequent contacts and a certain community of interests.Ghurye calls the tribal of India as
imperfectly segment of the Hindus.D.N Majumdar defines tribe as a social group with
territorial affiliation endogamous with no specialization of functions ruled by tribal
officers hereditary or otherwise united in language or dialect recognizing social distance
with other tribes. A large section of tribal population depends on agriculture for survival.

The examples of agricultural tribes are: Oraons, Mundas, Bhils, Santhals, Baigas, and
Hos etc. The Toda furnish classic example of pastoral economy. Their social and
economic organization is built around the buffaloes. They obtain their living through
exchange.

In some parts of India the tribal people are engaged in shifting cultivation. It is known by
different names- Nagas call it Jhum,Bhuiya call it Dahi and Koman ,Maria of Bastar
call it Penda, Khond refer to it as Podu and Saiga call it Bewar.Many subsidiary
occupations like handicrafts are undertaken in the various tribal zones. These include
basket-making, spinning and weaving.

For e.g. Tharu depend upon furniture making, musical instruments, weapons, ropes and
mats. The Korw and Agaria are well known iron-smelters producing tools for local
use.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRIBAL SOCIETY:-

The tribe inhabits and remains within definite and common topography.The members of
a tribe possess a consciousness of mutual unity.
The members of a tribe speak a common language. The members generally marry into
their own group but now due to increased contact with outsiders there are instances of
tribal marring outside as well.

The tribes believe in ties of blood relationship between its members. They have faith in
their having descended from a common, real or mythical, ancestor and hence believe in
blood relationships with other members. Tribes follow their own political organization
which maintains harmony.

Religion is of great importance in the tribe. The tribal political and social organization is
based on religion because they are granted religious sanctity and recognition.

Tribal Practices:-
• Joking relationships prevails in Matrilineal Hopi, Matrilineal Trobriand
Islanders,Oraons and Baigas
• Group marriage prevail among Marquesans and Todas

• Couvade is practiced mainly in Khasi,Toda,Ho and Oraon

• Teknonymy in Khasis

• Ultimogeniture in Khasis

• Uxorilocal in Garos

• Matrilineal societies are present among Moplahs,Hopi,Nayars

• Polyandry practices tribes are -Todas,Ladaki Botas and Nayars

• Polygamy is found among Eskimo tribes,Crows of North America

• Levirate marriages are found in Ahirs in Haryana,Kodagus of Mysore and Jats and
Gujars of UP

PROFILES OF SOME OF THE SELECTED INDIAN

TRIBES:-
BHILS:-
( • Constitute the largest tribal group in India.

• Found mainly in Madhya Pradesh (Jhabua,Dhar,Kahnwa) and east Gujarat.

• Martial race; primarily agriculturalist.

• Badwas are witch finder,Pujaro are priests and Kotwal are drummers,Tadni is village
headman.

• Generally endogamous

• Practice polygamy also.

GONDS:-

• Second largest tribal group in India.

• Dravidian background

• Found mainly in Madhya Pradesh

• Some of the tribal groups are Bastai,Marias,Murias,Prajas,Bhatras

• Dependent mainly on agriculture, cattle rearing second main occupation.

• Divided into exogamous sects or clans.

• Speak Gondi dialect.

• Lineage is traced through male lines.

SANTHALS:-

• Third largest tribal group in India believed to be of Pre-Aryan origin.

• Mainly in Santhal Paraganas of Bihar,West Bengal etc.

• Speak Santhali language.

• Naik is the village priest,Gorait is the messenger,Jogmanjhi is the headmentribal

council is Parganait.

• Singlonga or Sun God is the main deity.

PROFILES OF SOME OF THE SELECTED INDIAN

TRIBES:-
TODAS:-

• Found mainly in Nilgiri Hills of South India.

• Classic example of polyandry.

• Call themselves Tora

• Badaga,Kota,Kurumbaand Irula tribes

• The word Toda is derived from Tundra, name of sacred tree of Topdas.

• Divided into two moieties called Taratharal and Teivaloil.These are endogamous
units.All the sacred herd and cattle are owned by Tartharal thus they occupy a higher
status.

• The clans are divided into families locally known as Kudupeli.

• Fraternal polyandry found.

• Divorce freely allowed.

• Todas have classificatory type of kinship calling many relatives or friends by some
designation.

• Females have low status.

• People are governed by council of five elders called as Naim.Three members of this
council come from Tarthar clans,two from Teivali clans and one from Badagas.

• Two of the main deities are Teikirizi and On.

CHENCHU:-

• Mainly found in Andhra Pradesh on the river Krishna.

• They are mostly settled cultivators and very much influenced by neighboring plains
people.

• They speak dialect of Dravidian origin.

• Now they have started living in semi-permanent huts.

• They are divided into exogamous clans and have animal totems.

• Divorce is common.

• Chenchus have traditional leader Peddamanshi.

• Bhaivov and Garelamaisama are popular local deities.

KHASIS:-

• One of the matriarchial tribes of world.

• Have a rich economy influenced by industrialization and urbanization.

• They are mainly in Jaintia hills of Assam.

• Divided into four main sub-groups- Khynrian,Pnar,War and Bhoi.

• They speak a dialect that belongs to the Mon- Khmer branch of Austric family.

• Each of the sub-tribes is divided into a number of clans known as Kurs.

• Marriage within the clan is prohibited.

• Khasis are characterized by matrilineal descent.

• The clan is further sub-divided into sub class known as kpoh (composed of descendents
of one grandmother.

AGRARIAN SOCIETY:-
The invention of plough marked the beginning of agrarian societies 6000 years back.

According to Collins dictionary of Sociology Agrarian society refer to any form of

society especially so traditional societies primarily based on agricultural and craft
production rather than industrial production.

Wallace and Wallace describe agrarian societies as employing animal drawn ploughs to
cultivate the land. The mode of production of the agrarian society that is cultivation
distinguishes it from the hunter-gatherer society which produces none of its food. The
theories of Redfield and Tonnies are considered important.

Robert Redfield talks about folk-urban continuum and little tradition and great tradition
as his paramount focus in rural studies.Tonnies on the other hand discuss concepts of
Gemeinschaft and Gesselschaft.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL
SOCIETIES:-
Cultivation of land through the plough as this invention enabled the people to make a
great leap forward in food production. It increased the productivity of land through the
use of animals and bringing to the surface the nutrients of the soil.

Combining irrigation techniques with the use of the plough increased the productivity and
the crop yield. It also brought fallow land under cultivation. The size of the agricultural
societies increased as it lessened the burden of large number of people who engaged
themselves in other activities. Agricultural societies lead to the establishment of more
elaborate political institutions like formalized government bureaucracy assisted by the
legal system.

It also leads to the evolution of distinct social classes -those who own the land and those
who work on the other's land. Land is the major source of wealth and is individually
owned. This creates major difference between the social strata. Agricultural societies
provide the basis for the establishment of economic institutions.

Trade becomes more elaborate and money is medium of exchange. It also demands the
maintenance of records of transaction, crop harvest, taxation, governmental rules and
regulations. Religion becomes separate institution with elaborate rituals and traditions.
The agricultural societies support the emergence of arts and cultural artifacts due to
surplus food production people tend to divert their attention to other recreational
activities. There is far more complex social structure.
According to Ian Robertson the number of statuses multiplies, population size increases,
cities appear, new institutions emerge, social classes arise, political and economic
inequality becomes inbuilt into the social structure and culture becomes much more
diversified and heterogeneous.

INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY:-
The Industrial mode of production began some 250 years ago in Britain and from there it
spread to the entire world. In the simplest sense an industrial society is a social system
whose mode of production focuses primarily on finished goods manufactured with the aid
of machinery.

According to Wallace and Wallace in industrial societies the largest portion of the
labour force is involved in mechanized production of goods and services. The term
'industrial societies' originated from Saint Simon who chose it to reflect the emerging
central role of manufacturing industry in the 18th century Europe in contrast with
previous pre-industrial and agrarian society.

POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY:-
The concept of Post-Industrial society was first formulated in 1962 by D. Bell, and
subsequently elaborated in his seminal work 'Coming of Post Industrial Society' (1974) It
describes the economic and social changes in the late twentieth century.

According to Bell in modern societies theoretical knowledge forms the 'axial principle of
society and is the source of innovation and policy formulation. In economy this is
reflected in the decline of goods production and manufacturing as the main form of
economic activity, to be replaced by services.

With regard to the class structure, the new axial principle fosters the supremacy of
professional and technical occupations which constitute a new class, in all spheres
economic, political and social decision making is influenced by new intellectual
technologies and the new intellectual class.

Other writers have also commented on the growing power of technocrats in economic
and political life. G.K. Galbraith ( 1967) believes that power in the United states
economy and therefore in American society as a whole lies in the hands of a technical
bureaucracy of the techno-structure of large corporations, A Jouraine (1969) suggests
similar technocratic control of French economic and political life.

RACE:-
The term 'race' is often used loosely to indicate groups of men differing in appearance;
language or colour.
To some race means a nationality or all of humanity. Some even define race as the group
which is mixed in nearly all aspects but socially designated as different.

Race is scientifically defined as a group of people possessing the same biological

inheritance, identified on the basis of external physical characteristics. Thus shape of
head, color of the hair, eyes, skin etc are some of the physical characteristics which are
taken into account in determining race.

Race is a biological concept but in course of time the members of a particular race
develop a kind of consciousness. This race consciousness becomes a sociological
phenomenon and it has an impact on social relations.

The earliest classification of race was suggested by Huxley in 1870 who gave four
principle types of classifications:

• Negroid
• Australoid
• Xanthochroid
• Melanochroid

According to Maclver and Page the term race when properly used refers to a biological
category. It refers to human states that owe their differences from one another specially
their physiological differences to a remote separation of ancestry.

Franz Boas defined race as a scientific concept applies only to the biological groupings
of human types. Horton and Hunt defined race as a group of people somewhat different
from other groups in a combination of inherited physical characteristics.

Ralph Linton, an American anthropologist made a three-fold classification in The Study

of Man. According to him the subdivision of Homo sapiens are breeds, races and stocks.
Today breeds are encountered rather infrequently in some small primitive tribes or in
some isolated mountains, though variants exist in such a group.

A race consists of a number of breeds which share certain physical characteristics. The
individuals constituting a race will have fewer characteristics in common than those
making up a breed. A stock includes a number of races and of course its members will
share even fewer characteristics.

MAJOR RACES IN THE WORLD:-

Usually mankind is divided into three major racial stocks-the Caucasoid, the Mongoloid
and the Negroid.
Determinants of Race:-

Physical traits are examined to determine the race but sometimes it becomes difficult to
tell whether the differences of traits are hereditary or environmental. Attributes such as
weight, color of skin can be greatly modified by the environment. So the determinants
can be definite as well as indefinite.

Definite:- stature, structure of head, structure of nose, blood group, length of hands and
feet and perimeter of chest.

Indefinite:- Color of skin, texture and color of the hair and structure and color of the
eyes.

RACES IN INDIA:-
Sir Herbert Risley classified the Indian population into seven racial types. The three
fundamental races are - Dravidian, Mongoloid and Indo-Aryan. Four secondary races-
Cytho-Dravidian, Aryo-Dravidian, Mongolo-Dravidian and Pre-Dravidian.

Though one of the major racial stocks the Negroid was not present in Risley's
classification, J.H Hutton is of the view that Negrito races were the original occupants of
India. The latest classification of the Indian people is made by Hutton, Guha and
Majumdar.Guha lists six main races with nine subtypes:

1. The negrito

2. The Proto-Australoid

3. The Mongoloid- Palaeo -Mongoloids,Tibeto-Mongoloids

4. The Mediterranean- Palaeo-Mediterranean,Mediterranean,Oriental

5. The Western Brachycephalis- Alpiniod,Dinaric,Armenoid

6. The Nordic

Guha has summed up his conclusions as regards the racial composition of tribal India in
1952.
1. The Kadar,the Irula and the Paniyan of South Indian with frizzly hair have an
undoubted Negrito strain.

2. The tribes of Middle India belong to the Proto-Australoid group

3. The Brachycephalic Mongoloids of North Eastern India with typical features of

the face and eye.

4. A slightly different Mongoloid type with medium stature, high head and
 medium nose living in Brahmaputra valley.

Majumdar expresses fundamental disagreement with the support of an ancient

negrito-strain theory. There is no evidence in support of a Negrito racial stock in
India.

CULTURE & RACE:-

Differences in physical characteristics among people belonging to different races are
often confused with differences in culture and behaviour.When the term race is used
it combines a set of unrelated features such as physical
characteristics,language,religion,cultural traditions and behavior patterns which
differentiate a given people from others.

Furthermore there is invariably an implicit value judgment in this sense of the term.
Some races are regarded as being naturally and inherently superior to the others. This
is a wrong view. There is no necessary connection between race, language, culture
and nationality. Racial features are largely determined by genetic and biological
factors whereas culture and languages are learnt, acquired and transmitted through
training and education. Race prejudice is based on false and irrational premise.

CHAPTER-5
Economy and Society
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT:-
Economic development is the development of economic wealth of countries or regions
for the well-being of their inhabitants. Public policy generally aims at continuous and
sustained economic growth and expansion of national economies so that developing
countries become developed countries.
The economic development process supposes that legal and institutional adjustments are
made to give incentives for innovation and for investments so as to develop an efficient
production and distribution system for goods and service.

ECONOMIC SYSTEM OF SIMPLE SOCIETIES:-

Herbert Spencer has defined simple society as one which forms a simple working whole
unsubjected to any other and of which the parts cooperate for certain public ends. Simple
societies have low division of labour.The occupational differentiation being limited
primarily to birth, sex and age. These societies have no specialized economic
organization.

The productive skills are simple and productivity is low therefore these societies cannot
sustain large population size. Most of the adult members are engaged in food gathering
activities.

There is little or no surplus so the social inequalities are not significant and economic
interaction takes place within egalitarian frame-work.

The production system is simple but exchange of goods and services assume a complex
form. The forms of exchange are reciprocal and redistributive type.

Some of the simple societies inhabiting regions having abundant food and other resources
indulge in conspicuous consumption.

The members lack high degree of achievement motivation as there is neither any intense
preoccupation on generation and accumulation of economic surplus.Infact most economic
activities emphasize on giving rather than storing or accumulation. Private ownership of
means of production is non-existent.

There is no clear separation between domestic economy and community economy as they
overlap to varying degrees. The economic system is dominated by sacred consisting of
magic-religious ideas.

The innovation is rare and change is slow. The customary practices and norms regulate
production and exchange of goods and services.

SOME FORMS OF SIMPLE ECONOMIC

EXCHANGE:-
Barter system:-

It is direct form of exchange whether in return for services or goods.

Silent trade:-
(
It was an exchange system where the exchanging parties do not know each other
personally.

Jajmani system:-

It is system of economic and social relationship existing between various castes in

villages. The patron is known as jajman and the service castes are known as kamin.It is
still prevalent in villages.

Ceremonial exchange:-

It is a type of social system in which goods are given to relatives and friends on various
social occasions. The main idea is to establish cordial relations between the various social
groups.

Potlatch:-

This term means gift. It is meant as a public distribution of goods made to establish
certain claims of the giver and the recipients. It is based on the principle of reciprocity.
Through this system the host declares his status to others.

Multicentric economy:-

It is an economy using several media of exchange.

Kula :-

According to Malinowski it is a ceremonial exchange participated by the inhabitants of a

closed circle of Trobriand Island. It has no practical or commercial value. The system of
exchange is regulated in a kind of ring with two directional movements. In clockwise
direction,the red shell necklaces called Soulava circulate and in anticlockwise circulation
the white arm shells known as Mwali circulate among the members of the Kula.Objects
given and taken in Kula are never subjected any bargaining.

ECONOMIC SYSTEM OF COMPLEX SOCIETIES:-

The complex societies have high degree of division of labor and consequently structural
differentiation. Thus economic activity constitutes a specialized activity taking place in
special institution framework and distinguishable from other types of social activity e.g.
factories, banks and markets are some of the distinct economic activities.

High division of labor implies advanced skills which help in high productivity. The
economic organization can easily sustain a large population.
Complex societies due to their high productivity generate huge surplus. They can support
conspicuous consumption. Market exchange is the pivotal form of exchange and money
is the universal medium of exchange.

The members of the complex societies have high achievement motivation and the
economic behavior is characterized by an intense preoccupation with generation and
accumulation of surplus.

There exist a clear distinction between domestic economy and community economy. The
domestic units are the units of consumption and supply the manpower to the community
economy. The production of goods and services takes place in the larger units which
form part of the community economy.

These societies are characterized by the high level of scientific and technological
advancements. Economic activity is perceived in secular terms and is based on practical
rationality.

High degree of specialization, rapidity of change, predominance of practical and

excessive mechanization of production leads to a state of anomie in society and alienate
the worker from the product of his labour.

MARKET ECONOMY:-
Market or Free economy is characterized by a system in which the allocation of resources
is determined by supply and demand in the market. Both the production and distribution
is determined by the market forces to ensure competition and efficiency .E N T
It has an effect on the traditional families as a result of monetisation and market economy
the different members of the family contribute to the family income and increased the
avenues for social mobility. Their is rapid growth of industries in which the employee-
employer relations are based on contractual relations.

Work has become the commodity which is exchanged for wages. Expansion of markets
has increased the volume of trade and commerce facilitating the integration of the
country. Growth of economy leads to occupational diversification and increasing
specialization of occupations which in turn has created a demand for educational
institutions to provide specialized training.

Due to industrialization and expansion of market economy in urban areas leads to

consumption oriented life-style. Market economy governed by supply and demand is
inherently unstable. This leads to anomie which is characteristic of urban life. Inflation
also poses constant threat to instability in the urban markets.
PLANNED ECONOMY:-
A planned economy is an economic system in which decisions about the production,
allocation and consumption of goods and services is planned ahead of time, in either a
centralized or decentralized fashion. Since most known planned economies rely on plans
implemented by the way of command, they have become widely known as command
economies.

The government takes the initiative and set the goals and targets to be followed by the
market forces. The state intervention is limited to formulation of plan and adoption of
indirect controls. The private sector becomes partner in the formulation of a plan and
responsible for its implementation.

FEATURES OF PLANNED ECONOMY:-

Target settings for different sectors of economy that determine the supply. It is a type of
economy in which some central authority makes a wide range of decisions pertaining to
production and wages. The government can harness land, labor, and capital to serve the
economic objectives of the state (which, in turn, may be decided by the people through a
democratic process). Consumer demand can be restrained in favor of greater capital
investment for economic development in a desired pattern.
For example, many modern societies fail to develop certain medicines and vaccines
which are seen by medical companies as being unprofitable, but by social activists as
being necessary for public health. The state can begin building a heavy industry at once
in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through
the expansion of light industry, and without reliance on external financing. Second, a
planned economy can maximize the continuous utilization of all available resources. This
means that planned economies do not suffer from a buisness cycle.

Under a planned economy, neither unemployment nor idle production facilities should
exist beyond minimal levels, and the economy should develop in a stable manner,
unimpeded by inflation or recession. A planned economy can serve social rather than
individual ends: under such a system, rewards, whether wages or perquisites, are to be
distributed according to the social value of the service performed. A planned economy
eliminates the dependence of production on individual profit motives, which may not in
themselves provide for all society's needs.

SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT:-
Economic development implies two things: Economic growth which leads to increase in
production and generation of income and equitable distribution of this income among the
population to improve the quality of life. Although economic development does not
necessarily imply industrialization there is no historical precedent for substantial increase
in percapita income without diversion of both capital and labour from agriculture.
Economic development is synonymous with industrialization.

Economic development is very much influenced by various social factors. Nation states
are created with common language and culture. Economic development of any country
hinges on the efficient employment of factors of production such as labour, land, capital
and organization. There is commercialization of production with monetization of
economy. The employment of factors of production is conditioned by cultural and social
factors.

The people must have the required ability, experience and knowledge to make the best
use of the facilities that are made available. There is decline of the proportion of the
working population engaged in agriculture. The technology plays very important role
when appropriate social conditions are present. There is trend towards urbanization of
society with growth of scientific knowledge.

A new value system emerges which emphasis individual initiative and responsibility and
enables the individual to function without any control. The exclusiveness of clan, kin or
caste breaks down and provides norms of behavior suited to the secondary group type of
relationship characteristic of an industrial society. There is widespread spread of
education. The social stratification emerges based on achievement criteria and permitting
occupational mobility.

CONCEPT OF PROPERTY:-
Property refers to the rights that the owner of the object has in relation to others who are
not owners of the object. Property rights are backed by the state and enforced through its
legal institutions. According to Morris Ginsberg property may be described as the set of
rights and obligations which define the relations between individuals or groups in respect
of their control over material things or persons treated as things.
Kingsley Davis defines property as consisting of rights and duties of one person or group
as against all other persons and groups with respect to some scarce good. It is thus
exclusive for it sets off what is mine from what is thine but it is also social being rooted
in custom and protected by law.

MAN,NATURE & SOCIAL PROTECTION:-

Man according to Marx is a creative being .He with his labor acts upon the nature and
tries to change it. Man can never get satisfied with the existing conditions and always
look out for a change. Work provides the most important and vital means for man to
fulfill his basic needs, his individuality and humanity. Man uses his labor which is the
essence of human being.

In the process of acting upon nature with the help of his labor and transforming it for his
benefit man gets satisfaction. At this stage his work becomes a fully satisfying activity,
encompassing both himself and the community of fellow human beings. Work through an
individual activity becomes a social activity as well. In the process of acting upon nature
man gets involved in interaction process with other human beings and gradually society
moves towards the stage of complexity. In the process man engages himself in social
production.

All type of relationships and institutions emerge in society in this process with the
economic process as infrastructure and other sub systems including culture, religion etc
as super structure. According to Marx without culture there can be no production
possible. The mode of production includes the social relations of production which are
relations of domination and subordination into which human beings are either born or
enter involuntarily. Class is an economic as well as cultural formation. Thus human
beings are also in the process of social production which is a very wide concept including
almost all the subsystems of society, culture, religion, economic production etc.

The interaction between man and nature produce significant consequences as in his social
production man is in constant touch with the nature.Maclver writes that the revelation of
the manner in which the environment mold itself and modified by the life of the group is
one of the achievements of the social sciences. The relationship between physical
environment and social phenomena has been of particular interest for sociologists leading
to development of ecological school stimulated by investigation of R.E Park and E.W
Burgess at the University of Chicago.

INDIAN TYPE OF MARKET ECONOMY:-

• Planning Commission advocates the continuance and effectiveness of Public sector and
people participation.
• Some of the industries and sectors are open to private sector giving greater autonomy.

• Economic reforms pushed the nation from the planned economy to market economy.

• New Economic Policy came up in 1991.

• There is disinvestment of the PSUs, liberalization, privatization and globalization.

• Still India is not full market oriented economy as some key sectors are still with Govt.

• Planning in India derives its objectives from Directive Principles of State Policy.

MAIN FEATURES OF INDIAN PLANNING:-

• Indian model between capitalist and socialist.

• Indian is the mixed economy where the emphasis is on macro-economic planning.

• Democratic socialism

• Social gain as the main criterion rather private profit.

• India is signatory of WTO and also has some commitment with some regional groups
like European Union, ASEAN,APEC ,SAPTA etc.

SOME THEORETICAL CONCEPTS:-

KARK MARX:-
Karl Marx has distinguished between different types of societies on basis of economic
system. These are primitive communism, ancient slave production, feudalism and
capitalism, socialism and communism. A man is both the producer and product of
society.
Marx's analysis of history is based on his distinction between the means/forces of
production literally those things, such as land, natural resources, and technology, that are
necessary for the production of material goods, and the relations of production in other
words, the social and technical relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the
means of production. Together these comprise the mode of production.

Marx observed that within any given society the mode of production changes, and that
European societies had progressed from a feudal mode of production to a capitalist mode
of production. Marx did not understand classes as purely subjective. He sought to define
classes in terms of objective criteria, such as their access to resources.For Marx, different
classes have divergent interests, which is another source of social disruption and conflict.

Marx was especially concerned with how people relate to that most fundamental resource
of all, their own labour power.Marx wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem
of alienation. For Marx, the possibility that one may give up ownership of one's own
labour - one's capacity to transform the world - is tantamount to being alienated from
one's own nature; it is a spiritual loss.

Marx described this loss in terms of commodity fetchism, in which the things that people
produce, commodities, appear to have a life and movement of their own to which humans
and their behavior merely adapt. This disguises the fact that the exchange and circulation
of commodities really are the product and reflection of social relationships among people.

Under capitalism, social relationships of production, such as among workers or between

workers and capitalists, are mediated through commodities, including labor, that are
bought and sold on the market.According to Marx, a capitalist mode of production
developed in Europe when labor itself became a commodity - when peasants became free
to sell their own labor-power, and needed to do so because they no longer possessed their
own land or tools necessary to produce.
People sell their labor-power when they accept compensation in return for whatever work
they do in a given period of time (in other words, they are not selling the product of their
labor, but their capacity to work). In return for selling their labor power they receive
money, which allows them to survive.
Those who must sell their labor power to live are "proletariat. The person who buys the
labor power, generally someone who does own the land and technology to produce, is a
"capitalist" or "bourgeoise. The capitalist mode of production is capable of tremendous
growth because the capitalist can, and has an incentive to, reinvest profits in new
technologies. Marx considered the capitalist class to be the most revolutionary in history,
because it constantly revolutionized the means of production.

MAX WEBER:-

Max Weber formulated a three component theory of social stratification with social
clas,status class and party class (or political class) as conceptually distinct
elements.Social class is based on economically determined relationship to the market
(owner, employee etc.). Status class is based on non-economical qualities like honour,
prestige and religion. Party class refers to affiliations in the political domain. All three
dimensions have consequences for what Weber called "life chances".According to Weber
there are two sources of power.One is derived from constellation of interests that develop
in a free market and the other is from an established system of authority that allocates the
right to command and the duty to obey.

EMILE DURKHEIM:-

Emile Durkheim sees division of labour in terms of social process.He has tried to
determine the social consequences of the division of labour in the modern societies.He
has made a fundamental difference between pre-industrial and industrial societies and
also made difference between two types of solidarity- mechanical solidarity and organic
solidarity.Mechanical solidarity prevails in simple folk societies where division of labour
is restricted to family,village or small region.

Here individuals do not differ much from one other and follow the same set of
norms,beliefs etc.Organic solidarity holds the moden societies together with a bond.Here
societies are large and people are engaged in variety of economic activities.They hold
different values and socialize their children in varying patterns.The conditions of the
modern society compel division of labour to reach the extreme level.This extreme form
of division of labour leads to feeling of individualism or anomie.

Anomie according to Durkheim refers to a state of normlessness in both the society and
the individual.It is a social condition characterised by the breakdown of norms governing
social interaction.People feel detached from their fellows having little commitment to
shared norms people lack social guidelines for personal conduct.They are inclined to
pursue their private interests without regard for the interests of society as a whole.

KARL POLANYI:-

According to economist Karl Polanyi, the three principles of exchange are market
principle, redistribution, and reciprocity. The market principle describes the buying and
selling of goods and services based on the laws of supply and demand (things cost more
the scarcer they are and the more people want them), and often involves bargaining. It is
associated with industrial societies and involves a complex division of labor and central
government.
In redistribution, products move from the local level to a hierarchical center, are
reorganized, and sent back down to the local level. Redistribution is the main form of
exchange in chiefdoms and some industrial states, and works with the market system.
Polyani identifies reciprocity of three kinds: generalized, balanced, or negative.
Generalized reciprocity involves an exchange between closely related people in which
the giver expects nothing concrete or immediate in return.

It is not necessarily classified as altruism, but resembles sharing by social contract.

Generalized reciprocity is demonstrated by most egalitarian forager groups including the
!Kung people, who do not say thank you upon receiving gifts because it is expected that
at a later time, the act of goodwill will be reciprocated. It is also shown in most cases
between parents and children.

Another form of reciprocity is balanced reciprocity, in which the social distance between
giver and recipient increases relative to generalized reciprocity. It involves an exchange
outside the immediate family, and the giver expects something in return in the future, but
not immediately. If there is no reciprocation, the relationship between the two parties will
be strained.

The third kind of reciprocity is negative reciprocity, which is an exchange relationship in

which parties do not trust each other and are strangers. The giving must be reciprocated
immediately and there is very little communication, if any, between groups. Each group
is trying to maximize its economic benefit, but eventually friendly relationships between
the groups may develop.

An example of negative reciprocity is the Mbuti Pygmy foragers of Africa, who exchange
with villagers in neighboring groups in silent trade in which they place the items for
exchange on the ground, then hide at a distance and wait for the other group to make an
offer of their goods. Bartering may continue back and forth, but no direct contact is made
between groups. Potlatching among the Kwakitul of Washington and British Columbia
can be classified in the category of redistribution.
 THINGS TO REMEMBER:-
• R.K Merton coined the concept of the Bureaucratic Personality.

• W.Rostow identified stages or the categories within which all societies could be placed
economically.

• Berger and Luckmann hold that there is a reciprocal interdependence of individuals

and society in creating social reality.
• Karl Marx and Frederich Engels have put forward materialist variant of the
evolutionary theory.

• Parsons has given the theory of leisure class. He has given Functional Imperatives
comprising of adaptation, goal attainment, integration and latency.

• Weber has given the concept of booty capitalism meaning a system in which wealth
was acquired by the financing of wars in the expectation of booty.

• Seeman isolated the concept of alienation into powerlessness, meaninglessness,

isolation and self-estrangement.

• Lenin has said that state is a special repressive force of the proletariate by the
bourgeoisie of millions of workers by handful of rich.

• Weber wrote the book- The Economy and Society.

• Veblen gave the concept of conspicuous consumption.

• Karl Marx wrote the book -First Indian War of Independence.

• Simmel wrote the book-the philosophy of money in 1900.

• Karl Polyani gave the concepts of embedded economy and the principles of exchange.

• Max Weber in his concept of protestant ethic wrote that it was the decisive factor in the
emergence of modern capitalism.
• According to Emile Durkheim division of labour in modern society is the principal
source of social cohesion or social solidarity.

• Mitchell remarked that both material rewards and prestige are accorded differentially so
that both integrative and functions are served.

• Lambert and Hoselitz commented that the sum spent on marriage and death
ceremonies in India could have increased investment by more 50%.

• Hobhouse observed that property is to be conceived in terms of the control of men over
things.

• According to Mckee economic activity is closely involved in the distribution of status

and prestige.

CHAPTER-6
Industrial and Urban Society
RURAL-URBAN CONTINUUM:-
Some sociologists have used the concept of rural-urban continuum to stress the idea that
there are no sharp breaking points to be found in the degree or quantity of rural urban
differences.
Robert Redfield has given the concept of rural -urban continuum on the basis of his
study of Mexican peasants of Tepoztlain.The rapid process of urbanization through the
establishment of industries, urban traits and facilities have decreased the differences
between villages and cities.

There are some sociologists whose treat rural-urban as dichotomous categories have
differentiated the two at various levels including occupational differences, environmental
differences, differences in the sizes of communities, differences in the density of
population, differences in social mobility and direction of migration, differences in social
stratification and in the systems of social interaction.

A third view regarding rural and urban communities has been given by Pocock who
believe that both village and city are elements of the same civilization and hence neither
rural urban dichotomy, nor continuum is meaningful. M.S.A. Rao points out in the Indian
context that although both village and town formed part of the same civilization
characterized by institution of kinship and caste system in pre-British India, there were
certain specific institutional forms and organizational ways distinguishing social and
cultural life in towns form that in village.

Thus, according to Rao, Rural Urban continuum makes more sense.

Ghurye believes that urbanization is migration of people from village to city and the
impact it has on the migrants and their families.

Maclver remarks that though the communities are normally divided into rural and urban
the line of demarcation is not always clear between these two types of communities.
There is no sharp demarcation to tell where the city ends and country begins. Every
village possesses some elements of the city and every city carries some features of the
village.

R.K Mukherjee prefers the continuum model by talking of the degree of urbanization as
a useful conceptual tool for understanding rural-urban relations.

P.A Sorokin and Zimmerman in 'Principles of Rural-Urban sociology have stated that
the factors distinguishing rural from urban communities include occupation, size and
density of population as well as mobility, differentiation and stratification.

URBAN SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES:-

· The classical theories of urban sociology are divided from the works of European
sociologists like KarlMarx, Tonnies, George Simmel, Max Weber and those of
American namely Park Burgess, Lowis Wirth and Redfield.The reflections of
the earlier sociologists throw light on the anti-urban feelings.
· The great city, metropolis a paradigm of an inhuman, debasing social
environment for Tonnies.Simmel felt that the money economy of the cities
destroyed the social life.Weber and Wirth explained how mass urbanization
 nullified opportunities or political participation. Charles Booth and Rowntree
wrote the sociography of life in the cities.
· Marx and Engels condemned the consequences of urbanization under capitalism.
They viewed the concentration and misery of the mass of workers in the new
urban agglomerations as a necessary stage in the creation of a revolutionary force.
For them pauperization and material degradation was one aspect of urbanization
but equally important was the destruction of the social nexus of the traditional
community and its replacement by the utilitarian world of the city. Both for theory
and practice communism depended on urbanism.
· Mumford in his book 'The city in history' sees cities as enlarging all dimensions
of life as the scattered as the scattered activities of society are brought together so
releasing the energies of mankind in a tremendous explosion of creativity. The
city has augmented capabilities for participation and widened the basis of
personal experience.
· In the writings of Neo-Marxists like Mills, Marcuse, Fromm there is a
consensus that conditions of capitalist urbanization are mutilative of the
personality, inhibitive of community formation, destructive of social engagement
or involvement and conducive to apathy, alienation and anomie. Class
consciousness is inhibited and diverted in mass movements, unreason and not
reason typifies social response.

· Sociologists from Tonnies to Wirth developed counter-theory to Marxism for the

explication of social change led to acceptance of a fundamental cleavage between
rural and urban, tradition and modernism which was in sharp opposition to any
variant on Marxist theories of developement.The urban is accepted as a frame of
reference and the urban society as a specific mode of social organization becomes
the object of scientific study.
· Tonnies in his book Community and Society explained the impact of the market
economy on traditional forms of social association; the implications of
urbanization and the development of the state for the conduct of social life and the
mechanisms of social solidarity in an individualized society.
· The distinction he draws between the two forms of human association,
gemeniscaft and gesellschaft has become the basis for a succession of typologies
of which the best known are the pattern variables formulated by Parsons and folk-
urban typology drawn by Redfield and Wirth.
· George Simmel presents social interaction in terms of abstract categories. The
study of society could only proceed by means of logical analysis of the forms of
association. The forms are cognitive categories.Simmel belonged to the neo-
Kantian tradition which frankly denies the possibility of the study of the natural or
the social world without selection and ordering by the observer.Simmel was
trying to expound on three themes; first the consequences of a money economy
for social relationships. Second the significance of numbers for social life and
lastly the scope for the maintenance of independence and individuality against the
sovereign powers of society.
 · Max Weber in his 'The City' has defined the city on the basis of political and
administrative conception. To constitute a full urban community a settlement
must display a relative predominance of trade- commercial relations with the
settlement as a whole displaying the following features:
o fortification
o market
o a court of its own and at least partially autonomous law
o a related form of association
o partial autonomy and voting rights.
· Weber rejects cities governed by religious groups or where the authority is
enforced on personal rather than universalistic basis. He recounts a process in
which the development of the rational-legal institutions that characterize the
modern city enabled the individual to be free from the traditional groups and
therefore develop his individuality. He emphasizes the closure, autonomy and
separateness of the urban community and stressed that the historical peculiarities
of the medieval city were due to the location of the city with in the total medieval
political and social organization.

URBAN GROWTH & URBANIZATION:-

Urbanization is the movement of population from rural to urban areas and the resulting
increasing proportion of a population that resides in urban rather than rural places.
It is derived from the Latin 'Urbs' a term used by the Romans to a city. Urban sociology
is the sociology of urban living; of people in groups and social relationship in urban
social circumstances and situation.

Thompson Warren has defined it as the movement of people from communities

concerned chiefly or solely with agriculture to other communities generally larger whose
activities are primarily centered in government, trade, manufacture or allied interests.
Urbanization is a two-way process because it involves not only movement from village to
cities and change from agricultural occupation to business, trade, service and profession
but it also involves change in the migrants attitudes, beliefs, values and behavior patterns.

The process of urbanization is rapid all over the world. The facilities like education,
healthcare system, employment avenues, civic facilities and social welfare are reasons
attracting people to urban areas. The census of India defines some criteria for
urbanization. These are:-

• Population is more than 5000

• The density is over 400 persons per sq.km
• 75% of the male population engages in non-agricultural occupations.
• Cities are urban areas with population more than one lakh.
• Metropolises are cities with population of more than one million.
URBANISM:-
Urbanism is a way of life. It reflects an organization of society in terms of a complex
division of labour, high levels of technology, high mobility, interdependence of its
members in fulfilling economic functions and impersonality in social relations. Louis
Wirth has given four characteristics of urbanism

• Transiency:- An urban inhabitant's relation with others last only for a short time; he
tends to forget his old acquaintances and develop relations with new people. Since he is
not much attached to his neighbors members of the social groups, he does not mind
leaving them.

• Superficiality:- An urban person has the limited number of persons with whom he
interacts and his relations with them are impersonal and formal. People meet each other
in highly segmental roles. They are dependent on more people for the satisfaction of their
life needs.

• Anonymity:- Urbanities do not know each other intimately. Personal mutual

acquaintance between the inhabitants which ordinarily is found in a neighborhood is
lacking.

• Individualism:- People give more importance to their own vested interests.

TOWN:-
The town is intermediate between rural and urban communities. It is too large for all
inhabitants to be acquainted with one another, yet small enough for informal relationships
to predominate.

Social behavior more closely resembles the rural than the metropolitan city pattern.
Towns are places with population of 5,000 and more. Three conditions of a place being
classified as a town are:

• The population is more than 5,000.

• The density is not less than 400 sq.km.

• Not less than 75% of the adult male population is engaged in non -agricultural
activities.

CITY:-
Cities become possible when an agricultural surplus develops together with improved
means of transportation and tend to be located at breaks in transportation. The most
significant current developments in city structure are the metropolitan area including the
suburb which accounts for current population growth.

The city pulls people from various corners towards its nucleus. The rural people faced
with various economic problems are attracted by the city and start moving towards the
cities. The city provides ample opportunities for personal advancement. It is the centre of
brisk economic, commercial, artistic, literary, political, educational, technological,
scientific and other activities.

Cities are not only the controlling centers of their societies but also the source of
innovation and change. They act as the source of new ideas for production, the pace -
setters for consumption, guardians of culture and conservers of order in society.
Consensus and continuity in a society are maintained from the city centres.Urban culture
has become the legitimation for control.
Walter Christaller explained the location of urban cities in terms of their functions as
service centres.The basic assumption was that a given rural area supports an urban centre
which in turn serves the surrounding countryside. There are smaller towns for smaller
areas and bigger cities for larger regions. This concept permitted Christaller to build up
an integrated system of cities according to their size.

CITY:-
His views conceiving a city as a central place within a rural area was elaborated by
Edward L.Ullman with considerable modifications.

He admits the vulnerability of the scheme for larger places. In highly industrialized areas
the central place schemes is generally distorted by industrial concentration in response to
resources and transportation that it may be said to have little significance as an
explanation for urban location and distribution.

Hyot in his sector theory talked about the growth of cities taking place in sectors and
these sectors extend from the centre to periphery.

The concentric zone theory given by Park and Burgess suggested that modern cities
consisted of a series of concentric zones. There are five such zones:-

• Central business district

• Zone in transition

• Zone of working population

• Residential zone
• Commuter's zone

Gans and Lewis through compositional theory hold that the composition of a city's
population differs from that of a small town in terms of factors such as class, education,
ethnicity and marital status.

Multiple Nuclie theory given by Harris and Ullman discuss that there is not one centre
but several centers for the city. Each of the centers tend to specialize in a particular kind
of activity-retailing, wholesaling, finance, recreation, education,government.Several
centers may have existed from the beginning of the city or many have developed later in
a division from one centre.

According to Castells to understand cities and urbanism one has to understand the
process by which spatial forms are created and transformed. The architecture of cities
expresses the struggles and conflicts between different groups in society. City is not only
a distinct location but also as an integral part of processes of collective consumption.

FEATURES OF THE URBAN SOCIETY:-

i. The urban society is heterogeneous known for its diversity and complexity.

ii. It is dominated by secondary relations.

iii. Formal means of social control such as law, legislation, police, and court are needed
in addition to the informal means for regulating the behavior of the people.

iv. The urban society is mobile and open. It provides more chances for social mobility.
The status is achieved than ascribed.

v. Occupations are more specialized. There is widespread division of labor and

specialization opportunities for pursuing occupations are numerous.

vi. Family is said to be unstable. More than the family individual is given importance.
Joint families are comparatively less in number.

vii. People are more class -conscious and progressive .They welcome changes. They are
exposed to the modern developments in the fields of science and technology.

viii. Urban community is a complex multigroup society.

ix. The urban community replaced consensus by dissensus.The social organization is

atomistic and illdefined.It is characterized by disorganization, mental illness and anomie.
x. Mass education is widespread in the city increasing democratization of the
organizations and institutions demand formal education.

FEATURES OF THE INDUSTRIAL CITY:-

• A large sprawling open city housing a large percent of the population of the society.
Relatively low segregation; few outward symbols, segregation based on race. Good
transportation and communication.

• A manufacturing, finance and coordinating centre of an industrial society.

• A fluid class structure with an elite of businessmen, professionals and scientists.

• A large middle class with technologically related jobs.

• Wealth by salaries, fees, investment.High status of business activity. Unionization at a

national level. Specialization of production and marketing .Large service sector, fixed
price.

• Time important and regular work schedule.

• Standardization of process and quality.

• Formal public opinion with a bureaucracy based on technical criteria.

• A weak religious institution separate from other institutions dominated by the middle
class. Standardization of religious experience marked by the disappearance of magic.

• Technical and secular education for the masses.

URBAN ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES:-

It means whereby spatial distribution of people and activities change. They include:

• Centralization clustering of economic and service functions.

• Concentration tendency of people and activities to cluster together.

• Decentralization flight of people and activities from the centre of the city.

• Invasion entrance of new kind of people or activity into an area.

• Segregation concentration of a certain type of people or activities within a particular

area.

• Succession completed replacement of one kind of people or activity by another.

IMPACT OF AUTOMATION ON SOCIETY:-
• It speeds up the developmental processes of the society.

• It increases production.

• Brings further technological changes like information technology.

• Extreme industrialization

• Replacement of human labor with machines.

• Increase in profit margins

• Distance reduction through technological advancements in the field of communication

network.

• Makes life dependent on latest gizmos and equipments.

Disadvantages:-

• Norms and values take back seat.

• Turns human beings into alienated beings.

• Social distance between the people within a society and diminishing impact on the
primary relations.

• Increase in problem of unemployment.

• Increasing gap between rich and poor will lead to social inequalities.

• Will affect the relations of people within the society.

Environment:-

When physical, chemical and biological projects of the different components of

environment: air, water, soil, noise change to the detriment of living of humans it may be
said that environment has been affected. Many developing countries are placing more and
more reliance on industrialization. It is not only a mechanical but also a social process.
Therefore it affects the environment physically as well as socio-culturally.

All aspects of pollution are directly or indirectly related to human health and well being.
The excessive growth and rush of people from villages to urban areas resulting in over
crowding of cities. Rapid urbanization and industrialization have led to an increase in
environmental pollutant load that poses serious public health problem.
It also affects the socio-cultural environment with the close ties of groups coming under
pressure. Traditional ties are replaced with new work based ones. Religion becomes
secular. Thus industrialization affects the social fabric making the society more
materialistic.

TERMS:-
• First urban revolution:- The historical emergence of cities and urbanism.

• Urbanism:- The pattern of behaviour, relationships and modes of thought characteristic

of urban life.

• Sociological city:- A relatively large dense permanent settlement of socially

heterogeneous persons.

• Geographic city:- The continuously built-up area in and around the legal city.

• Legal city:- A municipal corporation occupying a defined geographical area subject to

a legal control of the state.

• Second urban revolution:- The historical transformation of a city accomplished by the

industrial revolution which turned the city into an industrial centre.

• Metropolis:- The legal city together with the built up area surrounding it.

• Third urban revolution:- The urbanization of the entire world population but
sometimes specifically used to include the special form of city emerging in the
developing nations and the growth of megalopolitan forms of super cities.

• Suburbanization:- The growth of a ring of relatively small communities around the

central city and the movement of urban population to them. Contemporarily associated
with urban sprawl and deterioration of the central city.

• Suburb:- A community on the urban fringe. These are of two types- residential and
satellite

• Ghetto: An urban ethnic or racial community often confused with slum. A ghetto may
also be a slum.

• Slum: An urban residential area characterized by over crowding and sub-standard way
of living.

• Urban concentration:- It is the tendency of people and activities to cluster together.

• Urban decentralization:- When people go away from the centre of the city.

• Metropolitan Fringe:- It is on the outskirts of many industrial cities which are meant
for commuter housing. Distinctive life-styles prevail between middle class commuters
and old working class.

• Primate city:- An urban form now emerging in developing nations where one city
dominates the entire society.

• Gentrification: Renovation of decaying urban areas for occupancy by middle or upper

class residents.

THINGS TO REMEMBER:-
• Talcott Parsons universalistic -achievement pattern variable is central to the industrial
society.
• Touraine described the Post Industrial Society as technocratic society.

• Maclver emphasized that urban life has fostered the individualization of women.

• Spengler has described cities as sinks of civilization.

• E.E Muntz has classified cities on the basis of their principal activities.

• Ullman has defined the city as a relatively large, dense and permanent settlement of
socially heterogeneous individuals.

• Redfield has remarked that urban groups have a reputation for namelessness.

• Christaller is associated with the central place theory.

• Burgess put forward the concentric zone hypothesis on a diagrammatic study of

Chicago.

• The town encourages associative individualism.

• Commuter's zone is also called bedroom community.

• Hyat has emphasized the importance of transportation routes in the expansion of a city.

• The compositional theory is based on rural-urban differences.

• The culture of poverty refers to slums.

• Migrants from rural to urban areas adjust more smoothly to city life it they maintain
kinship ties.

• Oscar Lewis has given the concept of culture of poverty.

• Wirth has remarked that urbanism is a way of life whereas urbanization is a process.

• Maclver says that cities grow wherever a society or a group within it gains control over
resources greater than are necessary for the mere sustenance of life.

• Robert Redfield has given four characteristics of little community. These are-
distinctiveness, smallness, homogeneity and self-sufficiency.

• Ravenstein has developed the theory of step-migration.

• Marx perceived the petty bourgeois to be a transitional class.

• Weber believed greater bureaucratization would lead to greater alienation.

• Singer and Marriot hold the social structure of civilization to operate at the levels of
peasants and industrialists.

CHAPTER-7
Social Demography
SOCIAL DEMOGRAPHY:-
The word demography was used for the first time by A.TGuillard a Frenchman in his
book Elements de Statistique Humanine. It is a statistical study of population
composition, distribution and trends. It is the analysis of population variables which
includes stock and flow. The national census is the source of stock variable which is
carried out periodically in most of the countries. The flow variables are the components
of population change which include birth and death registrations.

MIGRATION:-

The movement of people from one place to the other to stay on for a considerable period
of time for various reasons is known as migration. It is one of the three components of the
population change the other two being mortality and fertility. Migration is associated
with the socio-economic development of the country. In India one of the side-effects of
unprecedented population growth is industrialization and economic development which
helped in a rapid increase in internal migratory movements.M.S.A Rao has written about
different types of migration.

Internal migration:- The movement of people from one region to another within the
country. In internal migration there are different forms of migration such as " Rural-to-
rural " Urban-to-urban migration " Rural to urban migration " Urban to rural migration.
International migration: Migration from one country to another country.

Emigration:- It refers to the movement out of the particular country.

Immigration:- It refers to the movement into a particular country.

Out migration:- It is the movement out of a particular territory within a country.

In migration:- It is the movement into a particular region within a country.

Migration Stream:- It refers to the total number of moves made during a given
migration interval which have a common area of origin and common area of destination.

Gross and Net migration:- It is the total number of arrivals of migrants and departures
of emigrants is known as gross migration.Net migration is the difference between the
total number of persons who arrive and the total number of persons who leave.

POPULATION GROWTH:-
· According to 2001 final census India's total population has crossed 1,027,015,247
out of which 531,277,078 are males and females are 495,738,169.
· Of this number, 157,863,145 are children up to the age of six years out of
which 81,911,041 are males and 75,952,104 are females.
· India's landscape is just 2.4% of the total world area whereas its population is
nearly 16.7% of the world population.
· The population of India which at the turn of the 20th century was around 238.4
million increased to reach 1,027million at the dawn of the 21st century.
· As per census 2001 the sex-ratio has gone up from 927 in 1991 to 933 in 2001.
· The literacy rate increased from 52.21% to 65.38%.For males it has increased to
 75.85% and for females 54.16%. The gap in male-female literacy rates has
decreased from 24.84% points to 21.70% points in 2001.

· The density of population has increased in all states and UTs between 1991 and
2001.Population density increased from 274 in 1991 to 324 persons per sq.km in
2001. West Bengal is the most densely populated state 904 followed by Bihar 880
and Kerala 819.

· The percentage of urban population of total population has increased from 25.7%
in 1991 to 27.8% in 2001.
· The number of cities having a population of more than one million increased from
23 in 1991 to 35 in 2001.Population -wise UP is at the top followed by
Maharashtra, Bihar and West-Bengal and so on.

· The crude death rate in India has declined from 25.1 in 1951 to 9.8 in 1991 and to
8.7 in 1999 while the crude birth rate declined from 40.8 in 1951 to 29.5 in 1991
and to 26.1 in 1999.The child mortality rate stands at 23.9 (0-4 years per 1000
children).

· The decadal growth rate in 1991-2001 was lowest in Kerala (9.42%) and highest
in Nagaland (64.41%). The sex-ratio declined in the age-group 0-6 years from 945
to 927.Kerala has the highest (1058) sex-ratio while Haryana has the lowest (861).

· The life expectancy for males is 62 years and for females it is 63 years.

COMPONENTS OF POPULATION GROWTH:-

The age and sex composition of a population affects its social life in many ways.

Changes in age composition are due mainly to changes in birthrates and are presently
increasing the proportion of aged and reducing the proportion of children in many
countries. Migration is affected by the push given to people by unsatisfactory conditions
at home by the pull of attractive opportunities elsewhere and by the channels or means
through which they are able to migrate.

Sex Composition:- The small family norm together with a desire for a male child has
further distorted a sex ratio against the girl-child. The sex ratio has steadily declined:
From 972 (for every 1000 boys) in 1901 to 927 in 1991. The latest census shows a slight
overall improvement in the sex ratio to 933. Unfortunately, this is offset by a worsening
of the sex ratio of children up to the age of six. The sex ratio for children up to the age of
six has gone down from 962 girls per 1000 boys in 1981, to 945 in 1991, to 927 in 2001.
The sharpest declines in sex ratio for the child population are reported from Himachal
Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Uttaranchal, Maharashtra and Chandigarh, where
abortions of female fetuses are known to be widely practised.

Population Density:- Defined as the number of persons per sq km the population

density of India in 2001 was 324 per sq km.West Bengal is still the most thickly
populated state with a population density of 903 in 2001.Bihar (880) is now the second
highest densely populated state pushing Kerala to the third place.

Age Composition:- The current age distribution of Indian population is little more
than 31.7 per cent are under the age of 15 years (male 173,869,856; female 164,003,915);
63.5per cent are between 15 and 64(male 349,785,804; female 326,289,402), and 4.8 per
cent are over the age of 60(male 25,885,725; female 25,235,905). The Indian Planning
Commission's Technical Group on Population Projections predicted in the National
Population Policy (2000) that India's population would be 1.012 billion in March 2001,
going up to 1.179 billion and 1.264 billion in March 2011 and 2016 respectively.

Morality:- According to 2001 census Seventy-two out of every 1,000 babies born die
before their first birthday. Seven per cent (72/1,000) of newborn infants perish within a
year of birth, because of low birth weight, pre-maturity, malnutrition, diarrhea diseases,
acute respiratory infections and malnutrition. Compare this to the IMRs in Sri Lanka
(18/1,000) and China (41/1,000 Moreover, in India, there are more female deaths (rural
or urban areas) in the age group of 0-14 than elsewhere. Although the IMR has decreased
from 146 per 1000 births in 1951 to 72 per 1000 births (1997) and the sex differentials
are narrowing, there are wide inter-state differences.

Measurements of mortality:-

" Crude Death Rate " Birth Rate " Infant Mortality Rate

Factors for the low death rate:-

" Healthcare services " Vaccinations and control of epidemics " Reduction in the
occurrence of famines and droughts

THEORIES OF DEMOGRAPHY:-
Malthus:-

The essay on the principle of population an important work of Malthus is a landmark in

the history of population studies.

The theme of the Essay was mainly to argue that the tendency of the population to grow
faster in relation to its means of subsistence has led to human misery and placed several
obstacles in the path of human progress. In 1803, Malthus published the second edition of
his essay, a much expanded and changed edition which can't really be called a re print of
the 1797 essay, for in the new edition the emphasis was more on arguments against the
poor laws than on country arguments against the opinions of Condorcet and Godwin.

Neo- Maltusian theory:-

Neo-Malthusians maintain that although the gloomy predictions of Malthus may have
been pre-mature they are basically correct.
According to Anti Malthusians' world's resources are adequate for a much larger
population. Exploitation not over population is the basic cause of world hunger.

Demographic Transition theory:-

Two different interpretations have been given for this theory.One by Frank Notestein
says that every country passes through three stages of population growth; 1. High birth
rate and high death rate ii.High birth rate and low death rate (population explosion)
iii.Low birth rate and low death rate.

In western nations the desire for high standard of living led to the reductions in the
birthrate .These nations are approaching a new equilibrium with both birthrates and death
rates quite low and little population growth. This is explained by the theory of
demographic transition -the theory that industrial and commercial development first cuts
the death rate but creates a desire for smaller families and eventually cuts the birthrate.

The other theory is given by C.P Blacker .There are five phrases in this theory:-
i.High stationary phase marked by high fertility and mortality rate.

ii.Early expanding phase marked by high fertility and high but declining mortality.

iii.Late Expanding phase with declining fertility but mortality declining more rapidly.

iv.Low stationary phase with low fertility and equally low mortality.

v. Declining phase with low mortality, low fertility and an excess of deaths over births.

Optimum population theory:-

According to Canan the propounder of this theory population must grow upto certain
desired level after which further growth is harmful. The two important principles of this
theory are:

1. When there is an increase in population than the ratio between the total population and
the working population remains almost constant.
2. When at a point of time the population of a country increases the natural resources
capital and technical know how do not change with the result that after sometime the law
of diminishing returns begins to operate.

This law provides that for maximum production all the sources of production should be
combined in that proper ratio than it shall not be possible to have maximum production.

POPULATION POLICY:-
A policy is a plan of action ,statement of aims and ideals especially one made by a
government ,a political party ,a business company etc.Population policy is an effort to
affect the size, structure and distribution or characteristics of population. In its broader
range it includes efforts to regulate economic and social conditions which are likely to
have demographic consequences.

National Population Policy:-

The immediate objective of this new policy is to address the unmet needs of
contraception, health infrastructure, health personnel and to provide integrated service
delivery for basic reproductive and child health care. The medium term objective is to
bring the total fertility rated to replacement level by 2010.The long term objective is to
achieve a stable population by 2045.In pursuance of these objectives 14 National Socio-
Demogragraphic goals are formulated to be achieved by 2010.The important goals are:

1. Making school education compulsory and to reduce the drop-outs.

2. Reduce infant-mortality rate to 30 per 1000 live births.
3. Reduce maternal mortality rate to below 100 per 100000 live births.
4. Promote delayed marriage.
5. Achieve 80% institutional deliveries.
6. Prevent and control communicable diseases.
7. Promote vigorously the small family norm to achieve replacement levels of Total
Fertility Rate.

The policy speaks about the formation of National Commission of Population under the
chairmanship of the Prime -Minister to monitor and implement population policy and to
guide planning implementations. The policy also suggests some promotional and
motivational measures to promote adoption of the small family norm. The main features
of the policy are

1. Reward panchayats and Zila Parishads for promoting small family norms.
2. Incentives to adopt two child norms.
3. Couples below poverty line, having sterilization with not more than two living children
will be eligible for health insurance plan.
4. Strengthening abortion facility scheme.
THINGS TO REMEMBER:-
Crude Birth rate:- births per 1000 people.

Sex ratio:-

It is the number of males per 100 females.

Demographic transition:-

Idea that industrialization brings birthrates and death rates into balance.

Fertility:-

Actual rate of reproduction.

Life expectancy:-

Average years of life expected at any given age.

Optimum population:-

The size of population which will permit the highest standard of living for an area at a
given level of technology.

Fecundity:-

It refers to biological capacity for reproduction as distinct from actual reproduction which
is called fertility.Ferility is always less than fecundity in all societies and varies
considerably among different societies. The difference between fecundity and fertility is
more pronounced among industrial societies as compared to preindustrial societies.

CHAPTER-8
 POLITICAL PROCESSES
POWER:-
Power implies the ability of an individual or a group to influence or change the behavior
of other individuals or groups. Weber defines power as the chance of a man or a number
of men to realize their own will in a communal action even against the resistance of
others who are participating in the action.
Power is an aspect of social relationships. An individual or a group does not hold power
in isolation. They hold it in relation to others. To say that power is relational is also to
imply it is behavioral. For if power consists in an inter-relationship between two actors.
Then that inter relationship can only be understood in terms of one actor's manifest
behavior as affecting the manifest behavior of others. Further power is also situational.
To know power one has necessarily to relate it to a specific situation or a specific role
and an actor's power in one particular situation or role may vary from that in another.

Weber's concept of power implies that those who hold power do so at the expense of
others. It suggests that there is a fixed amount of power and therefore if some hold power
others do not. This view is sometimes known as constant-sum concept of power.Talcott
Parsons rejects this view and sees power as something possessed by society as a whole.

According to him power is a generalized facility or resource in the society. In particular it

is a capacity to mobilize the resources of the society for the attainment of goals for which
a general public commitment has been made. In this sense the amount of power in society
is measured by the degree to which collective goals are realized.

Thus greater the efficiency of a social system for achieving the goals defined by its
members more the power that exists in society. This view is sometimes known as
variable -sum concept of power, since power in society is not seen as fixed or constant.
Instead it is variable in the sense that it can increase or decrease. Alvin Gouldner has
defined Power as among other things the ability to enforce one's moral claims. The
powerful can thus conventionalize their moral defaults.

According to David Lockwood power must not only refer to the capacity to realize one's
ends in a conflict situation against the will of others, it must also include the capacity to
prevent opposition arising in the first place.

POLITICAL SOCILIZATION:-
Political socialization can be defined as a process of socializing in a political system
through information on political symbols, institutions and procedures and internalizing
the value system and ideology supporting the system. It is also a process of acquisition of
political culture. This process works at individual as well as at community level through
cultural transmission. It is one of the most important functions of the political system. It
is also part of the general socialization which starts at the later life.

The two important components are:-

1.Inculcation of general values and norms regarding political behavior and political
matters and

2. The induction of an individual or some people into a particular party and learning its
ideology and action programmes.The role played by mass-media is equally important in
educating the masses and clearing their views for making informed decisions regarding
political affairs. It plays a very crucial role during elections.

AUTHORITY & LEGITIMACY:-

The concept of authority in general terms implies the right to command. It is not to be
identified with persuasion or influence. The expressions like the parental authority,
authority of tradition, authoritative opinion, political authority, legal authority or the
constitutional authority are familiar expressions and they clearly convey that authority is
exercised more characteristically within a net work of clearly defined roles. It is exercised
according to the established and well recognized pattern.

Political authority specifies the governing authority and defines the manner the power is
to be exercised. It determines the nature of relations between the government and the
governed. The doctrine of legitimacy implies that the authority should be used according
to well recognized and accepted pattern. The natural sequence of happenings following
the usage or custom or the established procedure invests the authority with legitimacy.
Command and obedience relationship is based on the assumed legitimacy in the exercise
of authority.

Force and coercion are not legitimate but these are used either to establish legitimacy or
by the legitimate authority for legitimate purpose. The legitimate authority if it fails in its
objective may be challenged and a revolutionary authority may come into being. In case
the newly established authority may fail there may be the counter-revolution. The
authority that may come into existence finally has to establish its legitimacy. It is
therefore the foundation of all governmental power.
The government can itself function only with the understanding that it has the power to
function. At a given time the authority that has come into existence may not have the
legitimacy but it shall have to secure such legitimacy as the society would recognize and
as could secure to it the international recognition.

PRESSURE GROUPS:-
Groups play a direct role in political life. People organize social movements, interest
groups and pressure groups in order to influence the government. Ethnic and racial
groups, religious and linguistic minority groups have also acted collectively to influence
governmental decisions. Thus a pressure group refers to an interest group which tries to
safe-guard and promotes the interests of its members. It is not a political group seeking to
capture political power though it may have a political character of its own.

A pressure group can be understood as an association of persons with a common

economic interest who try to influence governmental decisions. These pressure groups
also known as interest groups pursue their political goals through lobbying- the process
by which individuals and groups communicate with public officials in order to influence
decisions of government. They also distribute persuasive literature and launch public
campaigns to build grass -root support for their political objectives.

According to Functionalists such groups play a constructive role in decision-making.

They prepare the ground for the orderly political participation. Conflict theorists on the
other hand argue that although a few organizations work on behalf of the poor and
disadvantaged most of the pressure groups represent the vested interests of the business
leaders, the lobbies of multinational companies, rich professionals and political leaders.
They further assert that these powerful lobbies discourage political participation by the
individual citizens. The pressure groups have greater say in democracy than in the
totalitarian setup.Inspite of their limitations and defects they have become an essential
part of the modern democratic process.

POLITICAL MODERNIZATION:-
It is the transformation of political culture in response to changes in social and physical
environment. According to Huntington political modernization is a multifaceted process
involving change in all areas of human thought and activity. Benjamin Schwartz views
political modernization as the systematic, sustained and powerful application of human
energies to control man's social and physical environment.

Claude Welch describes political modernization as the process based on the rational
utilization of resources and aimed at the establishment of modern society. The process of
modernization of the polity leads to the emergence of some crucial problems and
challenges faced by the political system. It is rooted in the changing sources of
legitimation of authority.

CASTE & POLITICS:-

The relationship between caste and politics in Indian society has been subject of intensive
study for many years. Many sociologists including Andre Beteille, Rajni Kothari, and
Anil Bhatt have highlighted various aspects. According to M.N Srinivas the role played
by caste in politics is in close approximation to that of the pressure group.

The modernizing forces will however reduce the influence of caste over the politics.
However Andre Beteille holds that while westernization is taking individual away from
caste identity the role of caste in politics is taking the people towards the caste identity
and thereby strengthening it.Rajni Kothari studied the nature of relationship between
caste and politics. He has also examined the type of changes that have taken place in the
political system as a result of the involvement of caste organization.

Caste has three important indigenous elements -secular which refers to relevance of caste
in politics in terms of the relations within and between castes. Integrative which refers to
castes being relevant to politics through differentiation and integration and ideological
which is heightened by its value structure. The analysis of Dominant Caste and political
process by Anil Bhatt reveals the crucial role played by castes in politics and awareness
of the lower castes of their political gains. He found that the higher caste groups had
lower political interest and low castes higher political interests.

Political awareness was high among the higher castes and was low among the lower
castes. Lower castes by organizing themselves in pursuit of collective interest were able
to emerge successfully. The involvement of these castes organization in politics has
changed their position in hierarchical pattern of Hindu society. Caste solidarity and
political power helped them to achieve higher social, economic and political success.
This was highlighted by the studies conducted by Rudolf and Rudolf. The same was
highlighted by Andre Beteille's study of Tanjore district in Tamil Nadu.Caste has
become one of the most formidable element of group formation within political parties in
India.

The patronage and pecuniary resources available to the political leaders enable them to
create a coalition of factions on caste basis, whose leaders are bound to political elites in
power in a complex network of personal obligational ties. Each of these leaders had a
group of followers tied to him in accordance with the same set of caste principles. The
personnel of these castes factions may vary but whatever may be their social composition
they demand and to a higher degree receive from their members full support.
Political parties mobilize caste support in various ways. According to Andre Beteille two
kinds of changes seem to be taking place in relation between caste and politics - power
shifts from one dominant caste to another and the focus of power shifts from one caste
itself to another on caste basis. He maintains that loyalties of castes are exploited in
voting. New alliances cutting across castes are also formed. Rudolph is of the opinion
that caste association has given caste a new vitality and democracy has enabled caste to
play an important political role in India. Caste federations are formed not of one caste but
many. His further observation pointed out that caste enters the political process by
making appeals to caste loyalties in a general way. Also by activating networks of inter-
personal relation both during elections and at other times for mobilizing support along
caste lines and by articulating caste interests in an organized manner.

Beteille has also pointed that the political process has a dual effect on the caste system.
To the extent that caste and sub-caste loyalties are consistently exploited, the traditional
structure is strengthened and to the extent that it leads to new alliance cutting across
caste, it loosens the traditional structure. Political parties utilize the support of caste for
their functioning and seek their support in winning elections.

Grass-root political arenas as well as political parties have always remained and continue
to remain dominated by elites of castes which compete with each other to form caste
coalitions of supporters strong enough to maximize control over local resources and
enhance opportunities to become players in political system.

THINGS TO REMEMBER:-

• Mills explains the elite rule in institutional terms.

• According to Levi Strauss consent is the basis of leadership.

• Mosca believed that the members of the elite should have superior qualities than the
masses.

• The Marxian view regards the subject class regarding the ruling class to be legitimate
as an indication of false class consciousness.

• Weber gave the constant sum concept of power.

• Pareto believed the European democracies to exemplify the rule of the fox.

• Developing nations are commonly governed by tutelany democracies.

• Societies without head are termed as acephalous.

• The kwakitul Indians take part in Potlatch which is a war of propery.

• Malinowski believed that reciprocity,systematic incidence ,publicity and ambition will

be found to be the main factors in the binding machinery of primitive laws.

• Pareto believed that all elites gradually gain power.

• Anarchism represents an extreme form of individualism.

• A propounder of the matriarchal theory was Henry Maine.

• Engels expected society to banish the state machine to the museum of antiquities.

• According to Maclver the state alone can maintain law and order.
• The essentials of communism are found in communist manifesto.

• Proudhon is the author of 'What is property'.

• Nation is a territorial community.

• Every one ruling himself so as not to be a hindrance to others would denote the affairs
in an ideal state.

• Sovereignty differentiates state from nation.

• Drey holds that there is no such thing as absolute independence even the state as a
whole is not almighty.

• The legal sovereign is constituted by the president.

• According to Kohn the most important outward factor in the formation of nationalities
is the state.

• MacIver regards identifying the social with political as the grossest of all confusions.

• Ethics is the inner morality of a person.

• Nation emphasizes the consciousness of unity among people.

• According to Malinowski self- interest determines the adherence to custom.

• Rossean believed that man gives in common all his powers to the general will.

• Laski suggests that the concept of sovereignty should be abandoned altogether.

• Lowie emphasizes the role of territory in the development of political institutions.

• Henry Maine has emphasized kinship as being the basis of primitive political system.
• According to Plato 'the best state is that which is nearest in virtue to the individual.

• The ancient and modern bureaucracies did not differ in principle of hierarchy.

• Legitimacy is the binding thread between power and authority.

• Weber viewed corporate group in relation to authority and termed it as verband.

• Destutt de Tracy first used the word ideology.

• Weber, Merton and Michels used the term bureaucracy.

• Manheim wrote the book ideology and utopia.

• Competition is interaction without social contact.

• Pareto gave the theory of circulation of elite.

• PRESIDENTIAL FORM OF GOVERNMENT:- A system of government

in which the real power is vested in the hands of an elected head of state is known as
presidential form of government.

• A set of principles for the guidance of the courts in cases in which the accused has
pleaded that he/she was insane at the time of the act is known as ceteries paribus.

CHAPTER-9
 WEAKER SECTIONS &
MINORITIES
SOCIAL JUSTICE:-

Social Justice is a concept that has fascinated philosophers ever since Plato in The
Republic formalized the argument that an ideal state would rest on four virtues wisdom,
courage, moderation, and justice.The addition of the word social is to clearly distinguish
Social Justice from the concept of Justice as applied in thelaw- state-administered
systems, which label behavior as unacceptable and enforce a formal mechanism of
control, may produce results that do not match the philosophical definitions of social
justice - and from more informal concepts of justice embedded in systems of public
policy and morality and which differ from culture to culture and therefore lack
universality.
Social justice is also used to refer to the overall fairness of a society in its divisions and
distributions of rewards and burdens and, as such, the phrase has been adopted by
political parties with a redistributive agenda. Social Justice derives its authority from the
codes of morality prevailing in each culture.

By gathering together into bands and communities, humans seek to gain strength and to
address their vulnerabilities which, in turn, creates the potential to develop into more
complex and evolving civilisations. If simple survival is to be transformed into long-term
security, something more than co-ordinating the contribution of everyone's skills will be
required.

A social organisation will be needed to resolve disputes and offer physical security
against attack. The achievement of community aims will depend upon the co-ordination
of many functional specializations (such as farmers for food, soldiers for protection and
rulers for resource management) and a willingness of community members to sacrifice
some personal freedom for the greater good.So, would defining or administering justice
become one of these specializations and, as such, be the exclusive responsibility of any
one class of citizens? People will not accept the surrender of any of their freedoms unless
they perceive real benefits flowing from their decisions.

The key factor is likely to be the emergence of a consensus that the society is working in
a fair way, i.e., both that individuals are allowed as much freedom as possible given the
role they have within the society and that the rewards compensate adequately for any loss
of freedom. Hence, true social justice is attained only through the harmonious co-
operative effort of the citizens who, in their own self-interest, accept the current norms of
morality as the price of membership in the community.
The next major impetus for the development of the concept came from
Christianity.Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) says, "Justice is a certain rectitude of
mind whereby a man does what he ought to do in the circumstances confronting
him."

As a theologian, Aquinas believed that justice is a form of natural duty owed by one
person to another and not enforced by any human-made law. This reflects the Christian
view that, before God, all people are equal and must treat each other with respect. Hence,
the framework of the argument shifts to require obedience to natural principles of
morality to satisfy a duty owed to God, and the outcome of social justice is driven by the
tenets of morality embedded in the religion.
John Locke (1632-1704), an early theologist Utilitarain argued that people have innate
natural goodness and beauty, and so, in the long run, if individuals rationally pursue their
private happiness and pleasure, the interests of the society or the general welfare will be
looked after fairly. Locke characterised most of Christianity as utilitarian since believers
see utility in rewards in the afterlife for their actions on Earth.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) believed that actions are morally right if they are
motivated by duty without regard to any personal goal, desire, motive, or self-interest.
Kant's moral theory is, therefore, deontological and based on the concept of abject
selflessness. In his view, the only relevant feature of moral law is its universalisability.

In the latter part of the twentieth century, the concept of Social Justice has largely been
associated with the political philosopher John Rawls (1921-2002) who draws on the
utilitarian insights of Bentham and Mill, the social contract ideas of Locke, and the
categorical imperative ideas of Kant. His first statement of principle was made in A
Theory of Justice (1971) where he proposed that, "Each person possesses an
inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot
override. For this reason justice denies that the loss of freedom for some is made right by
a greater good shared by others."

His views are definitively restated in Political Liberalism (1993), where society is seen,
"as a fair system of co-operation over time, from one generation to the next." All societies
have a basic structure of social, economic, and political institutions, both formal and
informal. In testing how well these elements fit and work together, Rawls based a key test
of legitimacy on the theories of social contract.

To determine whether any particular system of collectively enforced social arrangements

is legitimate he argued that one must look for agreement by the people who are subject to
it. Obviously, not every citizen can be asked to participate in a poll to determine his or
her consent to every proposal in which some degree of coercion is involved, so we have
to assume that all citizens are reasonable . Rawls constructed an argument for a two-stage
process to determine a citizen's hypothetical agreement:

• the citizen agrees to be represented by X for certain purposes; to that extent, X holds
these powers as a trustee for the citizen;
• X agrees that a use of enforcement in a particular social context is legitimate; the
citizen, therefore, is bound by this decision because it is the function of the trustee to
represent the citizen in this way.

Equal Opportunity and special opportunity:-

According to the advocates of equal opportunity all citizens should get equal social and
political benefits. On the other hand the proponents of special opportunity demand that
protective discrimination policy should be used for certain sections of the society. This
policy is meant to provide certain benefits and special opportunities to the weaker
sections of the society.
This applies to one person representing a small group (e.g. to the organiser of a social
event setting a dress code) as equally as it does to national governments which are the
ultimate trustees, holding representative powers for the benefit of all citizens within their
territorial boundaries, and if those governments fail to provide for the welfare of their
citizens according to the principles of justice, they are not legitimate.
To emphasise the general principle that justice should rise from the people and not be
dictated by the law-making powers of governments, Rawls asserted that, "There is . . . a
general presumption against imposing legal and other restrictions on conduct without
sufficient reason.

But this presumption creates no special priority for any particular liberty." This is support
for an unranked set of liberties that reasonable citizens in all states should respect and
uphold - to some extent, the list proposed by Rawls matches the normative human rights
that have international recognition and direct enforcement in some nation states where the
citizens need encouragement to act in a more objectively just way.Social Justice as
conceived by Rawls is an apolitical philosophical concept

The concept of social justice may hold some or all of the following beliefs:-

• Historical inequities insofar as they affect current injustices should be corrected until
the actual inequities no longer exist or have been perceptively "negated".

• The redistribution of wealth, power and status for the individual, community and
societal good.

• It is government's (or those who hold significant power) responsibility to ensure a basic
quality of life for all its citizens.

Protective Discrimination:-
The discriminations suffered by the oppressed sections of the society including SC and
STs over great period of time has led to the concept of protective discrimination to safe-
guard their interests. The main reason behind protective discrimination is to provide the
necessary facilities to the deprived sections and to bring them to the mainstream society.
These two classes were placed beyond the bounds of the larger society, the scheduled
tribes on account of their isolation in particular ecological riches and the scheduled castes
on account of the segregation imposed on them by the rules of pollution.

There are certain clauses in the constitution which aims at providing equality of
opportunity to all by prohibiting discrimination and to remove disparities between
privileged and underprivileged classes. However the state faced with the dilemma that
this would mean that in the society characterized by the distinctions on the basis of caste,
religion only who are better positioned than the rest would get all the benefits and the
backward and repressed classes will remain sidelined. In order to overcome this, state has
the special responsibility of giving equal rights to the communities through protective
discrimination. There are many provisions in the constitution:-

Art 15 (clause 3) which empowers the state to make any special provision for women
and children.

Art 16 (clause 4) serves the same purpose for backward class citizens. There are several
other articles which aim to remove disparity between different sections of the society.
The constitution attempts to create balance between right to equality and protective
discrimination.

Constitutional Safeguards:-
In India, the National Constitution of 1950 or any other Constitutional document does not
define the word 'Minority'. The Constitution only refers to Minorities and speaks of those
"based on religion or language". In the Constitution of India, the Preamble (as amended
in 1976) declares the State to be "Secular" , and this is of special relevance for the
Religious Minorities. Equally relevant for them, especially, is the prefatory declaration of
the Constitution in its Preamble that all citizens of India are to be secured "liberty of
thought, expression, belief, faith and worship and "equality of status and of opportunity".

The Constitution of India has provided two types of safe-guards -general and specific to
safeguard various interests of the minorities:-
In the first category are those provisions that are equally enjoyed by both groups. The
provisions ensure justice- social, economic and political equality to all.
The second category consists of provisions meant specifically for the protection of
particular interests of minorities.

• people's right to "equality before the law" and "equal protection of the laws";

• prohibition of discrimination against citizens on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or

place of birth;

• authority of State to make "any special provision for the advancement of any socially
and educationally backward classes of citizens" (besides the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes);
• citizens' right to "equality of opportunity" in matters relating to employment or
appointment to any office under the State - and prohibition in this regard of
discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

• Authority of State to make "any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts
in favour of any backward class of citizens which, in the opinion of the State, is not
adequately represented in the services under the State; • People's freedom of conscience
and right to freely profess, practice and propagate religion - subject to public order,
morality and other Fundamental Rights;

• Authority of State to make law for "regulating or restricting any economic financial,
political or other secular activity which may be associated with religious practice", and
for "providing for social welfare and reform"; • Authority of State to make laws for
"throwing open" of Hindu, Sikh, Jain or Buddhist "religious institutions of a public
character to "all classes and sections of the respective communities;

• Sikh community's right of "wearing and carrying of kirpans" ;

• Right of "every religious denomination or any section thereof - subject to public order,
morality and health - to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable
proposes, "manage its own affairs of religion", and own and acquire movable immovable
property and administer it "in accordance with law";

• People's "freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion";

.People's "freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in

educational institutions" wholly maintained, recognized, or aided by the State;
· Right of "any section of the citizens" to conserve its "distinct language, script or
culture"

· Restriction on denial of admission to any citizen, to any educational institution

maintained or aided by the State, "on grounds only of religion, race, caste,
language or any of them";

· Right of all Religious and Linguistic Minorities to establish and administer

educational institutions of their choice; and

· Freedom of Minority-managed educational institutions from discrimination in the

matter of receiving aid from the State.

Part IV of the Constitution of India, containing non-justifiable Directive Principles of

State Policy, includes the following provisions having significant implications for the
Minorities:

· Obligation of the State "to endeavor to eliminate inequalities in status, facilities

and opportunities" amongst individuals and groups of people residing in different
 areas or engaged in different vocations;

· Obligation of State to "endeavor to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code
throughout the territory of India";

· Obligation of State "to promote with special care" the educational and economic
interests of "the weaker sections of the people" (besides Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes; and

· Obligation of State to "take steps" for "prohibiting the slaughter of cows and
calves and other milch and draught cattle".

Part IV-A of the Constitution, relating to Fundamental Duties, applies in full to all
citizens, including those belonging to Minorities and of special relevance for the
Minorities are the following provisions in this Part:

· Citizens' duty to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst
all the people of India "transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional
diversities; and

· Citizens' duty to "value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture".
Some other provisions of the Constitution having special relevance and implications for
the Minorities are:
· Official obligation to pay out of the consolidated funds of the States of Kerala and
Tamilnadu 46.5 and 13.5 lakh rupees respectively to the local "Dewasom Funds"
for the maintenance of Hindu temples and shrines in the territories of the
erstwhile State of Travancore-Cochin;
· Special provision relating to the language spoken by a section of the population of
any State;
· Provision for facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at primary stage;
· Provision for a Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities and his duties;
· Special provision with respect to Naga religious or social practices, customary
law and procedure, and "administration of civil and criminal justice involving
decisions according to Naga customary law."
· Identical special provision for the Mizos; and
· Provision relating to continuation in force of pre-Constitution laws "until altered
or repealed or amended by a competent legislature or other competent authority"
Part III of the Constitution gives certain fundamental rights. Some of these rights are
common to all the citizens of India including minorities. These rights are enshrined in -

Article 14: This ensures equality before law and equal protection of law.

Article 15: This prohibits discrimination on any ground i.e. religion, race, caste, sex,
place of birth.
Article 21: No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except the
procedure established by law.

Article 25: This ensures freedom of conscience and the right freely to profess, practice
and propagate religion.

Article 26: This ensures a right to manage religious institutions, religious affairs, subject
to public order, morality and health.

Article 29: Gives minorities a right to conserve their language, script or culture.

• It provides for the protection of the interests of minorities by giving them a right to
establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. The State is directed not
to discriminate against minorities institutions in granting aid.

Article 350A: Directs the State to provide facilities for instruction in the mother tongue
at the primary stage of education.

Art 164(1): According to this article in states of Bihar, MP and Orissa there shall be a
Minister in charge of tribal welfare who may in addition be in charge of the welfare of
the scheduled castes and backward classes.

Art 244(1): Regarding administration of scheduled areas and tribal areas - (1) The
provisions of the Fifth schedule shall apply to the administration and control of the
Scheduled areas and Scheduled tribes in any state other than the state of Assam,
Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. (2) The provisions of the sixth schedule shall apply to
the administration of the tribal areas in the state of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and
Mizoram.
Art 244(A): Formation of an autonomous state comprising certain tribal areas in Assam
and creation of local legislature or Council of Ministers or both thereof. Parliament may
by law form within the state of Assam an autonomous state comprising (whether wholly
or part) all or any of the tribal areas.

Art 275: Provided that there shall be paid out of consolidated fund of India as grants-in-
aid of the revenues of a state such capital and recurring sums as may be necessary to
enable the state to meet the costs of such schemes of development as may be undertaken
by the state with the approval of the Govt of India for the purpose of promoting the
welfare of the scheduled tribes in that state or raising the level of administration of the
scheduled areas therein to that of the administration of the rest of the areas in that state.
Provided further that there shall be paid out of the consolidated fund of India as grant-in-
aid of the revenues of the state of Assam sum capital and recurring.

Art 330: Reservation of seats for the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the House
of People.
(1)Seats shall be reserved for scheduled castes
(2)The scheduled tribes except the scheduled tribes except the scheduled tribes in the
autonomous districts of Assam
(3)The scheduled tribes in the autonomous districts in Assam.

Art 332: Reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the Legislative
Assemblies of the states.

(1)Seats shall be reserved for the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes (except the
ST's of autonomous districts of Assam) in the Legislative Assembly of every state.
(2)Seats shall be reserved also for the autonomous districts in the Legislative Assembly
of the state of Assam.

Art 334: Reservation of seats and special representation in Legislative Assemblies and
House of People to cease after fifty years.

Art 335: Claims of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes to service and posts-The claims
of the members of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes shall be taken into
consideration consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration in the
making of appointments to service and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union
or of a state.

Art 338: National Commission for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes

Art 339: Control of the Union over the administration of Scheduled castes and Scheduled
tribes.

Art 340: Appointment of a commission by the president to investigate the conditions of

backward classes.

Art 341: Power of the President to specify the castes, races or tribes or posts of or groups
within castes, races or tribes as scheduled castes.

Art 342: Power of the President to specify the tribes or tribal communities or parts of or
groups within tribes or tribal communities as scheduled tribe.

Art 350(A): Facilities for instruction in mother tongue of a minority group.

Art 350(B): Special officer for linguistic minorities.

TYPES OF JUSTICE:-
Justice is action in accordance with the requirements of some law. Whether these rules
are grounded in human consensus or societal norms, they are supposed to ensure that all
members of society receive fair treatment. Issues of justice arise in several different
spheres and play a significant role in causing, perpetuating, and addressing conflict.
Just institutions tend to instill a sense of stability, well-being, and satisfaction among
society members, while perceived injustices can lead to dissatisfaction, rebellion, or
revolution. Each of the different spheres expresses the principles of justice in its own
way, resulting in different types and concepts of justice:-
(1) Distributive
(2) Procedural
(3) Retributive
(4) Restorative.

These types of justice have important implications for socio-economic, political, civil,
and criminal justice at both the national and international level.

Distributive, or economic justice, is concerned with giving all members of society a "fair
share" of the benefits and resources available. However, while everyone might agree that
wealth should be distributed fairly, there is much disagreement about what counts as a
"fair share." Some possible criteria of distribution are equity, equality, and need.

Procedural, is concerned with making and implementing decisions according to fair

processes that ensure "fair treatment." Rules must be impartially followed and
consistently applied in order to generate an unbiased decision. Those carrying out the
procedures should be neutral, and those directly affected by the decisions should have
some voice or representation in the decision-making process.

Retributive appeals to the notion that people deserve to be treated in the same way they
treat others. It is a retroactive approach that justifies punishment as a response to past
injustice or wrongdoing. The central idea is that the offender has gained unfair
advantages through his or her behavior, and that punishment will set this imbalance
straight.

However, because there is a tendency to slip from retributive justice to an emphasis on

revenge, some suggest that restorative justice processes are more effective. While a
retributive justice approach conceives of transgressions as crimes against the state or
nation, restorative justice focuses on violations as crimes against individuals. It is
concerned with healing victim's wounds, restoring offenders to law-abiding lives, and
repairing harm done to interpersonal relationships and the community.
 CHAPTER-10
SOCIAL CHANGE:-

SOCIAL CHANGE:-

The term social change is used to indicate the changes that take place in human
interactions and interrelations.
Society is a web of social relationships and hence social change means change in the
system of social relationships. These are understood in terms of social processes and
social interactions and social organization.Auguste Comte the father of Sociology has
posed two problems- the question of social statics and the question of social dynamics,
what is and how it changes. The sociologists not only outline the structure of the society
but also seek to know its causes also. According to Morris Ginsberg social change is a
change in the social structure.

EVOLUTIONARIES THEORIES:-
Evolutionary theories are based on the assumption that societies gradually change from
simple beginnings into even more complex forms. Early sociologists beginning with
Auguste Comte believed that human societies evolve in a unilinear way- that is in one
line of development.

According to them social change meant progress toward something better. They saw
change as positive and beneficial. To them the evolutionary process implied that societies
would necessarily reach new and higher levels of civilization.

L.H Morgan believed that there were three basic stages in the process:-
(1) Savagery
(2) Barbarism and
(3) Civilization.
Auguste Comte's ideas relating to the three stages in the development of human thought
and also of society namely-the theological, the metaphysical and the positive in a way
represent the three basic stages of social change. This evolutionary view of social change
was highly influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of Organic Evolution. Those who
were fascinated by this theory applied it to the human society and argued that societies
must have evolved from the simple and primitive to that of too complex and advanced
such as the western society.
Herbert Spencer a British sociologist carried this analogy to its extremity. He argued that
society itself is an organism. He even applied Darwin's principle of the survival of the
fittest to human societies. He said that society has been gradually progressing towards a
better state. He argued that it has evolved from military society to the industrial society.
He claimed that western races, classes or societies had survived and evolved because they
were better adapted to face the conditions of life.

This view known as social Darwinism got widespread popularity in the late 19th century.
It survived even during the first phase of the 20th century. Emile Durkheim identified
the cause of societal evolution as a society's increasing moral density.Durkheim viewed
societies as changing in the direction of greater differentiation, interdependence and
formal control under the pressure of increasing moral density. He advocated that societies
have evolved from a relatively undifferentiated social structure with minimum of division
of labor and with a kind of solidarity called mechanical solidarity to a more differentiated
social structure with maximum division of labor giving rise to a kind of solidarity called
organic solidarity.

CYCLICAL THEORIES:-
Cyclical theories of social change focus on the rise and fall of civilizations attempting to
discover and account for these patterns of growth and decay.

Spengler, Toynbee and Sorokin can be regarded as the champions of this

theory.Spengler pointed out that the fate of civilizations was a matter of destiny.

Each civilization is like a biological organism and has a similar life-cycle, birth, maturity,
old-age and death. After making a study of eight major civilizations including the west he
said that the modern western society is in the last stage i.e. old age. He concluded that the
western societies were entering a period of decay as evidenced by wars, conflicts and
social breakdown that heralded their doom.

Toynbee:

Arnold Toynbee's famous book 'A study of History' (1946) focus on the key concepts
of challenge and response. Every society faces challenges at first, challenges posed by the
environment and later challenges from internal and external enemies. The nature of
responses determines the society's fate. The achievements of a civilization consist of its
successful responses to the challenges; if cannot mount an effective response it dies. He
does not believe that all civilizations will inevitably decay.

He has pointed out that history is a series of cycles of decay and growth. But each new
civilization is able to learn from the mistakes and to borrow from cultures of others. It is
therefore possible for each new cycle to offer higher level of achievement.

Sorokin:
Pitirin Sorokin in his book Social and Culture Dynamics - 1938 has offered another
explanation of social change. Instead of viewing civilization into the terms of
development and decline he proposed that they alternate of fluctuate between two cultural
extremes: the sensate and the ideational.

The sensate culture stresses those things which can be perceived directly by the senses. It
is practical, hedonistic, sensual and materialistic. Ideational culture emphasizes those
things which can be perceived only by the mind. It is abstract, religious concerned with
faith and ultimate truth. It is the opposite of the sensate culture. Both represent pure types
of culture. Hence no society ever fully conforms to either type.

As the culture of a society develops towards one pure type, it is countered by the
opposing cultural force. Cultural development is then reversed moving towards the
opposite type of culture. Too much emphasis on one type of culture leads to a reaction
towards the other. Societies contain both these impulses in varying degrees and the
tension between them creates long-term instability. Between these types lies a third type
'idealistic' culture. This is a desirable blend of other two but no society ever seems to
have achieved it as a stable condition.

FUNCTIONALIST OR DYNAMIC THEORIES:-

In the middle decades of the 20th century a number of American sociologists shifted their
attention from social dynamics to social static or from social change to social stability.
Talcott Parsons stressed the importance of cultural patterns in controlling the stability of
a society. According to him society has the ability to absorb disruptive forces while
maintaining overall stability.

Change is not as something that disturbs the social equilibrium but as something that
alters the state of equilibrium so that a qualitatively new equilibrium results. He has
stated that changes may arise from two sources. They may come from outside the society
through contact with other societies. They may also come from inside the society through
adjustment that must be made to resolve strains within the system. Parsons speaks of two
processes that are at work in social change.

In simple societies institutions are undifferentiated that is a single institution serves many
functions. The family performs reproductive, educational, socializing, economic,
recreational and other functions. A process of differentiation takes place when the society
becomes more and more complex. Different institutions such as school, factory may take
over some of the functions of a family. The new institutions must be linked together in a
proper way by the process of integration. New norms must be established in order to
govern the relationship between the school and the home. Further bridging institutions
such as law courts must resolve conflicts between other components in the system.

CONFLICT THEORIES:-
Whereas the equilibrium theories emphasize the stabilizing processes at work in social
systems the so-called conflict theories highlight the forces producing instability, struggle
and social disorganization. According to Ralf Dahrendorf the conflict theories assume
that - every society is subjected at every moment to change, hence social change is
ubiquitous. Every society experiences at every moment social conflict, hence social
conflict is ubiquitous. Every element in society contributes to change.

Every society rests on constraint of some of its members by others. The most famous and
influential of the conflict theories is the one put forward by Karl Marx who along with
Engel wrote in Communist Manifesto 'all history is the history of class conflict.'
Individuals and groups with opposing interests are bound to be at conflict. Since the two
major social classes the rich and poor or capitalists and the proletariat have mutually
hostile interests they are at conflict.

History is the story of conflict between the exploiter and the exploited. This conflict
repeats itself off and on until capitalism is overthrown by the workers and a socialist state
is created. What is to be stressed here is that Marx and other conflict theorists deem
society as basically dynamic and not static. They consider conflict as a normal process.
They also believe that the existing conditions in any society contain the seeds of future
social changes. Like Karl Marx , George Simmel too stressed the importance of conflict
in social change.

According to him conflict is a permanent feature of society and not just a temporary
event. It is a process that binds people together in interaction. Further conflict encourages
people of similar interests to unite together to achieve their objectives. Continuous
conflict in this way keeps society dynamic and ever changing.

FACTORS OF CHANGE:-
PHYSICAL ENVIROMENT:-
Major changes in the physical environment are very compelling when they happen.
The desert wastes of North Africa were once green and well populated. Climates change,
soil erodes and lakes gradually turn into swamps and finally plains. A culture is greatly
affected by such changes although sometimes they come about so slowly that they are
largely unnoticed. Human misuse can bring very rapid changes in physical environment
which in turn change the social and cultural life of a people.

Deforestation brings land erosion and reduces rainfall. Much of the wasteland and desert
land of the world is a testament to human ignorance and misuse. Environmental
destruction has been at least a contributing factor in the fall of most great civilization.
Many human groups throughout history have changed their physical environment through
migration. In the primitive societies whose members are very directly dependent upon
their physical environment migration to a different environment brings major changes in
the culture. Civilization makes it easy to transport a culture and practice it in a new and
different environment.

POPULATION CHANGES:-
A population change is itself a social change but also becomes a casual factor in further
social and cultural changes. When a thinly settled frontier fills up with people the
hospitality pattern fades away, secondary group relations multiply, institutional structures
grow more elaborate and many other changes follow.

A stable population may be able to resist change but a rapidly growing population must
migrate, improve its productivity or starve. Great historic migrations and conquests of the
Huns, Vikings and many others have arisen from the pressure of a growing population
upon limited resources. Migration encourages further change for it brings a group into a
new environment subjects it to new social contacts and confronts it with new problems.
No major population change leaves the culture unchanged.

ISOLATION & CONTACT:-

Societies located at world crossroads have always been centers of change. Since most
new traits come through diffusion, those societies in closest contact with other societies
are likely to change most rapidly. In ancient times of overland transport, the land bridge
connecting Asia, Africa and Europe was the centre of civilizing change.

Later sailing vessels shifted the centre to the fringes of the Mediterranean Sea and still
later to the north- west coast of Europe. Areas of greatest intercultural contact are the
centers of change. War and trade have always brought intercultural contact and today
tourism is adding to the contacts between cultures says Greenwood. Conversely isolated
areas are centers of stability, conservatism and resistance to change. The most primitive
tribes have been those who were the most isolated like the polar Eskimos or the Aranda
of Central Australia.
SOCIAL STRUCTURE:-
The structure of a society affects its rate of change in subtle and not immediately
apparent ways.
A society which vests great authority in the very old people as classical China did for
centuries is likely to be conservative and stable.

According to Ottenberg a society which stresses conformity and trains the individual to
be highly responsive to the group such as the Zunis is less receptive to the change than a
society like the Ileo who are highly individualistic and tolerate considerable cultural
variability. A highly centralized bureaucracy is very favorable to the promotion and
diffusion of change although bureaucracy has sometimes been used in an attempt to
suppress change usually with no more than temporary success.

When a culture is very highly integrated so that each element is rightly interwoven with
all the others in a mutually interdependent system change is difficult and costly. But
when the culture is less highly integrated so that work, play, family, religion and other
activities are less dependent upon one another change is easier and more frequent.

A tightly structured society wherein every person's roles, duties, privileges and
obligations are precisely and rigidly defined is less given to changes than a more loosely
structured society wherein roles, lines of authority, privileges and obligations are more
open to individual rearrangement.

ATTITUDES & VALUES:-

To people in developed nations and societies change is normal. Children there are
socialized to anticipate and appreciate change. By contrast the Trobriand Islanders off the
coast of New Guinea had no concept of change and did not even have any words in their
language to express or describe change. Societies differ greatly in their general attitude
toward change.

People who revere the past and preoccupied with traditions and rituals will change slowly
and unwillingly. When a culture has been relatively static for a long time the people are
likely to assume that it should remain so indefinitely. They are intensely and
unconsciously ethnocentric; they assume that their customs and techniques are correct
and everlasting.

A possible change is unlikely even to be seriously considered. Any change in such a

society is likely to be too gradual to be noticed. A rapidly changing society has a different
attitude toward change and this attitude is both cause and effect of the changes already
taking place. Rapidly changing societies are aware of the social change. They are
somewhat skeptical and critical of some parts of their traditional culture and will consider
and experiment with innovations. Such attitudes powerfully stimulate the proposal and
acceptance of changes by individuals within the society.

Different groups within a locality or a society may show differing receptivity to change.
Every changing society has its liberals and its conservatives. Literate and educated people
tend to accept changes more readily than the illiterate and uneducated. Attitudes and
values affect both the amount and the direction of social change. The ancient Greeks
made great contributions to art and learning but contributed little to technology. No
society has been equally dynamic in all aspects and its values determine in which area-
art, music, warfare, technology, philosophy or religion it will be innovative.
Cultural Factor influences the direction and character of technological change Culture not
only influences our social relationships, it also influences the direction and character of
technological change.

It is not only our beliefs and social institutions must correspond to the changes in
technology but our beliefs and social institutions determine the use to which the
technological inventions will be put. The tools and techniques of technology are
indifferent to the use we make of them.

For example the atomic energy can be used for the production of deadly war weapons or
for the production of economic goods that satisfy the basic needs of man. The factories
can produce the armaments or necessaries of life. Steel and iron can be used for building
warships or tractors. It is a culture that decides the purpose to which a technical invention
must be put. Although technology has advanced geometrically in the recent past,
technology alone does not cause social change. It does not by itself even cause further
advances in technology.

Social values play a dominant role here. It is the complex combination of technology and
social values which produces conditions that encourage further technological change. For
example the belief or the idea that human life must not be sacrificed for wants of medical
treatment, contributed to the advancement in medical technology.Max Weber in his The
Protestant Ethic and the spirit of Capitalism has made a classical attempt to establish a
correlation between the changes in the religious outlook, beliefs and practices of the
people on the one hand and their economic behavior on the other.

He has observed capitalism could grow in the western societies to very great extent and
not in the eastern countries like India and China. He has concluded that Protestantism
with its practical ethics encouraged capitalism to grow in the west and hence industrial
and economic advancement took place there. In the East, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism
and Islam on the other hand did not encourage capitalism. Thus cultural factors play a
positive as well as negative role in bringing about technological change.

Cultural factors such as habits, customs, traditions, conservatism, traditional values etc
may resist the technological inventions. On the other hand factors such as breakdown in
the unity of social values, the diversification of social institutions craving for the new
thoughts, values etc may contribute to technological inventions. Technological changes
do not take place on their own. They are engineered by men only.

Technology is the creation of man. Men are always moved by ideas, thoughts, values,
beliefs, morals and philosophies etc.These are the elements of culture. These sometimes
decide or influence the direction in which technology undergoes change. Men are
becoming more and more materialistic in their attitude. This change in the attitude and
outlook is reflected in the technological field. Thus in order to lead a comfortable life and
to minimize the manual labor man started inventing new techniques, machines,
instruments and devices.

TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS:-
The technological factors represent the conditions created by man which have a
profound influence on his life.
(
In the attempt to satisfy his wants, fulfill his needs and to make his life more comfortable
man creates civilization. Technology is a byproduct of civilization .When the scientific
knowledge is applied to the problems in life it becomes technology.

Technology is a systematic knowledge which is put into practice that is to use tools and
run machines to serve human purpose. Science and technology go together. In utilizing
the products of technology man brings social change. The social effects of technology are
far-reaching. According to Karl Marx even the formation of social relations and mental
conceptions and attitudes are dependent upon technology. He has regarded technology as
a sole explanation of social change.W.F Ogburn says technology changes society by
changing our environment to which we in turn adapt.

These changes are usually in the material environment and the adjustment that we make
with these changes often modifies customs and social institutions. A single invention may
have innumerable social effects. Radio for example has One of the most extreme
expressions of the concern over the independence of technology is found in Jacques
Ellul's 'the technological society'.

Ellul claims that in modern industrial societies technologism has engulfed every aspect of
social existence in much the same way Catholicism did in the middle ages. The loss of
human freedom and the large-scale destruction of human beings are due to the increasing
use of certain types of technology which has begun to threaten the life support systems of
the earth as a whole.

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY CHANGE:-

INDUSTRIALIZATION:-

Technology has contributed to the growth of industries or to the process of

industrialization. Industrialization is a term covering in general terms the growth in a
society hitherto mainly agrarian of modern industry with all its circumstances and
problems, economic and social. It describes in general term the growth of a society in
which a major role is played by manufacturing industry.

The industry is characterized by heavy, fixed capital investment in plant and building by
the application of science to industrial techniques and by mainly large-scale standardized
production. The Industrial Revolution of 18th century led to the unprecedented growth of
industries. Industrialization is associated with the factory system of production. The
family has lost its economic importance.

The factories have brought down the prices of commodities, improved their quality and
maximized their output. The whole process of production is mechanized. Consequently
the traditional skills have declined and good number of artisans has lost their work. Huge
factories could provide employment opportunities to thousands of people. Hence men
have become workers in a very large number. The process of industrialization has
affected the nature, character and the growth of economy. It has contributed to the growth
of cities or to the process of urbanization.

URBANIZATION:-

In many countries the growth of industries has contributed to the growth of cities.

Urbanization denotes a diffusion of the influence of urban centers to a rural hinterland.

Urbanization can be described as a process of becoming urban moving to cities changing

from agriculture to other pursuits common to cities and corresponding change of
behaviour patterns.
Hence only when a large proportion of inhabitants in an area come to cities urbanization
is said to occur. Urbanization has become a world phenomenon today. An unprecedented
growth has taken place not only in the number of great cities but also in their size. As a
result of industrialization people have started moving towards the industrial areas in
search of employment. Due to this the industrial areas developed into towns and cities.

MODERNIZATION:-

Modernization is a process which indicates the adoption of the modern ways of life and
values. It refers to an attempt on the part of the people particularly those who are custom-
bound to adapt themselves to the present-time, conditions, needs, styles and ways in
general. It indicates a change in people's food habits, dress habits, speaking styles, tastes,
choices, preferences, ideas, values, recreational activities and so on. People in the process
of getting themselves modernized give more importance to science and technology. The
scientific and technological inventions have modernized societies in various countries.
They have brought about remarkable changes in the whole system of social relationship
and installed new ideologies in the place of traditional ones.

Development of the means of transport and communication:-

Development of transport and communication has led to the national and international
trade on a large scale. The road transport, the train service, the ships and the aero planes
have eased the movement of men and material goods. Post and telegraph, radio and
television, newspapers and magazines, telephone and wireless and the like have
developed a great deal. The space research and the launching of the satellites for
communication purposes have further added to these developments. They have helped the
people belonging to different corners of the nation or the world to have regular contacts.

Transformation in the economy and the evolution of the new social

classes:-

The introduction of the factory system of production has turned the agricultural economy
into industrial economy. The industrial or the capitalist economy has divided the social
organization into two predominant classes-the capitalist class and the working class.
These two classes are always at conflict due to mutually opposite interest. In the course
of time an intermediary class called the middle class has evolved.

Unemployment:-

The problem of unemployment is a concomitant feature of the rapid technological

advancement. Machines not only provide employment opportunities for men but they
also take away the jobs of men through labor- saving devices. This results in
technological unemployment.
Collective Action:-
Social Movement involves collective action. However it takes the form of a movement
only when it is sustained for a long time.
(
This collective action need not be formally organized. But it should be able to create an
interest and awakening in relatively large number of people.

Oriented towards social change:-

A social movement is generally oriented towards bringing social change. This change
could either be partial or total. Though the movement is aimed at bringing about a change
in the values, norms, ideologies of the existing system, efforts are also made by some
other forces to resist the changes and to maintain the status quo.The counter attempts are
normally defensive and restorative rather than innovative and initiating change. They are
normally the organized efforts of an already established order to maintain itself.

According to Yogendra Singh social movement is a collective mobilization of people in

a society in an organized manner under an individual or collective leadership in order to
realize an ideologically defined social purpose. Social movements are characterized by a
specific goal which has a collective significance ideological interpretation of the
collective goal a rank of committed worker and strong leadership.

Social movements have a life-cycle of their own origin, maturity and culmination.T.K
Oomen observe that a study of social movements implies a study of social structure as
movements originate from the contradictions which in turn emanate from social structure.
He states that all social movements centre around three factors- Locality, Issues and
social categories. Anthony Wallace view social movement as an attempt by local
population to change the image or models they have of how their culture operates.

An important component of social movement that distinguishes it from the general

category of collective mobilization is the presence of an ideology. A student strike
involves collective mobilization and is oriented towards change. But in the absence of an
ideology a student strike becomes an isolated event and not a movement. A social
movement requires a minimum of organizational framework to achieve success or at least
to maintain the tempo of the movement.

To make the distinction clear between the leaders and followers to make clear the
purposes of the movement to persuade people to take part in it or to support it, to adopt
different techniques to achieve the goals - a social movement must have some amount of
organizational frame-work. A social movement may adopt its own technique or method
to achieve its goal. It may follow peaceful or conflicting, violent or non-violent,
compulsive or persuasive, democratic or undemocratic means or methods to reach its
goal.

SOCIAL MOVEMENT TYPES:-

Reform Movements:-
Reform movements are organized to carry out reforms in some specific areas.
The reformers endeavor to change elements of the system for better. For example: Civil
Rights Movement, Women's Liberation Movement, Arya Samaj Movement, Brahmo
Samaj Movement etc.

Revolutionary Movements:-
The revolutionary movements deny that the system will even work. These movements are
deeply dissatisfied with the social order and work for radical change. They advocate
replacing the entire existing structure. Their objective is the reorganization of society in
accordance with their own ideological blueprint. Revolutionary movements generally
become violent as they progress. Example: The Protestant Reformation Movement, the
Socialist Movement, the Communist Revolution of China.

Reactionary or Revivalist Movement:-

Some movements are known as reactionary or regressive movements. These aims to
reverse the social change .They highlight the importance and greatness of traditional
values, ideologies and institutional arrangements. They strongly criticize the fast moving
changes of the present.

Resistance Movement:-
These movements are formed to resist a change that is already taking place in society.
These can be directed against social and cultural changes which are already happening in
the country.

Utopian Movement:-
These are attempts to take the society or a section of it towards a state of perfection.
These are loosely structured collectivities that envision a radically changed and blissful
state, either on a large scale at some time in the future or on a smaller scale in the present.
The Utopian ideal and the means of it are often vague, but many utopian movements have
quite specific programmes for social change. The Hare Krishna Movement of the
seventies, the movement towards the establishment of Ram Rajya and the Sangh Parivar,
the Communists and Socialists pronouncement of a movement towards the classless,
casteless society free from all kinds of exploitation etc.
Peasant Movement:-

Peasant movement is defined by Kathleen Gough as an attempt of a group to effect

change in the face of resistance and the peasant are people who are engaged in an
agricultural or related production with primitive means who surrender part of their or its
equivalent to landlords or to agents of change.
The history of peasant movements can be traced to colonial period when repressive
economic policies, the new land revenue system, the colonial administrative and judicial
system and the ruin of handicrafts leading to the overcrowding of land transformed the
agrarian structure and impoverished the peasantry.

In the zamindari system peasants were left to the mercies of the Zamindars who exploited
them in form of illegal dues. The British government levied heavy land revenue in the
Ryotwari areas. Peasants were forced to borrow money from the moneylenders and they
were reduced to the status of tenants at will, share croppers and landless laborers while
their lands, crops and cattle passed into the hands to landlords, trader moneylenders and
such peasants.

When the peasants could take it no longer they resisted against the oppression and
exploitation through uprisings. Peasant Movements occupy an important place in the
history of social unrest in India though the aims and objectives of these movements differ
in nature and degree from region to region. It is in this sense that these movements also
aimed at the unification of the peasants of a region, development of leadership, ideology
and a peasant elite.

Through these movements emerged a new power structure and peasant alliance. The
genesis of peasant movements rest in the relationship patterns of different social
categories existing within the framework of feudal and semi feudal structure of our
society. In the post Independence period the nature and objectives of the peasant
movement have changed to getting remunerative prices for agricultural produce, to
increase agricultural production, to establish parity between prices of agricultural produce
and industrial goods and to get minimum wages for the agricultural laborers.

Some of the important peasant uprising:-

1770 :- Sanyasi rebellion

1831 :- Wahabi uprising

1855 :- Santhal uprising
1859 :- Indigo revolt
1890-1900 :- Punjab Kisan struggle
1917-18 :- Champaran satyagraha
1921 :- Moplah rebellion
1928 :- Bardoli satyagarya
1946 :- Telangana movement
1957 :- Naxalbai movement

Women's Movement:-
The women's movement in India is a rich and vibrant movement which has taken
different forms in different parts of the country.
Fifty years ago when India became independent, it was widely acknowledged that the
battle for freedom had been fought as much by women as by men. One of the methods M
K Gandhi chose to undermine the authority of the British was for Indians to defy the law
which made it illegal for them to make salt.

At the time, salt-making was a monopoly and earned considerable revenues for the
British. Gandhi began his campaign by going on a march - the salt march - through
many villages, leading finally to the sea, where he and others broke the law by making
salt. No woman had been included by Gandhi in his chosen number of marchers. But
nationalist women protested, and they forced him to allow them to participate.

The first to join was Sarojini Naidu, who went on to become the first woman President
of the Indian National Congress in 1925. Her presence was a signal for hundreds of
other women to join, and eventually the salt protest was made successful by the many
women who not only made salt, but also sat openly in marketplaces selling, and indeed,
buying it. The trajectory of this movement is usually traced from the social reform
movements of the 19th century when campaigns for the betterment of the conditions of
women's lives were taken up, initially by men.

By the end of the century women had begun to organize themselves and gradually they
took up a number of causes such as education, the conditions of women's work and so on.
It was in the early part of the 20th century that women's organizations were set up, and
many of the women who were active in these later became involved in the freedom
movement.

Independence brought many promises and dreams for women in India - the dream of an
egalitarian, just, democratic society in which both men and women would have a voice.
The reality was, however, somewhat different. For all that had happened was that, despite
some improvements in the status of women, patriarchy had simply taken on new and
different forms. By the 1960s it was clear that many of the promises of Independence
were still unfulfilled.
It was thus that the 1960s and 1970s saw a spate of movements in which women took
part: campaigns against rising prices, movements for land rights, peasant movements.
Women from different parts of the country came together to form groups both inside and
outside political parties. Everywhere, in the different movements that were sweeping the
country, women participated in large numbers. Everywhere, their participation resulted in
transforming the movements from within. One of the first issues to receive countrywide
attention from women's groups was violence against women, specifically in the form of
rape, and 'dowry deaths'.

Backward Caste Movement:-

The Backward castes have been deprived of many social, economic, political and
religious privileges.

These people provided manual labor and the untouchables occupied the lowest position
among the caste hierarchy. They were subjected to extreme form of exploitation. The
colonial power accentuated the disparities in the distribution of economic power. The
atrocities united the lower castes against the upper castes.

Some of the important backward caste movement which came up was Satyashodak
Samaj and Nadar Movement which consolidated the masses along the castelines.E.V
Ramaswamy started Self-Respect movement against the Brahmins in South India. The
SNDP movement in Kerala was more of a reformist movement. In 1950s there was a
widespread desire among the non-Brahmin castes to be categorized as Backward
.Subsequently Backward Class commission was set up to look into the conditions and
requirements of these classes. Mandal Commission submitted its report in 1980
recommending reservations for backward castes in educational institutions and
government offices. However this move resulted in anti- Mandal Commission movement
which resulted in large scale violence and many students lost their lives.

Dalit Movement:-
Dalits are the suppressed people at the lost rung of the cast-based hierarchy. Their
inferior occupations and low levels of ascriptive status make them vulnerable for attacks
at the hands of upper-caste people. The organizational efforts made by Dalit leadership
for uplifting their status are known as Dalit movement. It is a protest against
untouchability ,casteism and discrimination faced by the dalits.Dalit movement indicates
some trends of protest ideologies which entail the following -withdrawal and self
organization, high varna status and extolling of non-Aryan culture's virtues, abandoning
of Hinduism and embracing other religions like Buddhism and Islam.

Mahatma Gandhi in 1923 founded the All India Harijan Sevak Sangh to start
education and schools for the dalits.Another most important dalit leader Dr.Ambedkar
struggled to secure the basic human dignity to the dalits.The Mahad Satyagarh for the
right of water led by him was one of the outstanding movements of the dalits to win equal
social rights.
The role of All India Depressed Classes Association and All India Depressed Classes
Federation were the principal organizations which initiated a movement to improve
the conditions of the dalits.These organizations aimed at improving their miserable
conditions and to spread education among them. They worked to secure rights of
admission to school, drawing water from the public wells, entering the temples and to use
the roads.

THINGS TO REMEMBER:-
1.Social change that occurs without being noticed by most members is called latent
change.

2.Walter Cannon coined the term Homeostasis.

3.David Glass conducted the first study of inter-generational mobility in England and
Wales.

4.To Pitrim Sorokin societies pass through three stages each dominated by a system of
truth. The stages are ideational, sensate, idealistic .This theory is the example of cyclical
theory.

5.To Herbert Spencer mankind had progressed from small groups to large and from
simple to compound and doubly compound or in more general terms from the
homogenous to the heterogeneous. This conception is an example of linear theory.

6.Giddings formulated a law of social change .He founded neo-positivist school.

7.Marx and Engels put forward a materialist variant of the evolutionary theory.

8.Herbert Spencer propounded the theory of social evolution.

9.M.N Srinivas wrote the famous book social change in modern India.

11.Goffmann regards total institutions as forcing houses for changing persons.

12.Sorokin has written social and cultural dynamics.

13.The notion of order, change and progress are inherent in the concept of evolution.

14.Maine argued that societies developed from organizational forms where relationships
were based on status to those based upon contract.

15.Saint Simon distinguished between three stages of mental activity- The conjectural,
unconjectural and positive.

16.Cities and towns came into existence due to development of commerce.

17.Ogburn introduced the concept of cultural lag in his book Social Change.

18.According to Lester F Ward social change can be bought about by means of

conscious and systematic effort.

19.David Aberle has classified social movements as transformative, reformative,

redemptive and alternative.

20.Stouffer is associated wit h the theory of relative deprivation.

21.According to Toffler technology would bring about a reversal of trend towards mass
culture distributed by television.

22.Clark Kerr is the author of convergence theory.

23.Everett Rogers categorized people as innovators, early adopter and larggerds on basis
of their response to an innovation.

24.Tonnies proposed that human societies evolve from communities bound together by
tradition to those characterized by nonemotional objectivity.

25.Sorokin is associated with the theory of variable recurrence.

26.Dalit Panther Movement emerged among Mahars.

27.Dalit Panther Movement is transformative movement.

CHAPTER-11
SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SOCIAL
PHENOMENA:-
ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS:-
Perspective:-

Knowledge based on sensory observation has a paradoxical character. The following

statement seeks to convey this paradox in a simple way. In order to gain knowledge about
anything we should know something about it. If we know nothing at all about the object
of our enquiry we shall never be able to know anything about it.
(
In case we are totally ignorant about something and yet want to acquire knowledge about
it through sensory observation, we make certain assumptions about it, and start our
enquiry with the belief that these assumptions are true. Of course if these assumptions are
not supported by facts gathered through sensory observations, we should be ready to
abandon them. The significance of these assumptions is that they tell us what to look for
or where to direct our sensory observation.

If a Doctor trained in modern medicine wants to find out the reasons for the symptoms
like headache, giddiness, and general weakness, he might examine the digestive systems,
the food taken by his patient or he might monitor the heart beats and blood pressure or
enquire about his sleeping patterns and also take in to account the weather conditions. He
may find his answer from these conditions. A shaman in a tribal village also tries to cure
a patient with similar symptoms. He may explore the possibility of a spell caused by a
witch or disenchantment of the super natural power with the person concerned due to
some act of omission or commission on his part.

In the case of the doctor trained in modern medicine his search for the cause is governed
by a set of assumptions namely: human body is unified whole though it has specialized
parts. These parts tend to be interdependent and malfunctioning of one lead to
malfunctioning of the other. Basing himself on such assumption he is likely to see
interrelationship between headache and digestion failure etc.

On the other hand the shaman by means of assumption that world is governed by super
natural forces that need to be propitiated. Failure to do so might invite divine retribution.
Thus from the above illustrations one can see how underlying assumptions shape one's
enquiry. A set of mutually consistent assumptions which underlie our approach to things
we want to explore is called a perspective. All systematized enquiries need perspective.
So it is required for sociology as well.

Concepts:-

Language is a system of symbols that forms the medium through which we comprehend
the world around and inside us and it is the basis of our thought processes. It also acts as
a means of communication with others without which social life would be impossible.
Language has been termed as a system of symbols because linguistic terms are
abstractions i.e they are mentally created and to them certain meanings are imputed by
which they come to stand for the real phenomena. All languages are made up of concepts.
Only difference being that concept in scientific language is more precisely and
unambiguously defined. Concepts help in comprehending the reality that a science is
engaged in studying. They act as mediums of short cut communication among those
associated with the enquiry. In sociology most of the concepts are terms taken from day
to day language which is given precise meaning.

THEORY & FACTS:-

There is an intricate relation between theory and fact.
The popular understanding of this relationship obscures more than it illuminates. They
are generally conceived as direct opposites. Theory is confused with speculation and
theory remains speculation until it is proved. When this proof is made, theory becomes
fact. Facts are thought to be definite, certain, without question and their meaning to be
self-evident.

Science is thought to be concerned with facts alone. Theory is supposed to be realm of

philosophers. Scientific theory is therefore thought to be merely summation of facts that
have been accumulated upon a given subject. However if we observe the way scientists
actually do research, it becomes clear

1. Theory and fact are not diametrically opposed but inextricably intertwined.
2. Theory is not speculation.
3.Scientists are very much concerned with both theory and facts.

A fact is regarded as an empirically verifiable observation. A theory refers to the

relationship between facts or to the ordering of them in some meaningful way. Facts of
science are the product of observations that are not random but meaningful, i.e.,
theoretically relevant. Therefore we cannot think of facts and theory as being opposed
rather they are interrelated in many complex ways. The development of science can be
considered as a constant interplay between theory and fact.

Theory is a tool of science in these ways

1. It defines the major orientation of a science, by defining the kinds of data that are to be
abstracted.
2. It offers a conceptual scheme by which the relevant phenomena are systematized,
classified and interrelated.
3. It summarizes facts into empirical generalizations and systems of generalizations.
4. It predicts facts and
5. It points to gaps in our knowledge.
On the other hand facts are also productive of theory in these ways:-

(1) Facts help to initiate theories.

(2) They lead to the reformulation of existing theory.
(3) They cause rejection of theories that do not fit the facts.
(4) They change the focus and orientation of theory and
(5) they clarify and redefine theory.
There is interplay between theory and fact. Although popular opinion thinks of theory as
being opposed to fact since theory is mere speculation, observation of what scientists
actually do suggests that fact and theory stimulate each other. The growth of science is
seen is seen in new facts and new theory. Facts take their ultimate meaning from the
theories which summarize them, classify them, predict them, point them out and define
them.
However theory may direct the scientific process, facts in turn play a significant role in
the development of theory. New and anomalous facts may initiate new theories. New
observations lead to the rejection and reformulation of existing theory or may demand
that we redefine our theories. Concepts which had seemed definite in meaning are
clarified by the specific facts relating to them.

The sociologist must accept the responsibilities of the scientists who must see fact in
theory and theory in fact. This is more difficult than philosophic speculation about reality
or the collection of superficial certainties but it leads more surely to the achievement of
scientific truth about social behavior.

GATHERING INFORMATION & CONSTRUCTING

EXPLANATION:-
The basic procedural steps involved in gathering information and construction of
explanation are:-

Observation:-

Scientific knowledge is based on sensory observation of reality. Those aspects of reality

that are definite certain self-evident and have independent existence are called "Facts".
Since they have an independent existence of their own so they are amendable to sensory
observation. However scientific investigation is not a search for isolated and random
facts rather it is a guided enquiry to test the authenticity of definite propositions that form
the starting point of gathering information. They are called "hypothesis".
A hypothesis states what we are looking for. It formulates the logical relationship
between different aspects of reality expressed in terms of scientific concepts. A good
hypothesis should be scientific, simple and presented in a testable form. Sociology also
makes use of hypothesis in carrying our sociological research but this practice is not
always strictly adhered to. Especially when a sociologist is trying to explore society,
about which he knows very little, it would not be possible to begin the research with
hypothesis. Some example of hypothesis which may be used in sociological enquiry can
be:-

(a) Crime rates are higher in urban areas than in rural areas.
(b) Pace of urbanization increases with that of industrialization.

Sometimes hypothesis may be tested under experimental conditions. Most of the

established sciences do use experimental method quite successfully. However, in
Sociology, experimental method is only rarely possible due to both practical and ethical
reason: so observation is carried out mostly under non-experimental conditions. Sources
of data include social survey, observational and interview methods etc.

Comparison and Classification:-

Next step in research is to process the information collected so as to make it intelligible.
Comparison and classification are the steps involved in processing the data. Sometimes
sociologists also try to build typologies by using comparative method. Typologies are
models consisting of a set of traits which tend to occur in conjunction with each other.

When the typology is rooted in empirical data and the traits included are such that they
tend to be most commonly distributed, it is called the average type. Building an average
type helps in categorizing the whole class of phenomenal under one category. Otherwise
the researcher would be left to deal with such phenomena as isolated cases. Mechanical
solidarity and Organic solidarity are examples of such average types. They are the mental
creations of the social scientists and in their pure form they could not be found to be
replicated anywhere in reality. Such typologies are called ideal types.

GENERALIZATION:-
A generalization is a form of propositional knowledge that holds true for the whole class
of phenomena. It postulates the existence of a determinate relationship between a set of
variables (variable is an aspect of reality that can assume different values) in terms of
which empirically ascertainable regularities can be explained. However in Sociology
perfect casual relationship is not possible.

At best we can establish statistical correlations. The generalizations can be arrived at if a

hypothesis is repeatedly supported by empirical data. If generalization is found to be
almost universally true, it may be called a law. Other terms for generalization having
different degrees of generality are a theory a thesis or a tendency statement.

GENERALIZATION SERVES TWO MAJOR FUNCTIONS:-

1. They make knowledge manageable.
2. Generalizations also help in predicting the phenomena.

Prediction becomes possible .Nature behaves in an ordered manner and science aims at
discovering this order that is expressed through generalization. Thus generalizations are
possible only so long as reality itself displays a regular pattern. Sociology also
approaches its subject matter on the premise that social reality is an ordered and patterned
reality.

However sociologists have not been able to discover laws similar to those in physical and
natural sciences, the reason being that their assumption about the nature of social reality
is only partly true and therefore only limited generalization indicating broad trends could
be discovered. The social phenomena are extremely complex and changeable and do not
conform to any definite pattern.

Hypothesis:-
Facts are dependent upon a theoretical framework for their meaning.
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They are also statements of relationships between concepts. Theory can give direction to
the search for facts. A hypothesis states what we are looking for. When facts are
assembled, ordered and seen in a relationship they constitute a theory. The theory is not
speculation but is built upon fact.

Now the various facts in a theory may be logically analyzed and relationships other than
those stated in the theory can be deduced. At this point there is no knowledge as to
whether such deductions are correct. The formulation of the deduction however
constitutes a hypothesis; if verified it becomes part of a future theoretical construction.
The relation between the hypothesis and theory is very close indeed. A theory states a
logical relationship between facts. From this theory other propositions can be deduced that
should be true, if the first relationship holds. These deduced propositions are hypotheses.

A hypothesis looks forward. It is a proposition which can be put to a test to determine its
validity. It may seem contrary to or in accord with common sense. It may prove to be
correct or incorrect. In any event however, it leads to an empirical test. Whatever the
outcome, the hypothesis is a question put in such a way that an answer of some kind can
be forthcoming. It is an example of the organized skepticism of science.

The refusal to accept any statement without empirical verification. Every worthwhile
theory then permits the formulation of additional hypotheses. These when tested are either
proved or disapproved and in turn constitute further tests of the original theory.

Design of Proof:-
Testing the Hypothesis:-

The function of the hypothesis is to state a specific relationship between phenomena in

such a way that this relationship can be empirically tested. The basic method of this
demonstration is to design the research so that logic will require the acceptance or
rejection of the hypothesis on the basis of resulting data.

The basic designs of logical proof were formulated by John Stuart Mill and still remain the
foundation of experimental procedure although many changes have been made. His
analysis provides two methods. The first of these is called the method of agreement. When
stated positively this holds that when two or more cases of a given phenomenon have one
and only one condition in common then that condition may be regarded as the cause or
effect of the phenomenon.

The classical experimental design is a development from both the positive and negative
canons and attempts to avoid the weaknesses of both of them. In the simplified form Mill
called it the method of difference. To develop the classical design of proof by the method
of difference it is necessary only to make two series of observations and situations.

Design of Sociological Research:-

"Design of Sociological Research" or Research Design is a broad plan of a piece of
empirical research specifying the manner in which data are to be collected and analyzed
in order to test Research Design derived from theory, or to develop insights into the
problem being investigated.

It combines relevance of the problem with economy in procedure. The design stage is
most crucial phase of the research process. A particular design may specify whether
experiment, social survey, participant observation, other methods, or a combination of
more than one method will be used.

Nowadays it has became imperative to chart out the research design before starting any
work, Modern research in sociology thus specifies the probable method to be used for
date collection analysis, etc keeping in view, time money and, of course, the topic of
research. Generally, a research design includes the following steps:-

a). Universe of Study (whether a tribe, or a village, or an urban areas, or a particular

group, etc.)
b). Subject of Study (whether it focuses on the whole society, or any specific institution
or a part of it).

c). Tentative relationship between certain variables (Formulating a Research Design but it
is not obligatory to start with a Research Design; certain research designs lack Research
Design).

d). Sets of selected methods (whether participant observation, Interview, Questionnaire,

or some other methods of data collection would be used).

e). Analytical categories (by which the empirical data is subjected to analysis and
interpretation).

Although the steps for formulating a research design remain common the designs differ,
depending on the research purpose. The latter may be to report an unknown tribe, or to
investigate the intricacies of an institution, or to test a specific Research Design in field
situation, or to test a well-designed Research Design in controlled situations.

Depending on the research purpose, one delineates an appropriate research design.

However, validity of the steps for forming the design will always have to be there. Every
study has its own purpose, but all the research purposes can be conceptualized as falling
in one of the following categories. Each category refers to a type of research design.
Thus, generally, social scientists identify three types of research design on the basis of
different research purposes.

Explanatory research Design:-

When the purpose of the study is to explore a new universe, one that has not been studied
earlier, the research design, is called explanatory.
The research purpose in this case is to gain familiarity in unknown areas. Often
explanatory research design is used to formulate a problem for precise investigation, or
aims at formulating Research Design. Thus, often when the universe of study is an
unknown community, explanatory design forms the first step of research, after which
other types of research designs can be used.

Two very good examples of explanatory designs are:-

(i) Malinowski's study of Trobriand society; and

(ii) Whyte's study of the Street Corner Society.

Both these studies for the collection of data have relied on the special method of
participant observation. Both researchers had an explanatory objective. Rather than
aiming to test a limited set of specific Research Design, Malinowski and Whyte present
in advance only the out line a conceptual model and provide a wide range of detail from
which a number of other Research Design can be derived.

Instead of concentrating on just unspecific areas and selecting a few aspects for
consideration (as may be the case in descriptive research design), researchers gather such
a great variety of data that they are able to see the actors in their total life situation.
Explanatory studies are not to be confused with raw empiricism, with fact gathering that
is unrelated to sociological theory. The explanatory study always carries with it a set of
concepts that guide the researcher to look for the facts.

Descriptive research Design:-

Generally, if a researcher is studying a community which is familiar and his research
purpose is to depict accurately and in detail the characteristics of a particular institution,
group or an event in the community, the appropriate research design is called Descriptive
research Design. Sometimes, descriptive design forms a second step of research, the first
step being explanatory design. Thus some times, research Research Design is formulated
through explanatory design and to test the Research Design, descriptive design is
formulated.

Experimental research Design:-

The research design that is used to test a Research Design of causal relationship under
controlled situation is called experimental design.

The essence of the experimental design (in sociology) lies in its testing Research Design
derived from a theory.

The experimentation in sociology observes the following aspects:-

a). In an experimental design, the investigator controls or manipulates an independent

variable or stimulus (X),

b). And observes the effects on the dependent variable (Y), and

c). The effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is observed by
minimizing the effects of extraneous variables that might confound the result.

d). These propositions are tested off on the sample, generally called the experimental
sample (E).

Experimentation in sociology raises certain important questions, viz. ethical question,

difficulties in forming a control sample and retaining it over time; the difficulties
encountered in controlling the extraneous environment, etc. Realizing these problems, in
some of the 'experiments' carried out by sociologists, the experimental sample is used as
the control sample. It is debatable whether the absence of a control means a non -
experimental study. This actually is a modification of the classic experimental design.

The theoretical propositions followed here are the following:-

i). Experimental sample is also the control sample.

ii). The experimental sample is measured in the given respect before introducing the
independent variable,

iii). After it has been measured, the stimulus for independent variable is introduced.

iv). The experimental sample is measured after stimulus and the change is calculated.
This modification of the experimental design in generally accepted in sociology and is
called before and after research. The best example of this type of research design is the
Hawthorne study carried out by E. Mayo, F. Roethlisberger, W. Disckson and G.
Homans.In this study, the relationship between physical conditions of world (independent
variable) and the productivity of the worker (dependent variable) is examined.

Content Analysis:-
Content analysis is a research technique for the systematic, objective and quantitative
description of the content of research data procured through interviews, questionnaires,
schedules and other linguistic expressions, written or oral.
This definition is a slight modification of the one formulated by Bernard Berelson in
his famed communications researches.Familarity with social science concepts and theory
greatly aids in categorizing research data. Frequently certain categories seem to flow out
of the data at hand. On the whole however the use of concepts and categories requires
deliberate thought.

Psychologist D.C McClelland who regards a written research record as a piece of frozen
behavior calls attention to various forms of content-analysis to which such records can be
subjected; interaction process analysis; value analysis in which attempts are made to
classify and conceptualize the content according to various values referred to in the
behavior units, need -sequence analysis that attempts to score the changes which occur in
the data when the subjects are under the influence of induced need-states; symbolic
analysis which is a technique for analyzing latent meaning behind manifest content
especially in psycho-analytical materials.

Other social scientists suggest other forms of social analysis. Whatever form of analysis
to which qualitative data are subjected an explicit breakdown is required of some totality
into the smallest possible units if the data will be quantified. In short individual cases of
human behavior can become of scientific significance since it is possible to classify and
categorize behavior patterns, social processes, and personal traits to isolate their
similarities and differences and conceptualize them appropriately. But as George
Lundberg has stressed unless the varied data are gathered according to scientific
principles are systematically classified and generalized into specific types of behavior
individual cases are useless for scientific purposes.

Problems of Objectivity:-
Objectivity is a goal of scientific investigation. Sociology also being a science aspires for
the goal objectivity. Objectivity is a frame of mind so that personal prejudices,
preferences or predilections of the social scientists do not contaminate the collection of
analysis of data. Thus scientific investigations should be free from prejudices of race,
color, religion, sex or ideological biases.

The need of objectivity in sociological research has been emphasized by all important
sociologists. For example Durkheim in the Rules of the Sociological Method stated that
social facts must be treated as things and all preconceived notions about social facts must
be abandoned. Even Max Weber emphasized the need of objectivity when he said that
sociology must be value free. According to Radcliff Brown the social scientist must
abandon or transcend his ethnocentric and egocentric biases while carrying out
researches. Similarly Malinowski advocated cultural relativism while anthropological
field work in order to ensure objectivity.
However objectivity continues to be an elusive goal at the practical level.In fact one
school of thought represented by Gunnar Myrdal states that total objectivity is an
illusion which can never be achieved. Because all research is guided by certain
viewpoints and view points involve subjectivity.
Myrdal suggested that the basic viewpoints should be made clear. Further he felt that
subjectivity creeps in at various stages in the course of sociological research.Merton
believes that the very choice of topic is influenced by personal preferences and
ideological biases of the researcher.

Besides personal preferences the ideological biases acquired in the course of education
and training has a bearing on the choice of the topic of research. The impact of
ideological biases on social-research can be very far-reaching as seen from the study of
Tepostalan village in Mexico.
Robert Redfield studied it with functionalist perspective and concluded that there exists
total harmony between various groups in the village while Oscar Lewis studied this
village at almost the same time from Marxist perspective and found that the society was
conflict ridden. Subjectivity can also creep in at the time of formulation of hypotheses.
Normally hypotheses are deduced from existing body of theory.

All sociological theories are produced by and limited to particular groups whose
viewpoints and interests they represent. Thus formulation of hypotheses will
automatically introduce a bias in the sociological research. The third stage at which
subjectivity creeps in the course of research is that of collection of empirical data. No
technique of data collection is perfect. Each technique may lead to subjectivity in one
way or the other. In case of participant observation the observer as a result of nativisation
acquires a bias in favour of the group he is studying. While in non-participant observation
of the sociologist belongs to a different group than that under study he is likely to impose
his values and prejudices.

In all societies there are certain prejudices which affect the research studies. In case of
interview as a technique the data may be influenced by context of the interview, the
interaction of the participants, and participant's definition of the situation and if adequate
rapport does not extend between them there might be communication barriers. Thus
according to P.V Young interview sometimes carries a subjectivity. Finally it can also
affect the field limitations as reported by Andre Beteille study of Sripuram village in
Tanjore where the Brahmins did not allow him to visit the untouchable locality and ask
their point of view.

Thus complete objectivity continues to be an elusive goal. The researcher should make
his value preference clear in research monograph. Highly trained and skilled research
workers should be employed. Various methods of data collection research should be used
and the result obtained from one should be cross-checked with those from the other. Field
limitations must be clearly stated in the research monograph.

SOCIOLOGY AS A VALUE-FREE SCIENCE:-

The subject matter of sociology is human behavior in society. All social behavior is
guided by values.

Thus the study of social behavior can never be value-free if value freedom is interpreted
in the sense of absence of values because values of the society under investigation form a
part of the social facts to be studied by sociology. Moreover social research is in itself a
type of social behavior and is guided by the value of search for true knowledge. Then
what is meant as clarified by Max Weber value-free sociology means that the sociologist
while carrying social research must confine called value relevance. Thus the values can
operate at three levels:

• At the level of philological interpretation.

• At the level of ethical interpretation in assigning value to an object of enquiry.

• At the level of rational interpretation in which the sociologists seeks the meaningful
relationship between phenomena in terms of causal analysis. The point of value
interpretation is to establish the value towards which an activity is directed.
Sociologists should observe value neutrality while conducting social research. It means
that he should exclude ideological or non -scientific assumption from research. He should
not make evaluative judgment about empirical evidence. Value judgment should be
restricted to sociologists' area of technical competence. He should make his own values
open and clear and refrain from advocating particular values.

Value neutrality enables the social scientists to fulfill the basic value of scientific enquiry
that is search for true knowledge. Thus sociology being a science cherishes the goal of
value neutrality. According to Alvin Gouldner value-free principle did enhance the
autonomy of sociology where it could steadily pursue basic problems rather than
journalistically react to passing events and allowed it more freedom to pursue questions
uninteresting either to the respectable or to the rebellious.

It made sociology freer as Comte had wanted it to be -to pursue all its own theoretical
implications. Value free principle did contribute to the intellectual growth and
emancipation of the enterprise.Value-free doctrine enhanced freedom from moral
compulsiveness; it permitted a partial escape from the parochial prescriptions of the
sociologists' local or native culture. Effective internalization of the value-free principle
has always encouraged at least a temporary suspension of the moralizing reflexes built
into the sociologist by his own society.
The value-free doctrine has a paradoxical potentiality; it might enable men to make better
value judgments rather than none.
It could encourage a habit of mind that might help men in discriminating between their
punitive drives and their ethical sentiments. However in practice it has been extremely
difficult to fulfill this goal of value neutrality. Values creep in various stages in
sociological research.

According to Gunnar Myrdal total value neutrality is impossible. 'Chaos does not
organize itself into cosmos. We need view points.' Thus in order to carry out social
research viewpoints are needed which form the basis of hypothesis which enables the
social scientists to collect empirical data. These view-points involve valuations and also
while formulating the hypothesis. Thus a sociologist has to be value frank and should
make the values which have got incorporated in the choice of the topic of the research of
the formulation of hypothesis clear and explicit at the very outset in the research.

The value-free doctrine is useful both to those who want to escape from the world and to
those who want to escape into it. They think of sociology as a way of getting ahead in the
world by providing them with neutral techniques that may be sold on the open market to
any buyer. The belief that it is not the business of sociologist to make value judgments is
taken by some to mean that the market on which they can vend their skills is unlimited.

Some sociologists have had no hesitation about doing market research designed to sell
more cigarettes although well aware of the implications of recent cancer research.
According to Gouldner the value-free doctrine from Weber's standpoint is an effort to
compromise two of the deepest traditions of the western thought, reason and faith but that
his arbitration seeks to safeguard the romantic residue in modern man. Like Freud, Weber
never really believed in an enduring peace or in a final resolution of this conflict. What
he did was to seek a truce through the segregation of the contenders by allowing each to
dominate in different spheres of life.

CHAPTER-12
TECHNIQUES OF DATA
 COLLECTION
SOCIAL SURVEY:-
The basic procedure in survey is that people are asked a number of questions on that
aspect of behavior which the sociologist is interested in. A number of people carefully
selected so that their representation of their population being studied are asked to answer
exactly the same question so that the replies to different categories of respondents may be
examined for differences. One type of survey relies on contacting the respondents by
letter and asking them to complete the questionnaire themselves before returning it.
These are called Mail questionnaires.
Sometimes questionnaires are not completed by individuals separately but by people in a
group under the direct supervision of the research worker. A variation of the procedure
can be that a trained interviewer asks the questions and records the responses on a
schedule from each respondent.
These alternate procedures have different advantages and disadvantages. Mail
questionnaires are relatively cheap and can be used to contact respondents who are
scattered over a wide area. But at the same time the proportion of people who return
questionnaires sent through post is usually rather small. The questions asked in main
questionnaires have also to be very carefully worded in order to avoid ambiguity since
the respondents cannot ask to have questions clarified for them.
Using groups to complete questionnaires means that the return rate is good and that
information is assembled quickly and fairly. Administrating the interview schedules to
the respondents individually is probably the most reliable method. Several trained
interviewers may be employed to contact specific individuals. The questionnaires and
schedules can consist of both close-ended and open-ended questions. Also a special
attention needs to be paid to ensure that the questionnaires are filled in logical order.

Where aptitude questions are included great care must be exercised to ensure the proper
words are used. In case of schedules emphasis and interactions may also be standardized
between different individuals and from respondents to respondents. Finally proper
sampling techniques must be used to ensure that the sample under study represents the
universe of study. In order to enhance the reliability of data collected through
questionnaires and schedules, these questionnaires and schedules must be pretested
through pilot studies.

INTERVIEWING:-
Social surveys may depend either on questionnaires that are self-administered or on
schedules completed by trained research workers personally interviewing then is not a
method of data collection distinct from social surveying but rather a technique which may
vary from the brief formal contact as when the interviewer is working for the firms public
opinion consultants or a market research organization and simply asks a housewife a few
highly specific questions on limited range of topics to a long interview in which the
research worker allows the respondents to develop points at leisure and take up others as
he chooses.
The brief formal interview in which the working of the questions and the order in which
they are asked is fixed is called structured interview while the freer discursive interview
is called unstructured interview. The object of using structured interview is to standardize
the interview as much as possible and thus to reduce the effect that the interviewer's
personal approach or biases may have upon the result and even when structured
interviews are used, proper training can do a lot to ensure further the reliability and
validity of research.

The personality of the interviewer and the social characteristics that the respondents
attribute to him can be having influence on the result. The effort of interviewer's bias can
be estimated by comparing one interviewer's result with other. The problem of
interviewer's bias in an unstructured interview is much greater. Here the interviewer is
left to his common devices as far as the way he approaches a respondent is concerned.
There is no fixed list of questions to work through. Instead the interviewer may work
from a guide that will remind him of the topics he wishes to cover.

The training of the interviewer is crucial here not simply training in the social skills of
keeping the conversation going on a topic that the respondent may not be very interested
in but also in acquiring sensitivity to those things his respondents tells him which are
specially relevant to the theoretical topics he is pursuing. This means that unstructured
interviews can be carried out by people trained in sociological theory. They are then able
to size upon stray comments made by the respondents which can be developed and lead
on to important theoretical insight.

OBSERVATION:-PARTICIPANT & NON

PARTICAIPANT
The rationale behind the use of observation in sociological research is that the sociologist
should become party to a set of social actions sufficiently able to be able to assess
directly the social relationship involved.
The degree of involvement may vary considerable from being merely a watcher on the
sidelines to be deeply involved in and being a part of what is going on. The former type
of observation techniques are called non-participant while the latter is called participant
observation.

Sometimes one way observations screen have been used to watch groups in actions that
they are unaware that they are being watched and the observer cannot affect their actions
by his presence. The sociologist is visibly present and is a part of the situation either as a
sociologist or in another guise. Where the sociologist is merely an observer it is usually
assumed that he knows enough about what the actors are doing to be able to understand
their behaviour.

Any sociological observer has then to some extent be a participant observer he must at
least share sufficient cultural background with the actors to be able to construe their
behavior meaningfully but the degree of participation and of sharing of meaning may
vary considerably. Examples of such studies are Nel Anderson's study of Hobo-Indians
and William White study of Street Corner Society.

SAMPLING:-

For practical and cost reasons, it is often impossible to collect information about the
entire population of people or things in which social researchers are interested. In these
cases, a sample of the total is selected for study. Most statistical studies are based on
samples and not on complete enumerations of all the relevant data. The main criteria
when sampling are to ensure that a sample provides a faithful representation of the
totality from which it is selected, and to know as precisely as possible the probability that
a sample is reliable in this way.

Randomization meets these criteria, because it protects against bias in the selection
process and also provides a basis on which to apply statistical distribution theory that
allows an estimate to be made of the probability that conclusions drawn from the sample
are correct. A statistical sample is a miniature picture or cross-section of the entire group
or aggregate from which the sample is taken. The entire group from which a sample is
chosen is known as the population, universe or supply.

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING:-

Stratified random sampling involves sampling of each stratum separately. This
increases precision, or reduces time, effort and cost of allowing smaller sample sizes for a
given level of precision. For example, poverty is known to be most common among the
elderly, the unemployed and single parent families, so research on the effect of poverty
might will sample separately each of these three strata as part of a survey of poverty in
the population as a whole which would permit the total sample size to be reduced because
the investigator would know that the groups most affected by poverty were guaranteed
inclusion.
(

CLUSTER SAMPLING:-
Cluster sampling is sometimes used when the population naturally congregates into
clusters. For example, managers are clustered in organizations, so a sample of managers
could be obtained by taking a random sample of organizations and investigating the
managers in each of these. Interviewing or observing managers on this basis would be
cheaper and easier than using a simple random sample of managers scattered across all
organizations in the country. This is usually less precise than a simple random sample of
the same size, but in practice the reduction in cost per element more than compensated
for the decrease in precision.

MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING:-

Sampling may be done as one process or in stages, known as multi-stage sampling

.Multi-stage designs are common when populations are widely dispersed. Thus a survey
of business managers might proceed by selecting a sample of corporations as first stage
units, perhaps choosing these corporations with a probability proportionate to their size,
and then selecting a sample of managers within these corporations at the second stage.

Alternatively, a sample of individual factories or office buildings within each corporation

could be chosen as the second stage units, followed by sample of managers in each of
these as a third stage. Stratification can also be used in the design, if for example
occupational sub-groups are known to differ from each other, by selecting state such as
personnel, production, and finance management and sampling within each of these.

For sampling to be representative, one needs a complete and accurate list of the first stage
units that make up the relevant population, a basic requirement that is not always easily
met. This forms the sampling frame. Selection from the frame is best done by numbering
the items and using a table of random numbers to identify which items form the sample,
though a quasi-random method of simply taking every item from the list is often
appropriate. The reliability of a sample taken from a population can be assessed by the
spread of the sampling distribution, measured by the standard deviation of this
distribution, called the standard error. As a general rule, the larger is the size of the
sample the smaller the standard error.

AREA SAMPLING:-
In sampling of this kind small areas are designated as sampling units and the households
interviewed include all or a specified fraction of those found in a canvass of these
designated small areas.
The basic sampling units or segments chosen may be relatively large or relatively small
depending on such factors as the type of area being studied, population distribution, the
availability of suitable maps and other information and the nature and desired accuracy of
the data being collected.
MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDE:-

Attitudinal behavior is a certain set of observable behavior which is preparatory to and

indicative of the subsequent actual behavior. For the purpose of measuring attitudes only
the overt symbolic type of acts are taken into account because such acts alone can be
observed.

Examples of such acts are speaking; writing and gesturing etc.Attitude indicate a
tendency which can be helpful in predicting the subsequent behaviour.Herein lies the
importance of measuring attitudes. Measurement of attitudes is useful in various aspects
of day to day life. For example it helps in predicting consumer behavior in making
demand forecasts in providing an insight into the public response to various welfare
measured indicated by the Government in maintaining peace and social order and in
social research.

The sources of information regarding the attitude of a person are:-

• Life history documents including biographies, autobiographies, diaries, letters and

memories.
• Oral interviews: opinions of the respondent may be elicited by personally asking them
various questions.

• Questionnaires and polls: Sometimes in place of persons contact mailed questionnaire is

also used for the purpose of getting opinions. Similarly public opinion polls are
conducted to know peoples opinion on various issue.

In order to measure the degree of intensity of the attitude various kinds of scales have
been devised.
These scales may be divided into the following categories:-

• Point scales
• Ranking scales
• Rating of intensity scales etc

Other scales for the measurement of attitudes are social distance, scale of Bogardus
Thurston Scale, Likert scale and socio-metric scale by Moreno. However standard scales
with universal application are yet to be devised.
LIKERT SCALE:-
The Likert technique presents a set of attitude statements. Subjects are asked to express
agreement or disagreement of a five-point scale. Each degree of agreement is given a
numerical value from one to five. Thus a total numerical value can be calculated from all
the responses.

ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION OF DATA:-

The purpose of assembling data is to present some theoretical analysis or interpretation of
it. But the processes of observation and analysis are rarely independent of one another.
The problems become redefined as the research proceeds and this means changing
accounts of observations made.

In the social survey the pilot stage is very important since the sociologist derives
preliminary information from it which he then uses to test existing hypotheses in a crude
way. He may then have to modify both the hypothesis and in consequence the techniques
for example he may change the schedule that he is using. Unstructured interview
techniques and observations are particularly suitable where the questions must be
changed when an analysis begins to throw up new problems which demand new
information in order to answer them.

Analysis of data involves seeking through observations with object of determination in

what circumstances they do not or to check that if sociologist can support one
interpretation rather then another. At this stage it is necessary to point out two difficulties
in the use of sociological information for analytical or interpretative purposes. The first of
these is called the reliability of data.
This refers to the extent to which investigation are repeatable that is if the same
procedures of data collection the same object categories and the same rules for
establishing the veracity are used on the same subject by different observers or by the
same observers on different occasions, no relevant changes have taken place on the main
attempt results comparable with earlier studies can be obtained.

If different answer emerged from the enquiries which should yield the same response
then the date may not be used to represent and establish underlying regularity. The
measures that sociologist can take to overcome unreliability in response will depend upon
what procedures are used to collect the information and what type of analysis is to be
made.

The second difficulty is that of the validity of data. Validity refers to the extent to which
sociologist interpretation of underlying characteristics he wishes to reflect is in fact the
faithful representation of the characteristics.
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The sociologists working with a positivistic framework may wish to represent some
abstract notion such as Alienation by a set of relatively easily identified indicators. He
may attempt to combine these into a single indicator of characteristics he wants to
represent. Having done this however how can he be sure that his indicator reflects the
characteristics of alienation effectively. The usual way to ascertain the suitability of
indicators is to test them empirically on samples of subjects which are known from other
evidence to be alienated or not alienated. Given however that the sociologist is reasonable
satisfied with both the reliability and validity of data how does the analysis or
interpretation proceed? This depends upon the framework within which the sociologist is
working. Within a positivistic framework the sociologist will be interested in some
hypothesis which he has derived from theory by examining the connection in his data
between some specified dependent variable which he suspects have some causal
influence. This implies that the initial stages of analysis which may be going on while the
data are being assembled must be concerned with identifying the variables and in
deciding what criteria may be reasonably used to represent these variables. Only after the
positivist sociologist has satisfactorily defined and operationalised the variables he wants
to test the casual proposition he is postulating can be proceed to test this.
 CHAPTER-13
WOMEN & SOCIETY

WOMEN’S POSITION IN INDIA:-

As of March 2001, the female population stands at 495.4 million out of total 1,028
million Indian population. Thus, in the present population of 1.03 billion, there ought to
be 528 million women. Instead, estimates show only 496 million women in the
population today.

This implies that there are some 32 million "missing" women in India. Some are never
born, and the rest die because they do not have the opportunity to survive. Sex-ratio
(number of female per 1,000 male) is an important indicator of women's status in the
society.

In 1901 there were 972 females per 1,000 males, while by 1971; the ratio has come down
to 930 females per 1,000 males. In 1981 there has been only a nominal increase in the
female sex ratio within 934 females to 1,000 males. There were only 926 females per
1000 males in India according to 1991 census.

The 2001 census indicate that the trend has been slightly arrested with the sex ratio at 933
females per 1000 males, with Kerala at 1058 females. The sex ratio of the 0-6 age group
has declined sharply from 945 in 1991 to 927 in 2001. According to UNFPA State of
world population 2005, Punjab (793), Haryana (820), Delhi (865), Gujarat (878) and
Himachal Pradesh (897) have worst child sex ratio.

Scheduled Tribes have fairly respectable CSR of 973 but that falls for Scheduled Castes it
falls at 938.For non SC/ST population it stands at 917.Rural India has 934 per 1000 and
for urban India it stands at 908.In most states least literate districts have superior CSR
compared to their most literate counterparts.

One reason for the adverse juvenile sex ratio is the increasing reluctance to have female
children. For women the literacy rate stands at 54.16 per cent. Still, 245 million Indian
women cannot read or write, comprising the world's largest number of unlettered women.
National averages in literacy conceal wide disparities.

For instance, while 95 per cent of women in Mizoram are literate, only 34 per cent of
women in Bihar can read and write.

The average Indian female has only 1.2 years of schooling, while the Indian male spends
3.5 years in school. More than 50 per cent girls drop out by the time they are in middle
school.

Similarly, life expectancy has increased for both the sexes; it has increased to 64.9 years
for women and 63 years for men according to UN Statistic Division (2000). The Working
women population has risen from 13% in 1987 to 25% in 2001.

However the UNFPA State of World Population 2005 states that about70% of graduate
Indian women are unemployed. Women constitute 90 per cent of the total marginal
workers of the country. Rural women engaged in agriculture form 78 per cent of all
women in regular work. They are a third of all workers on the land. The traditional
gender division of labour ensures that these women get on average 30 per cent lower
wages than men. The total employment of women in organized sector is only 4 per cent.

Although industrial production increased in the 1980s; jobs in factories and

establishments -- or non-household jobs -- stagnated at eight per cent of the workforce.
Increasingly, companies tend to rely on outsourcing, using cheap labour.It is well known
that women and children work in huge numbers in bidi-rolling, agarbatti-rolling, bangle
making, weaving, brassware, leather, crafts and other industries.

Yet, only 3 per cent of these women are recorded as laborers. They are forced to work for
pitiable wages and are denied all social security benefits. A study by SEWA of 14 trades
found that 85 per cent of women earned only 50 per cent of the official poverty level
income.
The sociological research on the status of women has generally suggested that the Indian
women enjoy a low status in their households because family decisions relating to
finances, kinship relations, selection of life partner are made by the male members and
women are rarely consulted.
Although there has been an expansion in health facilities maternal mortality rate continue
to be high at 407 per 1, 00,000 live births (1998).WHO estimates show that out of the
529,000 maternal deaths globally each year ,136,000 (25.7%) are contributed by India. A
factor that contributes to India's high maternal mortality rate is the reluctance to seek
medical care for pregnancy - it is viewed as a temporary condition that will disappear.

The estimates nationwide are that only 40-50 percent of women receive any antenatal
care. Evidence from the states of Bihar, Rajasthan, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra
and Gujarat find registration for maternal and child health services to be as low as 5-22
percent in rural areas and 21-51 percent in urban areas. Even a woman who has had
difficulties with previous pregnancies is usually treated with home remedies only for
three reasons: the decision that pregnant women seek help rests with the mother-in-law
and husband; financial considerations; and fear that the treatment may be more harmful
than the malady.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN’S:-

DOWRY:-
Max Radin has defined dowry as the property, which a man receives from his wife or
her family at the time of his marriage. Dowry may be broadly defined as gifts and
valuables received in marriage by the bride, the bridegroom and his relatives.
The amount of dowry is regulated by factors like boy's service and salary, social and
economic status of the girl's father, the social prestige of the boy's family, educational
qualifications of the girl and the boy, girl's working and her salary, girl's and boy's beauty
and features, future prospects of economic security, size and the composition of the girl's
and boy's family and factors like that. What is significant is that girl's parents give her
money and gifts not only at the time of her wedding but they continue to give gifts to her
husband's family throughout the life.

McKim Marriott holds that the feeling behind this is that one's daughter and sister at
marriage become the helpless possession of an alien kinship group and to secure her good
treatment, lavish hospitality must be offered to her in-laws from time to time.

One of the causes of dowry is the desire and aspiration of every parent to marry his
daughter in a higher and a rich family to keep up or to add to his prestige and also to
prove comforts and security to the daughter. The high marriage- market values of the
boys belonging to rich and high social status families have swelled the amount of dowry.

Other cause of the existence of dowry is that giving dowry is a social custom and it is
very difficult to change customs all of a sudden. The feeling is that practicing customs
generates and strengthens solidarity and cohesiveness among people.

Many people give and take dowry only because their parents and ancestors had been
practicing it. Custom has stereotyped the old dowry system and till some rebellious youth
muster courage to abolish it and girls resist social pressures to give it, people will stick to
it.

Amongst Hindus, marriage in the same caste and sub-caste has been prescribed by the
social and religious practices with the result that choice of selecting a mate is always
restricted. This results in the paucity of young boys who have high salaried jobs or
promising careers in the profession.
(m
They become scarce commodities and their parents demand huge amount of money from
the girl's parents to accept her as their daughter-in-law, as if girls and chattel for which
the bargain has to be made. Nevertheless, their scarcity is exacerbated and aggravated by
the custom of marriage in the same caste.

A few people give more dowries just to exhibit their high social and economic status.
Jains and Rajputs, for example, spend lakhs of rupees in the marriage of their daughters
just to show their high status or keep their prestige in the society even if they have to
borrow money.

The most important cause of accepting dowry by the grooms' parents is that they have to
give dowry to their daughters and sisters. Naturally, they look to the dowry of their sons
to meet their obligations in finding husbands for their daughters.

For instance, an individual who may be against the dowry system is compelled to accept
fifty to sixty thousand rupees in cash in dowry only because he has to spend an equal
amount in his sister's or daughter's marriage. The vicious circle starts and the amount of
dowry goes on increasing till it assumes a scandalous proportion.

CHILD MARRIAGES;-
Many people marry their daughters in childhood to escape from dowry, and pre-puberty
marriage is an evil in itself. On maturity, the boys may or may not be able to adjust with
their wives. This crisis situation is by no means left behind after the child marriage is
consummated on attaining maturity. If by chance a husband becomes educated or
professionally trained and his wife remains uneducated, both partners face crises.
DEATH DURING CHILD BIRTH:-

Early marriage exposes women to longer childbearing period. This means greater health
hazards to women and children. Several studies show that teenaged mothers risk to health
for both themselves and their children. This risk is further enhanced by poor nutrition.

Various surveys indicate that women's caloric content is about 100 calories (per women
per day) less than they spend, whereas men show an 800 caloric surplus intake. Women
expend a great deal of energy working inside and outside the house, whereas they often
have insufficient food.

Customarily they often eat after the men and other members of the family have eaten.
The lack of knowledge and improper care during postnatal period, and frequent
pregnancies lead to larger fetal wastage, birth of larger number of low eight babies, and
death of young women.

NEGLECT DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD:-

The neglect of the girl child starts very early in life. The extent of neglect varies from
family to family depending on their economic position. But in comparison to her male
counterpart a female child is relatively neglected in most of the socioeconomic strata.

Throughout the country it has been noticed that when the girl child depends on breast-
feeding the chances of her survival are relatively more.

Data from various sources shows that from infancy till the age of 15 the death rate for
female child far exceeds the mortality rate for male child. There are several causes
underlying this. Firstly, the female children are breast fed for a far shorter period than
their male counterparts.

Secondly, during illness parents show a greater concern towards male children. This
neglect is quite often enforced by poor economic condition. Finally, in addition to the
intake of insufficient and non-nutritious food the female child is exposed to a greater
workload very early in life.

Often in families of weaker economic strength the girl child is found attending the
household chores as well as taking care of her younger brothers and sisters.

ATROCITIES ON WOMEN:-
Male violence against women is a worldwide phenomenon. Although not every woman
has experienced it, and many expect not to, fear of violence is an important factor in the
lives of most women. It determines what they do, when they do it, where they do it, and
with whom.
Fear of violence is a cause of women's lack of participation in activities beyond the
home, as well as inside it. Within the home, women and girls may be subjected to
physical and sexual abuse as punishment or as culturally justified assaults. These acts
shape their attitude to life, and their expectations of themselves

There are various forms of crime against women. Sometimes, it begins even before their
birth, sometimes in the adulthood and other phrases of life. In the Indian society, the
position of women is always perceived in relation to the man, from birth onwards and at
every stage of life, she is dependent on him.

This perception has given birth to various social customs and practices. One important
manifestation of these customs and practices has been that of Sati. It is seen as a pinnacle
of achievement for a woman. This custom of self-immolation of the widow on her
husband's pyre was an age-old practice in some parts of the counter, which received
deification.

The popular belief ran that the goddess enters into the body of the woman who resolves
to become a sati. The practice of sati has been abolished by law with the initiative of
Raja Ram Mohan Roy in the early decades of nineteenth century. However, there has
been a significant revival of the practice of sati in the last few decades. Indeed, Rajasthan
has been the focal point for this practice in recent years.

Violence against women both inside and outside of their home has been a crucial issue in
the contemporary Indian society. Women in India constitute near about half of its
population and most of them are grinding under the socio-cultural and religious
structures. One gender has been controlling the space of the India's social economic,
political and religious fabric since time immemorial
The condition of widows is one of the most neglected social issues in India. Because of
widowhood the quality of life is lowered for many Indian women. Three percent of all
Indian women are widows and on an average, mortality rate is 86 percent higher among
elderly widows in comparison to married women of the same age group.

Various studies indicated that:-

(i) legal rights of widows are violated,

(ii) they suffer forceful social isolation,
(iii) they have limited freedom to marry,
(iv) restrictive employment opportunities for widows,
(v) most widows get little economic support from their family or from the community.

It is common to read news about violation or wrongs committed on women everyday.

Our orthodox society is so much prejudiced by age-old habits and customs that a violated
woman, whether she is forced or helpless, has no place in the society.

Another danger in India is that, Indian law does not differentiate between major and
minor rape. In every ten-rape case, six are of minor girls. In every seven minutes a crime
is committed against women in India. Every 26 minutes a woman is molested. Every 34
minutes a rape takes place.

Every 42 minutes a sexual harassment incident occurs. Every 43 minutes a woman is

kidnapped. And every 93 minutes a woman is burnt to death over dowry. One-quarter of
the reported rapes involve girls under the age of 16 but the vast majority are never
reported. Although the penalty is severe, convictions are rare.

MARRIAGE LEGISLATION:-
In March 1961, when the bill on unequal marriages was being discussed in the Rajya
Sabha, one member quoted epic against its inclusion in the institution of Hindu marriage.
Dr. Radhakrishnan, the then chairman of the Rajya Sabha, had remarked: the ancient
history cannot solve the problems of modern society.

This is an answer in one sentence to those critics who want to maintain a gap between
social opinion and social legislation.

Legislation must meet the social needs of the people; and because the social needs
change, legislation also must change from time to time. The function of social legislation
is to adjust the legal system continually to a society, which is constantly outgrowing that
system.

The gulf between the current needs of the society and the old laws must be bridged. The
laws have got to give recognition to certain de facto changes in society. One of the
changes in modern India is the change in the attitude towards marriage; hence the
necessity of laws on different aspects of marriage.

The laws enacted in India relate to:-

(i) age at marriage

(ii) field of mate selection,
ii) number of spouses in marriage,
(iv) breaking of marriage,
(v) dowry to be given and taken, and
(vi) remarriage.
The important legislations relating to these six aspects of marriage passed from time
to time are:-

(i) The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 (dealing with age at marriage),
(ii) The Hindu Marriage Disabilities Removal Act 1946 and Hindu Marriage Validity
Act, 1949 (dealing with field of mate selection),
(iii) The Special Act. 1954 (dealing with age at marriage, freedom to children in marriage
without parental consent, bigamy, and breaking up of marriage),
(iv) The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (dealing with age at marriage with the consent of
parents bigamy, and breaking up of marriage)
(v) The Dowry Act 1961, and
(vi) The Widow Remarriage Act, 1856

The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929:-

It came into force on April 1, 1930. It restrains the marriage of a child, though the
marriage itself is not declared void. Accordingly, contracting, performing and facilitating
the marriage of boys under eighteen and girls less than fourteen years of age were an
offence.
The age of girls was later on raised to fifteen years. The amendment made in 1978
further rose the age for boys to twenty-one years and for girls to eighteen years. The
violation of the Act prescribes penalty but the marriage itself remains valid.

The offence under the Act is non-cognizable and provides punishment for the
bridegroom, parent, guardian, and the priest, which are three months of simple
imprisonment and a fine of up to Rs. 1000.

No woman is, however, punishable with imprisonment under this Act. The Act also
provides for the issue of injunction order prohibiting the child marriage. But no action
can be taken for the offence if a period of more than one year has expired from the date
of the alleged marriage.

The Hindu Marriage Disabilities Removal Act,1946:-

Among Hindus, no marriage is valid between persons related to each other within the
prohibited degrees, unless such marriage is sanctioned by custom. However, this Act
validated marriages between persons belonging to the same gotra or parivara (agnatic
groups). This Act now stands repealed after the passing of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.

The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955:-

This Act came into force from May 18, 1955 and applies to whole of India, except
Jammu and Kashmir. The word Hindu in the Act includes Jains, Sikhs, Buddhists and the
Scheduled Castes.

The conditions for marriage between any two Hindus as provided in the Act are:-
(i) neither party has a spouse living;
(ii) neither party is an idiot or lunatic;
(iii) the groom must have completed eighteen years age and the bride fifteen years age.
The amendment in the Act made in 1978 has raised this age to twenty-one years for boys
and eighteen years for girls
(iv) the parties should not be within the degrees of prohibited relationships, unless the
custom permits the marriage between the two;
(v) the parties should not be sapindas of each other unless the custom permits the
marriage between the two;
(vi) where the bride is under eighteen years of age and the groom is under twenty-one
years of age the consent of her/his guardian in marriage must have been obtained.

The persons whose consent may be obtained in order of preference are: father, mother,
paternal grandfather, paternal grandmother, brother paternal uncle, maternal, maternal
grandmother and maternal uncle. No particular form of solemnization is prescribed by the
Act. The parties are free to solemnize the marriage in accordance with the customary rites
and ceremonies. The Act permits judicial separation as well as annulment of marriage.
Either party can seek judicial separation on any one of the four grounds; desertion for a
continuous of two years, cruel treatment, leprosy, and adultery.
The annulment of marriage may be on any one of the following four grounds:-

(i) the spouse must have been impotent at the time of marriage and continues to be so
until the institution of the proceedings,
(ii) party to the marriage was an idiot or lunatic at the time of marriage,
(iii) consent of the petitioner or of the guardian was obtained by force or fraud. However,
the petition presented on this ground will not be entertained after one years of marriage,
and
(iv) the wife was pregnant by some person other than the petitioner at the time of
marriage.

The dissolution of marriage may be on the grounds of adultery, conversion of religion,

unsound mind, leprosy, venereal disease, renunciation, desertion for seven years, and
cohabitation not resumed after two years after judicial separation.

A wife may also apply for divorce if her husband had already a wife before marriage, and
he is guilty of rape or bestiality. The 1986 amendment permits divorce on the ground of
incompatibility and mutual consent also. The petition for dissolution of marriage can be
submitted to the court only when three years have elapsed after marriage.

This period has, however, been reduced to one year after the 1986 amendment. The
divorcees cannot remarry till one year elapses since the decree of divorce. The Act also
provides for the maintenance allowance during judicial separation and alimony after
divorce. Not only wife but also husband can also claim the maintenance allowances.

The Special Marriage Act, 1954:-

This Act came into force on April 1, 1955. It repealed the Special Marriage Act, 1872
which provided a form of marriage for those who did not wish to conform to the existing
forms.
(
The 1872 Act provided that persons wishing to marry (under the Act) had to declare that
they did not profess Hindu, Jain, Sikh, Muslim, Parsis, Christian or any other religion.

In 1923, an amendment was made in the Act under which a person wanting to marry
(under the Act) had not to give any such declaration. Each party was simply required to
make a declaration that it professed one or other religion.

The Act, thus, recognized inter-religion marriages. The conditions pertaining to age,
living spouse, prohibited relationship and mental state as prescribed by the 1954 Act for
marriage are the same as provided in the 1955 Act. Under the 1954 Act, a marriage
officer solemnizes the marriage.

The parties have to notify him at least a month before the marriage date. One of the
parties must have resided in the district in which the marriage officer's office is located.

During this one month, any person can raise objection against the marriage. If the
marriage is not solemnized within three months from the date of notice, a fresh notice is
required. Presence of two witnesses is necessary at the time of marriage. This Act also
provides for the annulment of marriage, judicial separation, as well as divorce and
alimony. The grounds for these are the same as provided in the Hindu Marriage Act,
1955.

The Hindu Widows Remarriage Act, 1856:-

From Smriti period onwards, widows were not permitted to remarry. According to Manu,
a widow who marries again brings disgrace on herself; she should, therefore, be excluded
from the seat of her lord. The 1856 Act removed all legal obstacles to the marriage of
Hindu widows.

The object was to promote good morals and public welfare.

The Act declares that the remarriage of a widow whose husband is dead at the time of her
second marriage is valid and no issue of such marriage will be illegitimate.

In case the remarrying widow is a minor whose marriage has not been consummated, the
consent of father, mother, grandfather, and elder brother or nearest male relative is
required.

Any marriage contracted without such consent is void. However, if the marriage has been
consummated, it will not be declared void. The Act forfeits the widow her right of
maintenance out of the estate of her first husband.

The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961:-

This Act was passed on May 20, 1961. The Act does not apply to Muslims. It permits
exchange of gifts for not more than Rs. 2,000. It prescribes the penalty of six month's
imprisonment or a fine up to Rs. 5,000 or both for its violation. The police, on its own,
cannot take any action for the violation of the Act unless some complaint is lodged with
it. No action can be taken after one year of marriage.

Socio-Economic Programme:-
Under this programme, the Central Social Welfare Board gives financial assistance to
voluntary organizations for undertaking a wide variety of income-generating activities
which include the production of central components in ancillaries units, handlooms,
handicrafts, agro-based activities such as animal husbandry sericulture and fisheries and
self-employment ventures like vegetables or fish-vending, etc.

For production units, only women organization and organizations working for the
handicapped women cooperatives and institution like jails, and Nariniketans, are eligible
for grants to the extent of 85 percent of the project cost and the remaining 15 percent is to
be met by the grantee institutions.

The dairy scheme focuses exclusively on women's organizations having at least 20

women members, including Mahila Mandals, Indira Mahila Kendras, Self Help Groups
and organizations already assisted under STEP schemes. The benefits of the scheme are
meant for women whose families are below the poverty line.

Rural women's Development and Employment Project:-

The Rural Women's Development and Empowerment Project (now also being called
"SWA-SAKTI Project" has been sanctioned on 16 October 1998 as a Centrally-
sponsored project for five years at an estimated outlay of Rs. 186.21 crore.
In addition, an amount of Rs. Five crore is to be provided, over the project period but
outside the project outlay, for facilitating setting up in the project States of revolving
funds for giving interest-bearing loans to beneficiary groups primarily during their initial
formative stage.

The objectives of the project are:-

(i) Establishment of self-reliant women's self-help-groups (SHGs) between 7,400 and

12,000 having 15-20 members each, which will improve the quality of their lives,
through greater access to and control over, resources;

(ii) Sensitizing and strengthening the institutional capacity of support agencies to

proactively address women's needs;

(iii) Developing linkages between SHGs and leading institutions to ensure women's
continued access to credit facilities for income generation activities;
(iv) Enhancing women's access to resources for better quality of life, including those for
drudgery reduction and time-saving devices; and

(v) Increased control of women, particularly poor women, over income and spending,
through their involvement in income generating activities.

The implementing agencies will be the Women's Development Corporation of the

concerned States of Bihar, Haryana, and Karnataka; Gujarat Women's Economic
Development Corporation in Gujarat; M.P. Mahila Arthik Vikas Nigam in Madhya
Pradesh and Mahila Kalyan Nigam in Uttar Pradesh, who will actively associate NGOs in
the implementation tasks. The Government of India in the form of grant-in-aid will
provide funds.

At the Central level, the Department of Women and Child Development, assisted by the
Central Project Support Unit (CPSU), handle the project. NIPCCD has been identified as
the Lead Training Agency, while Agricultural Finance Corporation has been contracted
as the Lead Monitoring and Evaluation Agency. Both of them work in close liaison with
the CPSU, under the directions of the Department.

Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA):-

Development of Women and Children in Rural Area Programme (DWCRA) was
started in September 1982 in the form of a sub-plan of Integrated Rural Development
Programme.
The main aim of this programme was to provide proper self-employment opportunities to
the women of those rural families who are living below the poverty line, so that their
social and economic standard could be improved.

The main points of this programme are as under:-

1. Under this programme, the policy of making a group of 10-15 women has been
adopted corresponding to the local resources, their own choices and skills to complete the
economic activities.

2. The targeted women are financed by the loans and subsidies under IRDP.

3. Since 1995-96, Revolving Fund of Rs. 25,000 has been provided to each women group
for meeting their working capital requirements.

4. The amount of the Revolving Fund was being shared by the Central Government, the
State Government and UNICEF in the ratio of 40:40:20. Since 1 Jan. 1996 UNICEF has
refused to contribute its share. That is why, now the ratio of 50:50 is being shared
between the Centre and the State Government.

5. The District Rural Development Agency has the responsibility of implementing the
DWCRA plan.
6. Since 1995-96 the childcare activities have also been included under DWCRA
programme. For this purpose, each district has been allotted an amount of Rs. 1.50 lakh
p.a. In this, the share of the Central Government will be Rs. 1 lakh and remaining Rs.
50,000 will be the share of the State Government.

7. In order to encourage the projects of DWCRA in the rural area, CAPART extends its
support to the voluntary institutions also.

8. During the Sixth plan, 3,308 women group were formed under this programmes and
the total number of members was 52,170. In the Seventh plan, 28,031 women groups
were formed and the total number of members was 4.70 lakhs. During Eighth plan, 1,
41,397 women groups were formed with total membership of 22.67 lakh. During 1997-
98, 36,436 lakh women were benefited. During 1998-99, 19,657 groups were formed in
which 2.35 Lakh women were benefited. Upto March 31, 1999, 38.04 lakh women were
benefited under DWCRA since its inception. Since April, 1, 1999 DWCRA has been
merged with newly introduced scheme namely Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana.

Indira Mahila Yojna:-

The Indira Mahila Yojana (IMY) aims at organizing at the grass-root level to facilitate
their participation in decision-making and their empowerment was launched on 20
August 1995, to start with, in 200 ICDS blocks. The strength of the scheme lies in the
strength of group dynamics.

The objectives of the scheme are: convergence of the schemes of every sectoral
department; awareness generation among the women from rural areas and urban slums;
and economic empowerment of women.

Balika Samriddhi Yojana:-

The Balika Samriddhi Yojana (BSY) is a scheme to raise the status of the girl child.
The first component of the scheme of BSY was launched with effect from 2 October
1997. Under this, the mother of a girl child born on or after 15 August 1997 in family
living below the poverty line was given a grant of Rs. 500. The benefits and means of
delivery have been redesigned in the current financial years.

The post-delivery grant of Rs. 500 per girl child (up to two girls in a family living below
the poverty line) will be deposited in bank account in the name of the girl child or in a
post office if there is no bank nearby.

In the same account will be deposited annual scholarships ranging from Rs. 300 for class
I to Rs. 1,000 for class X when the girl starts going to school. The matured value of the
deposits (along with interest) will be repayable to the girl on her attaining the age of 18
years and having remained unmarried till then.

National Commission for Women:-

The National Commission for Women was set up on 31 January 1992 in pursuance of
the National Commission for Women Act 1990.

The functions assigned to the Commission are wide and varied covering almost all facets
of issues relating to safeguarding women's rights and promotion. The Commission has a
Chairman, five members and a Member Secretary, all nominated by the Central
government.

The Commission continues to pursue its mandated activities, namely, review of

legislation, interventions in specific individual complaints of atrocities and remedial
action to safeguard the interest of women where appropriate and feasible.

The Commission has accorded highest priority to securing speedy justice to women.
Towards this end, the Commission is organizing Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalats, offering
counseling in family disputes and conducting training programmes for creating legal
awareness among women.
Plan of Action to Combat Sexual Exploitation of Women and Children:-

The Supreme Court in a case passed an order on 9 July 1997, directing interalia the
constituting of a committee to make an in-depth study of the problem of prostitution,
child prostitutes and children of prostitutes and to evolve suitable schemes for their
rescue and rehabilitation.
Accordingly the Committee on Prostitution, Child Prostitutes and Children of Prostitutes
of commercial sexual exploitation and trafficking of women and children and children of
the women victims was constituted to evolve such schemes as are appropriate and
consistent with the directions given by the Supreme Court.

A draft plan of Action prepared by the Committee has been approved in a meeting
chaired by the Hon'ble Prime Minister. The Plan of Action would guide the actions of the
Ministries/ Departments of the Central government, NGOs, the public and private sectors
and other sections of society.

The Plan of Action consists of action points grouped under prevention, trafficking,
awareness generation and social mobilization, health care services, education and
childcare, housing, shelter and civic amenities, economic empowerment, legal reforms
and law enforcement, rescue and rehabilitation, institutional machinery and methodology.

The report of the Committee and the plan of Action to combat trafficking and commercial
sexual exploitation of women and children have been sent to the concerned Central
Ministries/ Departments and State governments/ UT administrations for implementation
of the action points.

National Women Fund:-

In 1992-93 a National Women Fund was established to meet the loan requirements of the
poor women.
This fund was established in the form of a society under the Society Registration Act by a
collected sum of 31 crore rupees. This fund has given help to more than 250 non-
government organizations. Women and Children Development Minister of State is the
ex-official chairman of this fund.

Mahila Samridhi Yojana:-

With the objective of providing economic security to the rural women and to encourage,
the saving habit among them, the Mahila Samridhi Yojna was started on 2 October 1993.
Under this plan, the rural women of 18 years of above age can open their saving account
in the rural post office of their own area with a minimum Rs. 4 or its multiplier.

On the amount not withdrawn for 1 year, 25% of the deposited amount is given to the
depositor by the government in the form of encouragement amount. Such accounts
opened under the scheme account opened under the scheme are provided 25% bonus with
a maximum of Rs. 300 every year.

Up to 31 March 1997 2.45 crore accounts were opened under this scheme with a total
collection of Rs. 265.09 crore. The Department of Women and Child Development, the
nodal agency for MSY, decided in April 1997 that now new MSY accounts should be
opened from 1 April 1997 onwards but the existing account could be maintained.

CHAPTER-14
SOCIOLOGY: THE DISCIPLINE
INTRODUCTION:-
Sociology does not claim to be a potentially all-inclusive and all-sufficing science of
society which might absorb the more specialized social sciences.
The late origin of sociology does not mean that its standing as compared with other social
sciences is very weak. Its scope has been clearly demarcated right from the early days. Its
concepts, terms, typologies and generalizations leading to theories, emerged from the
very beginning.

Moreover, there are striking similarities between sociology and other social sciences:
man as a principal ingredient of their subject matters, applications of some
methodological tools like observation, comparative method, casual explanations, testing
and modification of hypothesis etc. When so much is common to sociology on the one
hand and the other social sciences it is understandable that there is some amount of
commonness in the studies as well as mutual borrowings in the form of data, methods,
approaches, concepts and even vocabulary.

In brief, sociology is a distinct social science, but it is not an isolated social science as the
current trends indicate that every social science is depending more and more on inter-
disciplinary approach, that is, historians and sociologists, for example, might even work
together in curricular and search projects which would have been scarcely conceivable
prior to about 1945, when each social science tendered to follow the course that emerged
in the 19th century; to be confined to a single, distinguishable, though artificial, area of
social reality.

Sociology and History:-

Both sociology and modern historiography had their origin in 19th century. The latter
established the concept of historical periods and thus bequeathed to historiography
theoretical ideas and concerns which were entirely absent from the work of earlier
narrative historians and chroniclers. It bequeathed to modern sociology the notion of
historical types of society and thus enabled the socialists to build classification of
societies.
The interaction between two disciplines can be found in their subject matter.
Subject matter of sociology and history overlap to a considerable extent. The historian
frequently provides the material which sociologist uses.Infact historical sociology
depends upon the data which only a historian can supply. Even comparative method often
requires historical data. But the dependence is two fold. Sociological research also
provides the information which the historian's need.Infact the subject matter of social
history overlaps to a very great extent with sociology in general and historical sociology
in particular.

There is evidence of cooperation by sociologists and social historians. Historian's account

of social structure of 19th century towns and of the characteristics of the medieval
peasantry or the 18th century nobility and sociologist's study of social history of a variety
of professions. There is a point of difference between the two. Radcliffe- Brown provided
a clear-cut though simplistic answer. According to him 'Sociology is nomothetic, while
history is idiographic'. The historian describes unique events, while the sociologist
derives generalizations.
Indeed, there are generalizations in history too, but a sociologist analyses sociological
data with the help of generalizations. In other words, the historian examines particular
sequences of events; whereas a sociologist tests a generalization by examining the
sequence of events. To word this particular difference between history and sociology in a
very simple language:

the historian is concerned with the inter-play between personality and social forces;
whereas, the sociologist is largely concerned with the social forces themselves. History is
primarily concerned with the past and essentially tries to account for the change over time
while the main focus of sociology continues to be to search for recruitment patterns and
to build generalizations.

However given such works like Weber's Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism and
Pitrin Sorokin's Social and Cultural Dynamics, the line for demarcation between history
and sociology is becoming increasingly blurred. Yet H.R Trevor-Roper has tried to make
a weak distinction by stating that historian is concerned with the interplay between
personality and massive social forces and that the sociologist is largely concerned with
these social forces themselves.

However it is becoming increasingly clear that historiography and sociology cannot be

radically separated. They deal with the same subject -matter viz men living in societies
sometimes from the same point of view and the trends that the two shall continue to
borrow from each other extensively.

Sociology and Economics:-

The battle as to which should be given precedence, sociology or economics, is present in
these two disciplines also.
However attempts have been made to link the two disciplines .One extreme position has
been adopted by Marxists. According to them the understanding of the super structure
consisting of various social institutions can never be complete unless seen in the context
of economic substructure. Thus economic behavior of man is viewed as a key to
understand social behavior of man or economics is given precedence over sociology.

On the other hand sociologists have criticized the economic theory as being reductionist
in nature and according to them the economist's conception of man ignores the role of
various social factors which influence the economic behavior. Thus various sociologists
have tried to show that economics cannot be an entirely autonomous science. A. Lowie
considers that two sociological principles underlie the classical laws of the market: the
economic man and the competition or mobility of the factors of production.

A contemporary of Durkheim argues that since the first principles of economics are
hypothesis they can be tested only by a sociological enquiry. In recent times Parsons and
Smelser attempted to show that economic theory is a part of the general sociological
theory. In actual practice there are a number of sociological studies which are concerned
with problems of economic theory. Of late, the interaction between two disciplines has
been on the increase. Barbara Cotton analyses the classical economic theory of Wages
and presents a sociological analysis of the determinations of wages and salary differences
based on British data. Sociologists have explored the aspects of economic behavior
neglected or treated in a hurried manner by economists such as Marx, Max Weber and
Hobson.

In recent times there are many studies in the same field like those of Schimpeter,
Strachey, Galbraith, Gunnar Myrdal and Raymond Aron.Apart from this contribution;
sociologists have also studied particular aspects of economic organization like the
property system, the division of labor and the industrial organization. A branch of
sociology called economic sociology deals with the social aspects of economic life.
Economics would lay emphasis on relations of purely economic variables- relations of
price and supply, money flows, input-output, etc.

Whereas sociology would study the productive enterprises as a social organization the
supply of labor as affected by values and preferences, influences of education on
economic behavior; role of caste system in economic development and so on. Thus
sociology and economics meet in a number of areas of knowledge. The factors that
contributed for this convergence are two. Economists are no longer interested only in
market mechanism but also in economic growth, national product and national income
and also development in underdeveloped regions. In all these areas the economist has
either to necessarily collaborate with the sociologist or he himself has to become a
sociologist.

Sociology and Psychology:-

Sociology studies the social systems while psychology studies mental systems.
The nature of relationship between sociology and psychology still remains controversial
and the study of social psychology in relation to both is still unsettled. There are two
extreme views: J.S.Mill believed that a general social science could not be considered
firmly established until its inductively established generalizations can be shown to be also
logically deductible from laws of mind. Thus he clearly sought to establish primacy of
psychology over all other social sciences.Durkheim on the other hand made a radical
distinction between the phenomena studied by sociology and psychology respectively.

Sociology was to study social facts defined as being external to individual mind and
exercising the coercive action upon them, the explanation of social facts could only be in
terms of other social facts not in terms of psychological facts. Society is not simply an
aggregate of individuals; it is a system formed by their association and represents a
specific level of reality possessing its own characteristics. Thus sociology and
psychology are totally separate disciplines.

Most sociologists however have adopted various intermediate positions. According to

Ginsberg many sociological generalizations can be more firmly established by being
related to general psychological laws. Similarly Nadel argued that some problems posed
by social enquiry can be illuminated by a move to lower levels of analysis viz psychology
and biology.
German scholars like Weber came to believe that sociological explanations can be further
enriched if an attempt is made to understand social behavior in terms of underlying
meanings. Such understanding was conceived in terms of common senses psychology but
Weber was not opposed to the development of a scientific psychology in broad sense and
Weber was even sympathetic to some of the Freud's ideas. Similarly the interdependence
of sociology and psychology for the study of human behavior is given still greater
prominence.

The divergence between sociology and psychology can be illustrated from various
studies. In the study of conflict and war there have been mutually exclusive sociological
and psychological explanations. In the studies of stratification and political behavior the
two disciplines have remained divergent. According to Bottomore in almost every field
of enquiry it can be shown that psychology and sociology continue for the most part and
two separate universes of study. However some attempts have been made to bring them
together.

One of the most valuable works is of Gerth and Mills. According to them the study of
social psychology is an interplay between individual character and social structure and it
can be approached either from the side of sociology or from the side of biology. They
have even suggested the concept of role to bridge the gap between the two sciences.
Social role represents a meeting point of the individual organism and the social structure
and it is used as a central concept and social structure in the same terms. Yet in spite of
these efforts sociology and psychology continue to offer alternate accounts for behavior
and if they are to be brought closer together, it will be necessary to work out more
rigorously the conceptual and theoretical links between them.

Sociology and Political Science:-

The two distinct disciplines of social science sociology and political sciences do converge
often as the subject matter is men and the convergence is on the increase.
A beginning was made with the works of Marx. According to him political institutions
and behavior are closely linked with the economic system and social classes.

Provoked by this thinking some thinkers by the end of the 19th century pursued the
matter in more detail like studies of political parties, elite, voting behavior, bureaucracy
and political ideologies as in the political sociology of Michels, Weber and Pareto.By
then another development occurred in America known as behavioral approach to political
phenomena. This was initiated by the University of Chicago. In the 30s attempts were
made by various scholars to create a scientific discipline of behavioral politics.

In another area there is c lose relationship between the two. Both functionalism and social
system have been adopted into politics. There is a renewal of interest in Marxist
sociological ideas. It is interesting to note that there is a renewal of Marxist sociological
ideas because of revolutions in developing countries, as studied by political scientists,
sociologists and even anthropologists.

The forces at work and the changes that are taking place in peasant, tribal or caste
societies belong more to the sphere of sociologists and anthropologists rather than to that
of the political scientist. Moreover, the fields into which Michaels, Max Weber and
Pareto led sociology by the end of the 19th century are still being pursued.

A new feature of these studies is that they are comparative. It is becoming increasingly
difficult to distinguish political science from political sociology. There are a number of
Marxist studies having Marxist socialist ideas as their hypothesis. Also, as modern State
is increasingly getting involved in providing welfare amenities, sociological slant to
political activity and political thinking is gaining more and more of acceptance.

Sociology and Social Anthropology:-

Sociology and social anthropology had quite different origins.
Sociology originated from philosophy of history, political thought and positive sciences
while anthropology has descended from biology. In the earlier periods of their periods of
their growth the two disciplines grew up in close cooperation with each other in terms of
the concepts used, areas of interest and their methods of study as can be seen in the works
of founders which cannot easily be assigned exclusively to either one of the disciplines.

The early convergence was followed by a period of extreme divergence in terms of their
universe of study, areas of interest, methods of study and even the concepts employed.
Social anthropologists tend to closely study small societies which are relatively
unchanging and lacking in historical records such as Melanesia; on the other hand,
sociologists often study parts of an existing society like family or social mobility. The
methods employed by sociologists are loaded with values, and hence their conclusions
are tinged with ethical considerations; on the other hand, social anthropologists describe
and analyze in clinically neutral terms because they can place themselves as outsiders
without being involved in values. For the social anthropologists the field is a small self-
contained group of community; whereas, for the sociologists the field could be large-
scale and impersonal organizations and processes.

Social anthropologists generally live in the community that they study in order to observe
and record what they see. Their analysis is essentially qualitative and clinical. On the
other hand, sociologists often rely on statistics and questionnaires and their analysis is
often formal and quantitative. In spite of the obvious differences between the two in the
19th century, as stated above, there has been a good deal of convergence in modern
times.

The small units of study which the social anthropologists require are fast disappearing
because of the influence of Western ideologies and technology. Placed in such a
situation, both the social anthropologists and sociologists are concerned with the process
of economic growth and social changes. Both the disciplines are equally useful in
studying the African and Asian societies which are changing under the impact of the
West. It is no longer the prerogative of sociologists to study advanced societies.
There is an increasing number of anthropological studies in advanced societies, like the
studies of little community, kinship groups, etc.
Some basic concepts such as structure, function, status, role, conflict, change and
evaluation are used by both sociologists and social anthropologists. These feature
differences indicate the interdependence of sociology and social anthropology in
understanding social behavior.

The works of Talcott Parsons and R.K Merton are attempts towards an adaptation of
functionalist approach to study industrial societies and William White has adopted
participant observation for the study of modern industrial society. Thus the disciplines are
increasingly merging into each other.

Impact of Revolutions On Sociology:-

The beginning of tradition of social sciences has been one of the major developments of
the 19th century. It is often said that social sciences are mostly understood as responses to
the problem of order that was created in men's minds by the weakening of the old order
under the blows of French Revolution and Industrial Revolution. The European society
was hard hit by these revolutions.

The old order that rested on kinship, land, social class, religion, local community and
monarchy became very shaky. Thinkers were more concerned about finding ways and
means of reconsolidating these elements of social order. Hence the history of 19th
century politics, industry and trade is basically about the practical efforts of human
beings to reconsolidate these elements.

The history of 19th century meant new contents and meaning to the doctrine of
sociology. A new wave of intellectual and philosophical thoughts was let loose in
Europe. Intellectual currents in the form of socio-political ideologies were also witnessed.
The ideologies of individualism, socialism, utilitarianism, and utopianism took birth.
Thinkers and intellectuals floated new ideologies and spread novel ideas.

CHAPTER-15
 SOCIAL MOBILITY

INTRODUCTION:-
Individuals are recognized in society through the statuses they occupy and the roles they
enact.
The society as well as individuals is dynamic. Men are normally engaged in endless
endeavor to enhance their statuses in society, move from lower position to higher
position, secure superior job from an inferior one. For various reasons people of the
higher status and position may be forced to come down to a lower status and position.
Thus people in society continue to move up and down the status scale. This movement is
called social mobility.

The study of social mobility is an important aspect of social stratification.Infact it is an

inseparable aspect of social stratification system because the nature, form, range and
degree of social mobility depends on the very nature of stratification system.
Stratification system refers to the process of placing individuals in different layers or
strata.

According to Wallace and Wallace social mobility is the movement of a person or

persons from one social status to another.W.P Scott has defined sociology as the
movement of an individual or group from one social class or social stratum to another.

Types of Social Mobility:-

Horizontal And Vertical Social Mobility

A distinction is made between horizontal and vertical social mobility. The former refers
to change of occupational position or role of an individual or a group without involving
any change in its position in the social hierarchy, the latter refers essentially to changes in
the position of an individual or a group along the social hierarchy. When a rural laborer
comes to the city and becomes an industrial worker or a manager takes a position in
another company there are no significant changes in their position in the hierarchy. Those
are the examples of horizontal mobility. Horizontal mobility is a change in position
without the change in statue. It indicates a change in position within the range of the
same status.

It is a movement from one status to its equalivalent.But if an industrial worker becomes a

businessman or lawyer he has radically changed his position in the stratification system.
This is an example of vertical mobility. Vertical mobility refers to a movement of an
individual or people or groups from one status to another. It involves change within the
lifetime of an individual to a higher or lower status than the person had to begin with.
Forms Of Vertical Social Mobility:-
The vertical mobility can take place in two ways - individuals and groups may improve
their position in the hierarchy by moving upwards or their position might worsen and
they may fall down the hierarchy.
When individuals get into seats of political position; acquire money and exert influence
over others because of their new status they are said to have achieved individual mobility.

Like individuals even groups also attain high social mobility. When a dalit from a village
becomes an important official it is a case of upward mobility. On the other hand an
aristocrat or a member of an upper class may be dispossessed of his wealth and he is
forced to enter a manual occupation. This is an example of downward mobility.

Inter-Generational Social Mobility:-

Time factor is an important element in social mobility. On the basis of the time factor
involved in social mobility there is another type of inter-generational mobility. It is a
change in status from that which a child began within the parents, household to that of the
child upon reaching adulthood. It refers to a change in the status of family members from
one generation to the next.

For example a farmer's son becoming an officer. It is important because the amount of
this mobility in a society tells us to what extent inequalities are passed on from one
generation to the next. If there is very little inter-generational mobility .inequality is
clearly deeply built into the society for people' life chances are being determined at the
moment of birth. When there is a mobility people are clearly able to achieve new statuses
through their own efforts, regardless of the circumstances of their birth.

Intra-Generational Mobility:-

Mobility taking place in personal terms within the lifespan of the same person is called
intra-generational mobility. It refers to the advancement in one's social level during the
course of one's lifetime. It may also be understood as a change in social status which
occurs within a person's adult career. For example a person working as a supervisor in a
factory becoming its assistant manager after getting promotion.

Structural mobility:-

Structural mobility is a kind of vertical mobility. Structural mobility refers to mobility

which is brought about by changes in stratification hierarchy itself. It is a vertical
movement of a specific group, class or occupation relative to others in the stratification
system. It is a type of forced mobility for it takes place because of the structural changes
and not because of individual attempts. For example historical circumstances or labor
market changes may lead to the rise of decline of an occupational group within the social
hierarchy. An influx of immigrants may also alter class alignments -especially if the new
arrivals are disproportionately highly skilled or unskilled.

Systems of Social Mobility:-

Open And Closed Systems Of Mobility:-

A closed system of mobility is that where norms prescribe mobility.

Thus the closed system emphasizes the associative character of the hierarchy. It justifies
the inequality in the distribution of means of production status symbols and power
positions and discourages any attempt to change them. Any attempt to bring about
changes in such a system or to promote mobility is permanently suppressed.

In such a system individuals are assigned their place in the social structure on the basis of
ascriptive criteria like age, birth, sex.Considerations of functional suitability or
ideological notions of equality of opportunity are irrelevant in deciding the positions of
individuals to different statuses. However no system in reality is perfectly close. Even in
the most rigid systems of stratification limited degree of mobility exists. Traditional caste
system in India is an example of closed system.

In the open system the norms prescribed and encourage mobility. There are independent
principles of ranking like status, class and power. In and open system individuals are
assigned to different positions in the social structure on the basis of their merit or
achievement.

Open systems mobility is generally characterized with occupational diversity, a flexible

hierarchy, differentiated social structure and rapidity of change. In such systems the hold
of ascription based corporate groups like caste, kinship or extended family etc declines.
The dominant values in such a system emphasize on equality and freedom of the
individual and on change and innovation.

City and village: Continuity and change in social mobility:-

More striking than new opportunities for group mobility within the traditional status
hierarchy has been the appearance in recent decades of new status hierarchies-new arenas
for status competition. They have emerged from the impact of urbanization and
westernization but are not independent of the traditional social organization in which they
are based.

Urbanism is nothing new in India but rapid urbanization is new. The emergency of
industrial employment, of easy communication over long distances, of increasingly
efficient distribution of goods and services and of more effective centralized
administration has made urban living a more accessible alternative to more people in
India than ever before.

Urban life affords a measure of independence from the ties and constraints of
membership in rural based social groups by granting a degree of individual anonymity
and mobility quite unattainable in rural communities.Caste, religion, ritual, tradition and
the social controls implicit therein are not as rigid or pervasive in the city. People are
increasingly able to seek status and other rewards on an individual or small family basis
largely independent of caste or the other larger social entities of which they are also a
part. They do this primarily by going to the city although the values of the city also
extend into the country-side and have loosened the hold of tradition even there.
To a great extent urban Indians can achieve status as a result of behaviors and attributes
rather than simply as a result of birth.
According to Harold Gould industrialization brought about the transfer of specialized
occupations of all kinds from the context of the kin groups to factories organized on
bureaucratic principles. This meant that occupational role and role occupant would be in
principle separated and that the preponderant criteria for determining occupations would
be performance qualities and that economic rewards and social mobility would constitute
the principle standards for evaluating the worth or the status of any given role.

Traditional status -caste status does not disappear in the city. It remains important in the
most private contexts; the family and neighborhood. Some neighborhoods essentially
reproduce the village setting in personnel as well as social structure; others do not.

A very large proportion of city dwellers are in close touch with their native villages.
Tradition and ascription are important in the city in those relationships upon which the
day to day functioning and future composition of the family depends of which the
epitome is marriage. In the city primary relationships occupy a diminishing proportion of
most people's time, attention and energies.

Much of the individual's interaction takes place on the basis of particular or even
fragmented roles. He can often behave in a way consistent with the requirements of the
situation without reference to his group membership. He is even able to pass if that is his
desire by learning the superficial symbols of the status such as that of white collar
worker, student, middle class householder or professional. In these statuses skill in
handling the language, in pursuing the occupation or success in acquiring money or an
appropriate life style may be socially recognized and rewarded irrespective of caste and
family.

Contemporary urban life has available more means to mobility and suggests to those who
seek it a greater likelihood of success that the highly structured closely controlled
traditional village setting. Mobility occurs in all settings. Some low status groups have
been victims of technological displacement with the result that their economic, political
and social statuses have declined.

They drift either into the status of rural landless laborers or into unskilled urban
employment, both of which are overpopulated and underpaid. The result is
underemployment, unemployment, poverty and lack of opportunity for improvement. For
examples: water carriers comprise a caste whose members have been displaced in many
parts of Northern India with the advent of handpumps.In some instances new occupations
have been created and with them opportunities for enhancement of economic and social
status thus allowing certain mobility.

CHAPTER-16
RELIGION
INTRODUCTION:-
At the simplest level religion is the belief in the power of supernatural. These beliefs are
present in all the societies and variations seem endless. A belief in the supernatural
almost always incorporates the idea that supernatural forces have some influence or
control upon the world. The first indication of a possible belief in the supernatural dates
from about 60,000 years ago.
Archaeological evidences reveal that Neanderthal man buried his dead with stone tools
and jewellery.Religion is often defined as people’s organized response to the supernatural
although several movements which deny or ignore supernatural concerns have belief and
ritual systems which resemble those based on the supernatural. However these theories
about the origin of religion can only be based on speculation and debate.

Though religion is a universal phenomenon it is understood differently by different

people. On religion, opinions differ from the great religious leader down to an ordinary
man. There is no consensus about the nature of religion. Sociologists are yet to find a
satisfactory explanation of religion.

Durkheim in his The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life defines religion as a unified
system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things that is to say things set apart and
forbidden. James G Frazer in his The Golden Bough considered religion a belief in
powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and
of human life.Maclver and Page have defined religion as we understand the term, implies
a relationship not merely between man and man but also between man and some higher
power. According to Ogburn religion is an attitude towards superhuman powers.Max
Muller defines religion as a mental faculty or disposition which enables man to
apprehend the infinite.

To answer the question how did religion begin – two main theories animism and naturism
were advanced. The early sociologists, adhering to evolutionary framework, advocated
that societies passed through different stages of development and from simplicity to
complexity is the nature of social progress. The scholars who have contributed to the
field of magic, religion and science can broadly be divided into four different types such
as

evolutionary scholars
fundamentalist
symbolic theorists
analytical functionalists.

Animism:-
Animism means the belief in spirits.E.B. Taylor in his famous book Primitive Culture
developed the thesis of animism and subsequently he developed the distinction between
magic, religion and science. In his thesis of animism he advocated that anima means
spirit. Animism refers to a given form of religion in which man finds the presence of
spirit in every object that surrounds him.
According to him, any type of spiritual phenomenon-- May that is souls, divinities--
which are animated and interpreted by man, explain the stage of animism. Man's ideas of
spirits primarily originated from his dreams. In his dreams man, for the first time,
encountered with his double. He realized that his double or duplicate is more dynamic
and elastic than his own self. He further considered that his double, though resembled his
body, it is far more superior in terms of quality from his body. He generalized further that
the presence of soul in human body is responsible for the elasticity of images in dreams.

Taking this fact into consideration primitive mind considered that when man sleeps the
soul moves out of the body of man temporarily and when he is dead it leaves out the body
permanently. Thereafter man generalized that every embodiment, which is subjected to
birth, growth and decay, is obviously associated with spirit.

Hence, trees, rivers, mountains, which are greatly subjected to decay and expansion, were
considered as the embodiments in which soul is present. Realizing this, man started
worshipping and these embodiments and that is how animism as a specific form of
religions came into being. According to Taylor, the most ancient form of animistic
practice is manifested in terms of ancestor worship.

Man realized that his ancestors after their death convert into spirits who may be
benevolent or malevolent. Realizing this, in order to convert these souls as protecting
spirits, man made them periodic offerings. In primitive communities this is known as
Ancestor cult and Ghost Worship.
According Taylor, the primitive man was not in a condition to distinguish between
animate and inanimate objects. Therefore, he conceived that like life and soul associated
with human body, they should be associated with every object both animate and
inanimate. Realizing this he started worshipping rocks, trees, streams, everything
surrounding him extending the notion of soul and spirit to all of them. Taylor argues that
religion in the form of animism originated to satisfy man’s intellectual nature to meet his
need to make sense of death, dreams and vision.

Naturism:-
Naturism means the belief that the forces of nature have supernatural power.
Andrew Lang and Max Muller develop the theory of naturism. Max Muller, a great
Sanskrit scholar, strongly advocates that the most ancient form of religious practice is
naturism. Naturism, according to him, is primarily based on man's sensory experience out
of which logical deductions are primarily made.

It is through sensory organism that man obtains the surfaced experience of reality on the
basis of which he makes logical deductions. The sensory experience further helps man to
distinguish animate from the inanimate objects. Therefore, religion is primarily a
derivative of sensory experience. To them religious embodiments are seen yet unseen,
observable yet unobservable.

For example, rain is visible but the caution of rain is not; sun is visible but its creation is
greatly unknown to man.Therefore, out of reverence and dependency man greatly
worshipped all the greatest powers of nature: sun, moon, air water without which man's
life and living will is exclusively impossible. Therefore, man worships them out of fear,
Out of dependency and as a token of respect. They further advocated that the first
religious conception is derived from the personification of the natural phenomenon.

For primitive man nature was a vast domain of surprise, horror, miracle and unknown.
But the great powers definitely hold the key to human survival and continuity. Man was
so moved by the great powers of nature that he started personifying all these abstract
forces and started worshipping them.

Finally, they advocate that Ancestor Cult is a derived version of Nature Cult. Likewise,
man was being apprehensive about his dead ancestors, started worshipping them thinking
that their spirits, if worshipped, instead of being destructive can primarily be protective
ones. So Ancestor Worship is a derived version of Nature Worship, according to scholars
belonging to this school. Naturism is man’s response to the effect of the power and
wonder of nature upon his emotions.

There was some criticism of the evolutionary approach of religion. Though Taylor and
Max Mullar came up with plausible reasons for certain beliefs being held by members of
particular societies they do not necessarily explain why those beliefs originated at all. Nor
can it be argued that all religions necessarily originated in the same way. Furthermore the
precise stages for the evolution of religion do not fit the facts. As Andrew Lang points
out many of the simplest societies have religions based on monotheism which Taylor
claimed was limited to modern societies.

Theories of Religion:-
Sociological approaches to religion are still strongly influenced by the ideas of the three
classical sociological theorists Marx, Durkheim and Weber.

Marx and Religion:-

In spite of his influence on the subject, Karl Marx never studied religion in any detail. His
ideas were mostly derived from the writings of several early 19th century theologists and
philosophers. One of these was Ludwig Feuerbach who wrote The Essence of
Christianity. According to Feuerbach, religion consists of ideas and values produced by
human beings in the course of their cultural development but mistakenly projected on to
divine forces or gods.Feuerbach uses the term alienation to refer to the establishment of
Gods or divine forces as distinct from human beings.

Marx accepts the view that religion represents human self-alienation. He declared in a
famous phrase that religion has been the opium of the people. Religion defers happiness
and rewards to the after life, teaching the resigned acceptance of existing conditions in
this life. Attention is thus diverted from inequalities and injustices in this world by the
promise of what is to come in the next. Religion has a strong ideological element,
religious beliefs and values often provide justifications for inequalities of wealth and
power. In Marx’s view religion in its traditional form will and should disappear.

Durkheim and Religion:-

In contrast to Marx Durkheim spent a good part of his intellectual effort in studying
religion concentrating particularly on religion in small scale traditional societies. His
Elementary Forms of Religious Life first published in 1912 is perhaps the single most
influential study in the sociology of religion. He based his work upon a study of totemism
as practiced by Australian aboriginal societies and urged that totemism represents
religion in its most elementary or simple form.A totem was originally an animal or plant
considered to have a particular symbolic significance for a group. It is a sacred object
regarded with veneration and surrounded by various ritual activities. Durkheim defines
religion in terms of a distinction between the sacred and the profane.

Sacred :-

According to Durkheim sacred is ideal and transcends everyday existence; it is extra-

ordinary potentially dangerous, awe-inspiring, fear inducing. The sacred refers to things
set apart by man including religious beliefs, rites, duties or anything socially defined as
requiring special religious treatment. The sacred has extra-ordinary, supernatural and
often dangerous qualities and can usually be approached only through some form of ritual
such as prayer, incantation or ceremonial cleansing.
Almost anything can be sacred: a god, a rock, a cross, the moon, the earth, a king, a tree,
an animal or bird. These are sacred only because some community has marked them a
sacred. Once established as sacred however they become symbols of religious beliefs,
sentiments and pratices.

Sacred objects are symbols and are treated apart from the routine aspects if existence or
the realm of profane. Eating the totemic animal or plant is usually forbidden and as a
sacred object the totem is believed to have divine properties which separate it completely
from other animals that might be hunted or those crops that can be gathered and
consumed.

Profane :-
The profane is the realm of routine experience which coincides greatly with what Pareto
called logico-experimental experience. The profane or ordinary or unholy embraces those
ideas, persons, practices and things that are regarded with an everyday attitude of
commonness, utility and familiarity. It is that which is not supposed to come into contact
with or take precedence over the sacred. The unholy or the profane is also believed to
contaminate the holy or sacred. It is the denial or subordination of the holy in some way.
The attitudes and behavior toward it are charged with negative emotions and hedged
about by strong taboos.

The sacred and profane are closely related because of the highly emotional attitude
towards them. The distinction between the two is not very clear but ambiguous. As
Durkheim pointed out the circle of sacred objects cannot be determined then once and for
all. Its extent varies indefinitely according to different religions. The significance of the
sacred lies in the fact of its distinction from the profane. The sacred thing is par
excellence that which profane should not touch and cannot touch with impurity. Man
always draws this distinction of two orders in different times and places.

According to Durkheim totem is sacred because it is the symbol of the group itself, it
stands for the values central to the group or community. The reverence which people feel
for the totem actually derives from the respect they hold for central social values. In
religion the object of worship is the society itself.

Durkheim strongly emphasizes the fact that religions are never just a matter of belief. All
religions involve regular ceremonial and ritual activities in which a group of believers
meet together. Ceremony and ritual in Durkheim’s view are essential to binding the
members or groups together.

Durkheim believes that scientific thinking increasingly replaces religious explanation and
ceremonial and ritual activities gradually come to occupy only a small part of an
individual’s lives. Yet he says there is a sense in which religion in an altered from is
likely to continue. Even modern societies depend for their cohesion upon rituals that
reaffirm their values; new ceremonial activities thus may be expected to emerge to
replace the old.
Social functions and Dysfunctions of religion:-
Social scientists have analyzed religion in terms of what it does for the individual,
community or society through its functions and dysfunctions.
Many of these social scientists are known to belong to the tradition of functionalist
thought.

A famous social anthropologist of early twentieth century, Malinowski, saw religion and
magic as assisting the individual to cope with situations of stress or anxiety. Religious
ritual, according to him, may enable the bereaved to reassert their collective solidarity, to
express their common norms and values upon which the proper functioning of the
community depends. Religion can also supplement practical, empirical knowledge,
offering some sense of understanding and control in areas to which such knowledge does
not extent.

A more influential tradition of functionalist thought on religion derives from Durkheim,

whose Elementary Forms of the Religious Life presents a theory of religion identifying
religion with social cohesion: religious beliefs and rituals are understood in terms of the
role they play in promoting and maintaining social solidarity.

Radcliffe-Brown argues that religious ceremonies, for example in the form of communal
dancing, promoted unity and harmony and functioned to enhance social solidarity and the
survival of the society. Religious beliefs contained in myths and legends, he observes,
express the social values of the different objects which have a major influence on social
life such as food, weapons, day and night etc. They form the value consensus around
which society is integrated.

Recent functionalism while retaining his notion that religion has a central role in
maintaining social solidarity has rejected Durkheim’s view that religious beliefs are
merely symbolic representations of society. Kingsley Davis argues that religious beliefs
form the basis for socially valued goals and a justification of them. Religion provides a
common focus for identity and an unlimited source of rewards and punishments for
behaviour.

Functionalist theories of religion face a problem in the apparent decline in religious belief
and participation. What is viewed as secularization in other theories is seen as simply
religious change in functionalist terms.

Functionalist theorists argue that religion takes different forms in apparently secular
societies: it is more individualized, less tied to religious institutions. The character of
modern industrial capitalist society, particularly its rampant individualism, is thus seen to
be expressed in the differentiated character of religion in a society like the USA.

Although seemingly having little basis for integration, the celebration of individualism is
itself an integrating feature of such diverse religious forms. Moreover, new and
distinctive forms of religion may perform latent functions for the system by deflecting
adherents from critical appraisal of their society and its distribution of rewards.
In anti-religious societies such as some communist States this argument cannot hold, but
here it is claimed that functional alternatives to traditional religion operate.
Other systems of belief such as communism itself fulfill the same role as religion
elsewhere. National ceremonial, ritual celebration of communist victories, heroes, etc.,
meets the same need for collective rites, which reaffirm common sentiments and promote
enhanced commitment to common goals.

Finally, even in highly secularized Western societies civil religion exists. This consists in
abstract beliefs and rituals, which relate society to ultimate things and provide a rationale
for national history, a transcendental basis for national goals and purposes. Robert King
Merton, a twentieth century functionalist, introduced the concept of dysfunction. Talking
about religion, for instance, he pointed out the dysfunctional features of religion in a
multi-religious society. In such a society religion, instead of bringing about solidarity,
could become the cause of disorganization and disunity.

Apart from Merton, many other social thinkers have highlighted the dysfunctions of
religion. Marx regarded religion as a source of false consciousness among the proletariat,
which prevents the ‘class for itself’ from developing. It prevents them from developing
their real powers and potentialities

Sect and Cult :-

The classification of churches or religious groups into cults, sects, denominations and
ecclesias indicates different methods of relating to the society. The chief feature of a
religious sect is that it is a voluntary association. A sect is a small religious group that has
branched off of a larger established religion. Sects have many beliefs and practices in
common with the religion that they have broken off from, but are differentiated by a
number of doctrinal differences.

The word sect comes from the latin secta, meaning an organized religious body or
organization, from Latin, meaning a course of action or way of life. Sociologists use the
word sect to refer to a religious group with a high degree of tension with the surrounding
society, but whose beliefs are (within the context of that society) largely traditional. A
sect seeks to impose a rigid pattern of ideal conduct on its members but seeks toleration
rather than change from the larger society.

Sects are concerned with purity of doctrine and with the depth of genuineness of religions
feeling. As a result, demands are made upon the member to be an active participant, even
a leader or missionary, as a warrant of his faith. The emphasis on purity of belief tends to
create intolerance toward other groups and moves the sect toward critical assessment of
the secular world in accordance with the ideals of the gospel. A cult, by contrast, also has
a high degree of tension with the surrounding society, but its beliefs are (within the
context of that society) new and innovative. It may seek to transform society but more
often concentrate upon creating satisfying group experience.
The denomination is a major religious group which hopes that a separation of church and
state will enable it to be influential even though not dominant. The ecclesia is a church
claiming to be the spiritual expression of the total society.

Pluralistic Religion:-
Religious pluralism is the belief that one can overcome religious differences between
different religions and denominational conflicts within the same religion.
For most religious traditions, religious pluralism is essentially based on a non-literal view
of one's religious traditions, hence allowing for respect to be engendered between
different traditions on core principles rather than more marginal issues. It is perhaps
summarized as an attitude, which rejects focus on immaterial differences, and instead
gives respect to those beliefs held in common.

The existence of religious pluralism depends on the existence of freedom of religion.

Freedom of religion is when different religions of a particular region possess the same
rights of worship and public expression. Freedom of religion is consequently weakened
when one religion is given rights or privileges denied to others, as in certain European
countries where Roman Catholicism or regional forms of Protestantism have special
status. Religious freedom has not existed at all in some communist countries where the
state restricts or prevents the public expression of religious belief and may even actively
persecute individual religions.

Religious pluralism has existed in the Indian Subcontinent since the rise of Buddhism
around 500 BC and has widened in the course of several Muslim settlements (Delhi
Sultanate1276-1526 AD and the Mughal Empire 1526-1857 AD). In the 8th century,
Zoroastrianism established in India as Zoroastrians fled from Persia to India in large
numbers, where they were given refuge. The colonial phase ushered in by the British
lasted until 1947 and furthered conversions to Christianity among low caste Hindus. The
rise of religious pluralism in the modern West is closely associated with the Reformation
and the Enlightenment.

Religions like Judaism and Islam had existed alongside Christianity in many parts of
Europe, but they were not allowed the same freedoms as the established form of
Christianity. Freedom of religion encompasses all religions acting within the law in a
particular region, whether or not an individual religion accepts that other religions are
legitimate or that freedom of religious choice and religious plurality in general are good
things.

Monistic Religion:-
Monism is the metaphysical view that all is of one essential essence, substance or energy.
Monism is to be distinguished from dualism, which holds that ultimately there are two
kinds of substance, and from pluralism, which holds that ultimately there are many kinds
of substance. Monism is often seen in relation to pantheism, panentheism, and an
immanent God. Monism is often seen as partitioned into three different kinds:
1. Physicalism or materialism, which holds that only the physical is real, and that the
mental can be reduced to the physical
2. Idealism or phenomenalism, which holds the converse
3. Neutral monism, which holds that both the mental and the physical can be reduced to
some sort of third substance, or energy

Functionalism, like materialism, holds that the mental can ultimately be reduced to the
physical, but also holds that all critical aspects of the mind are also reducible to some
substrate-neutral "functional" level. Thus something need not be made out of neurons to
have mental states. This is a popular stance in cognitive science and artificial intelligence.
Eliminativism, which holds that talk of the mental will eventually be proved as
unscientific and completely discarded.

Just as we no longer follow the ancient Greeks in saying that all matter is composed of
earth, air, water, and fire, people of the future will no longer speak of "beliefs", "desires",
and other mental states. A subcategory of eliminativism is radical behaviourism, a view
held by B. F. Skinner.) Anomalous monism, a position proposed by Donald Davidson in
the 1970s as a way to resolve the Mind-body problem. It could be considered (by the
above definitions) either physicalism or neutral monism.

Davidson holds that here is only physical matter, but that all mental objects and events
are perfectly real and are identical with (some) physical matter. But physicalism retains a
certain priority, inasmuch as

1. All mental things are physical, but not all physical things are mental
2. (As John Haugeland puts it) Once you take away all the atoms, there's nothing left.

This monism was widely considered an advance over previous identity theories of mind
and body, because it does not entail that one must be able to provide an actual method for
redescribing any particular kind of mental entity in purely physical terms.

For some, monism may also have religious/spiritual implications. Recognizing this, some
inveigh against the 'dangers of monism,' asserting that in order to resolve all things to a
single substrate, one dissolves God in the process.Others say that the "single substrate is
God. Theological arguments can be made for this within Christianity for example the
Roman Catholic doctrine of "divine simplicity", as well as in many other religions
(Hinduism, Ayyavazhi and Judaism in particular).Historically, monism has been
promoted in spiritual terms on several occasions, notably by Ernst Haeckel. To the
dismay of most modern observers, Haeckel's various ideas often had components of
social darwinism and scientific racism.

Religion and Science:-

There are two major opinions regarding the relatioship between science and religion.
Religion and science are mutually conflicting and Religion and science are not mutually
opposing-
The view that Religion and Science as mutually conflicting :-

Religion is based on faith and rituals whereas science depends on observations

experiments,verifications,proofs and facts.Ritualism,religious fundamentalism and
fanaticism rooted in religion are very much opposed to science.According to Kingsley
Davis there are two important causes for the conflict between religion and science.
Science deals with the known or the empirical world.Religion is concerned with the
unknown or supernatural world.The boundry between the unknown and known is a
shifting one.

Science could not give an account of the orign of man earlier so religion filled in the gap
by giving its own account of that. Later with its progress science too could give a
satisfactory explanation of that. Here a conflict rose between the two as the scientist
could not accept the religious account as true even though he lived among the people who
believed in religious explanation.This situation created tension between him and the
ordinary people or the religious leader.

The second cause of conflict is that science believes in empirical truth whereas religion
pursues the nonempirical truth: Davis writes the scientific pursuit of empirical truth as the
highest goal is exactly the opposite of religious pursuit of nonempirical truth. Thus the
scientist develops his scepticism about religious beliefs and explanations concerning
creation of heaven and hell,life after death,miracles etc.

The view that Religion and science are not mutually opposing:-

Viewed analytically science and religion need not be at conflict.Science deals with what
is known.It is potential knowledge based on sensory evidences.Religious beliefs refer to
the world beyond the senses.If they cannot be proved by the methods of science they
cannot be disproved also. It is wrong to say that religion is based on emotion and science
on thought.Infact both are based on thought though this is applied to different types of
reality.

According to K.Davis it is possible for a scientist to have belief in God and still work as a
good biologist or a physicist.His and his behaviour in church appropriate to religious
situation with no feeling of incongruity.Even the attitude of scientist towards religion has
not been that of a hostile one.Scientific truth is that which is known by the evidence of
the senses.Religious truth is that which is known by revelations,by faith.An attempt to
reconcile the two can promote mutual respect across the barrier.Any reconciliation which
attempts to combine them can only undermine both. Religion is a social reality.

The persistence of religion throughout the ages proofs its survival value.It is rendering
services to the humanity.Scientific investigators agree that religion like other institutions
has its roots in certain human needs.Hence it was felt to be a necessity and continues to
be a necessary thing.
Magic:-
The phenomenon of magic is closely associated with religion.
Magic is often regarded as a form of religion.However they are different.They represent
two aspects of the same –empirical power.Max Weber used the term magic to refer to
religious action believed to be automatically effective,whether the goal is empirical or
non-empirical.Malinowski defines magic as the use of supernatural means totry to obtain
empirical ends.He however distinguished magic and religion.

British anthropologist James Frazer in his Golden Bough has spoken of two aspects of
magic: Magic by imitation and Magic by contagion. In magic by imitation an individual
imitates what he wants or expects to happen.If an individual wants rainfall to take place
he may fill his mouth with water and squirt it around in different directions.Magic by
contagion is based on the belief that whatever would come into contact with the
supernatural power will be swayed by it.Thus the forehead of a person may be rubbed off
with some ashes so that he may be free from headaches.

Magic and Science:-

Magic is often called a type of primitive science.This view is based on some

analogies.Magic like science pursues pratical ends,conceives that certain effects follow
certain causes takes an impersonal attitude towards causation and has little to do with
morality.Inspite of this magic is in many ways opposite of science.Magic relies on
supernatural causation.It unscientifically believes that some effect is produced because of
the mystical power associated with the spell,rite or object.

In magic the facts are not used to test the theory as in science.On the other hand the
theory that is the magical procedure is always assumed to be right.Here the elements of
faith and wishful thinking enter.A failure in magical performances is therefore attributed
to a failure to carry out the procedures correctly and not to the procedure itself.The
function of magic is to give confidence and a sense of security.For this reason the
individual must have a non-rational faith in its adequacy.

Hence it can exist side by side with perfectly good scientifc and technological
practices.Magic deals in absolutes whereas science deals in probabilities.Science is
tentative and K.Davis says magic may become less important but it is not going to
disappear as technology and science advance.
Education:-

The term education is derived from the Latin educare which literally means to bring up
and is connected with the verb ‘educare’which means to bring forth. The idea of
education is not merely to impart knowledge to the pupil in some subjects but to develop
in him those habits and attitudes with which he can successfully face the future.
Peter Worsely says a large part of our social and technical skills are acquired through
deliberate instruction which we call education. It is the main waking activity of children
from the ages of five to fifteen and often beyond. In the recent years education has
become the major interest of some sociologists. As a result a new branch of sociology
called Sociology of Education has become established.

Durkheim conceives education as the socialization of the younger generation. He further

states that it is a continuous effort to impose on the child ways of seeing, feeling and
acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously.

Sumner defined education as the attempt to transmit to the child the mores of the group
so that he can learn what conduct is approved and what disapproved….. How he ought to
behave in all kind of cases: what he ought to believe and reject.

A.W Green writes: Historically education has meant the conscious training of the young
for the later adoption of adult roles. By modern convention however education has come
to mean formal training by specialists within the formal organization of the school.

The concepts of socialization and learning are related to in fact often inseparable from the
concept of education. The main function of the educative process is to pass down
knowledge from generation to generation- a process that is essential to the development
of culture. Formal education is primarily designed to inculcate crucial skills and values
central to the survival of the society or to those who hold effective power. Inherent in
education, in all period of man’s history is a stimulus to creative thinking and action
which accounts in part for culture change, culture change itself being a powerful stimulus
to further innovation.

Education and Social Change:-

The role of education as an agent or instrument of social change and social development
is widely recognized today. Social change may take place – when humans need
changeWhen the existing social system or network of social institutions fails to meet the
existing human needs and when new materials suggest better ways of meeting human
needs.
(
According to Maclver social change takes place as a response to many types of changes
that take place in the social and nonsocial environment. Education can initiate social
changes by bringing about a change in outlook and attitude of man. It can bring about a
change in the pattern of social relationships and thereby it may cause social changes.

Earlier educational institutions and teachers used to show a specific way of life to the
students and education was more a means of social control than an instrument of social
change. Modern educational institutions do not place much emphasis upon transmitting a
way of life to the students. The traditional education was meant for an unchanging static
society not marked by any change. But today education aims at imparting knowledge.
Education was associated with religion.

It has become secular today. It is an independent institution now. Education has been
chiefly instrumental in preparing the way for the development of science and technology.
Education has brought about phenomenal changes in every aspect of men’s life. Francis
J.Brown remarks that education is a process which brings about changes in the behavior
of society. It is a process which enables every individual to effectively participate in the
activities of society and to make positive contribution to the progress of society.

Equality of Educational Opportunity:-

The equalization of educational opportunities is essentially linked with the equality

notions in the social system. The social system which intends to provide equal
opportunities for the advancement of all has to make provisions for equal educational
opportunities also. In modern industrial society education has become the main agency
for socializing new born into law abiding citizens and productive members of the society.

Formal education has become almost indispensable because to participate in economic

production one needs to learn specialized skills which cannot be acquired through family
or any other agency. Due to the indispensability of formal education in advanced
industrial societies education is provided by the state as a matter of right for all its
citizens. Formal institutions – schools, colleges and universities are organized for this
purpose.

Equality of Educational Opportunity:-

In most societies today legislations exist guaranteeing equality of the right of education.

In fact to realize this ideal of equality of educational opportunities special efforts are
made by the welfare states in industrial societies to provide compulsory education to the
socially deprived. In developing countries like India state has assumed the responsibility
to provide universal free education at the school level.

Special policy measures have been developed to spread modern scientific secular
education to rural areas and policy of protective discriminating has been adopted to
encourage the traditionally deprived section like SC and ST to take to modern education.
However in spite of the creation of a legal framework in most societies to ensure quality
of educational opportunity such an ideal continues to be elusive in reality even in the
industrially advanced societies.

Raymond Bourdon has investigated the problem of equality of educational opportunities.

Bourdon has tried to analyze the relationship between social structure and educational
attainment. Bourdon maintain that even if there were no sub cultural difference between
classes the very fact that people start at different positions in the class system will
produce inequality of educational opportunity. For example the costs involved and the
benefits to be gained for a working class boy and an upper middle class boy in choosing
the same educational course are very different simply because their starting positions in
the class-system are different.

Bourdon also relates the costs and benefits of course selection to family and peer group
solidarity. His work has important implications for practical solutions to the problem of
inequality of education opportunity. Even if positive discrimination worked and schools
were able to compensate for the primary effects of stratification considerable inequality
of educational opportunity would remain.

Bourdon argues that there are two ways of removing the secondary effects of
stratification. The first involves the educational system. If it provides a single compulsory
curriculum for all students the element of choice in the selection of course and duration
of stay in the system would be removed. The individual would no longer be influenced by
his courses and remain in full time education for the same period of time.

He argues that more the branching points there are in the educational system point at
which the student can leave or choose between alternative courses the more likely
working class students are to leave or choose lower level courses. The gradual raising of
the school leaving age in all advanced industrial societies has reduced inequality of
educational opportunity but the present trend indicate that his reduction will at best
proceed at a much slower rate.

Bourdon’s second solution to the problem of inequality of educational opportunity is the

abolition of social stratification. He sees moves in the direction of economic equality as
the most effective way of reducing inequality or educational opportunity. As a result he
argues that the key to equality of opportunity lies outside rather than inside the schools.
Bourdon concludes: for inequality or educational opportunity to be eliminated either a
society must be unstratified or its school system must be completely undifferentiated.

Problems concerning equality of opportunities in education:-

Education helps in establishing equality and ensuring social justice but the system of
education itself can add to the existing inequalities or at least perpetuate the same.
Inequalities of educational opportunities arise due to • Poverty as the poor cannot afford
to meet the expenses of education.

• Children studying in the rural schools have to compete with the children in urban areas
where there are well-equipped schools.

• In the places where no primary, secondary or collegiate educational institutions exist

children do not get the same opportunity as those who have all these in their
neighborhood.

• Wide inequalities also arise from differences in home environments. A child from a
rural household or slum does not have the same opportunity as a child from an upper
class home with educated parents.

• There is wide sex disparity in India. Here girl’s education is not given the same
encouragement as boys.
• Education of backward classes including SC and ST and economically backward
sections is not at par with that of other communities or classes.

Education and Modernization:-

Modernization is a process of socio-cultural transformation. It is a thorough going

process of change involving values, norms, institutions and structures. Political
dimensions of modernization involves creation of a modern nation state and the
development of key institutions –political parties, bureaucratic structures, legislative
bodies and a system of elections based on universal franchise and secret ballot.

Cultural modernization involves adherence to nationalistic ideology, belief in equality,

freedom and humanism, a rational and scientific outlook. Economic modernization
involves industrialization accompanied with monetization of economy, increasing
division of labor, use of management techniques and improved technology and the
expansion of service sector. Social modernization involves universalistic values,
achievement motivation, increasing mobility both social and geographic increasing
literacy and urbanization and the decline of traditional authority.

The secular and scientific education act as an important means of modernization. It helps
in the diffusion of modern values of equality, freedom and humanism. The modern
school system can inculcate achievement motivation. These values can form the basis of
new relations in the society and growth of rationality can enable the development of
administrative system. Diffusion of values of equality, freedom and humanism can lay
the foundations of a democratic political system. The spread of modern education in the
second half of the 19th century led to the emergence of modern political elite in India
who provided leadership in the freedom struggle.

The diffusion of scientific and technical knowledge by modern educational institutions

can help in the creation of skilled manpower to play the occupational roles demanded by
the industrial economy. Other values like individualism and universalistic ethics etc can
also be inculcated through education. Thus education can be an important means of
modernization. The importance of education can be realized from the fact that all
modernizing societies tend to emphasize on universalization of education and the
modernized societies have already attained it.
Education and Culture:-

Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills and also something less
tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge good judgement and wisdom.
Durkheim sees education as the socialization of the younger generation .It is a continuous
effort to impose on the child ways of seeing,feeling and acting which he could not have
arrived at spontaneously.
Education has as one of its fundamental goals the imparting of culture from generation to
generation.Culture is a growing whole. There can be no break in the continuity of culture.
The cultural elements are passed on through the agents like family,school and other
associations. All societies maintain themselves through their culture. Culture here refers
to a set of beliefs, skills, art, literature, philosophy, religion, music etc which must be
learned.This social heritage must be transmitted through social organizations.

Education has this function of cultural transmission in all societies. The curriculum of a
school, its extra-curricular activities and the informal relationships among students and
teachers communicate social skills and values.Through various activities school imparts
values such as co-operation ,teamspirit ,obedience ,discipline etc.

Education acts an integrative force in the society by communicating values that unites
different sections of society. The school teach skills to the children which help them later
to integrate within the culture of the society. Education in its formal or informal pattern
has been performing this role since time immemorial.Education can be looked upon as
process from this point of view also. Education has brought phenomenal changes in every
aspect of man’s life.

Education and Social control:-

Helvetius referring to education in 18th century France observed that men are born
ignorant not stupid;they are made stupid by education.This is not the modern view.There
may be still be societies in which men’s minds are stupefied by dogmatic instruction
which inclines them to accept uncritically the views of political or religious authorities
but the general character of formal education has been profoundly changed by modern
science and technology.

The great difference between primitive and early societies and modern industrial societies
is that in the former education is largely concerned with transmitting a way of life while
in the latter because of the mass of available knowledge the application of science to
production and the elaborate division of labour formal education not only preponderates
in the process of education as a whole but is largely devoted to the communication of
empirical knowledge.
One aspect of this change is indicated by the observation that in modern societies the
content of education is less literary and more scientific. A second major difference is that
whereas in earlier societies a relatively unchanging way of life and sum of knowledge
were transmitted the scientific knowledge communicated by modern education is
expected to change moreover education is increasingly required to prepare individuals for
a changing rather than a static world.

Formal education in modern societies communicate independently ideas which play a

part in regulating behaviour.Malinowski rightly mentioned this feature in its rudimentary
form in primitive societies when he included the rules of craftmanship as an element in
social control.Modern science and technology are not only the basis of infinitely more
complex rules of craftmenship but also of a general rational approach to nature and social
life which has an increasingly important role in establishing and maintaining social
cooperation.
The scientific thought implicitly or explicitly criticized the ideas propounded in religious
and moral doctrines and has largely been responsible for the changes which the latter
have undergone. The whole rationalization of the modern world with which Max Weber
was pre-occupied is connected with the development of science. Since the chief vehicle
of this development has been the educational system we can speak of formal education as
a type of social control.

Education has contributed to the regulation of conduct that is the early socialization of the
child. The work of educational reformers such as Montessori and Froebel has brought
about great changes in the education of young children.So far the reforms were connected
with scientific studies of the development of children such as those of Piaget they arose
from the development of the social sciences. Moreover being based upon this observation
and analysis of the actual development of children’s activities,needs and problems they
can be regarded as having arisen very largely within the educational sphere itself as
independent discoveries.

The changes in the formal education system have themselves brought about changes in
the family socialization aided by the spread of social science knowledge.In this sense the
formal education of children has originated new forms of regulation of behavior.
Education in a broad sense from infancy to adulthood is thus a vital means of social
control and its significance has been greatly enhanced in recent years by the rpaid
expansion of education at all levels in the developing countries and by the equally rapid
growth of secondary and higher education in the industrial countries.

Through education new generations learn the social norms and the penalties for
infringing them; they are instructed also in their station and its duties within the system of
social differentiation and stratification.In modern societies where formal education
becomes predominant and where an important occupational group of teachers comes into
existence, education is also a major type of social control as the source of scientific
knowledge which is in competition and sometimes in conflict with other types of
control.This conflict may become particularly acute with the extension of higher
education to a much larger proportion of the population.as the experience of Europe and
USA show and the educational system may increasingly provide one of the main sources
of change and innovation in the social norms.

CHAPTER-17
TRIBAL SOCIETY IN INDIA
Tribal society in India:-
According to Oxford Dictionary "A tribe is a group of people in a primitive or barbarious
stage of development acknowledging the authority of a chief and usually regarding
themselves as having a common ancestor.

D.N Majumdar defines tribe as a social group with territorial affiliation, endogamous
with no specialization of functions ruled by tribal officers hereditary or otherwise, united
in language or dialect recognizing social distance with other tribes or castes. According to
Ralph Linton tribe is a group of bands occupying a contiguous territory or territories and
having a feeling of unity deriving from numerous similarities in a culture, frequent
contacts and a certain community of interests.

L.M Lewis believes that tribal societies are small in scale are restricted in the spatial and
temporal range of their social, legal and political relations and possess a morality, a
religion and world view of corresponding dimensions. Characteristically too tribal
languages are unwritten and hence the extent of communication both in time and space is
inevitably narrow. At the same time tribal societies exhibit a remarkable economy of
design and have a compactness and self-sufficiency lacking in modern society.

T.B Naik has given the following features of tribes in Indian context:-

• A tribe should have least functional interdependence within the community.

• It should be economically backward (i.e. primitive means of exploiting natural
resources, tribal economy should be at an underdeveloped stage and it should have
multifarious economic pursuits).
• There should be a comparative geographical isolation of its people.
• They should have a common dialect.

• Tribes should be politically organized and community panchayat should be influential.

• A tribe should have customary laws.

Naik argues that for a community to be a tribe it should possess all the above mentioned
characteristics and a very high level of acculturation with outside society debars it from
being a tribe. Thus term usually denotes a social group bound together by kin and duty
and associated with a particular territory.

Characteristics Of Indian Tribes:-

Mandelbaum mentions the following characteristics of Indian tribes:-

• Kinship as an instrument of social bonds.

• A lack of hierarchy among men and groups.

• Absence of strong, complex, formal organization.

• Communitarian basis of land holding.

• Segmentary character.

• Little value on surplus accumulation on the use of capital and on market trading

• Lack of distinction between form and substance of religion

• A distinct psychological bent for enjoying life.

Geographical location of tribes:-

Tribals in India originate from five language families, i.e. Andamanese, Austro-Asiatic,
Dravidian, and Tibeto-Burman. It is also important to point out that those tribals who
belong to different language families live in distinct geographic settings.

For example, in South Orissa there are languages that originate from the Central
Dravidian family, Austro-Asiatic (Munda) family and the Indo-Aryan. In the Jharkhand
area, languages are from the Indo-Aryan, North Dravidian and Austro-Asiatic.Tribals in
India live in the following five territories.

1. The Himalayan belt: (Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur,

Mizoram, Tripura, hills of Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh)

2. Central India: Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, and Madhya Pradesh. 55% of the total tribal
population of India lives in this belt.

3. Western India: Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli.

4. The Dravidian region: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

5. Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands.

Tribal-Caste Continuum:-
Anthropologists have differed on the question relating to tribe and caste.

According to Ghurye tribal people are backward Hindus differing only in degrees from
the other segments of Hindu society.Elwin argued for the recognition of separate social
and cultural identity of tribal people. Government of India gives tacit recognition to this
identity of keeping alive under constitution sanction their lists of Scheduled Tribe.

According to Andre Beteille there are certain commonly observed differences between
tribes and castes. The tribes are relatively isolated as to the castes .They are world within
itself having few externalities. Tribes speak a variety of dialects which separates them
from non tribes. They follow their own religion and practices which are not common in
Hinduism. Language is a criterion of difference as tribes speak their local dialect for
example Mundas and Oraons of Chota Nagpur speak different dialects but Bhumij have
lost their tribal dialect and speak dominant language of the area.

According to N.K Bose there are many similarities in customs between tribes and castes
and they are interdependent. Marriage within the clan is forbidden both in the tribe as
well as in the caste. Both generally don't encourage marriage outside the group.

According to Herbert Risley the convention of endogamy is not rigidly enforced in the
tribe where as such is the case in a tribe. But this view is not acceptable since the law of
endogamy is enforced with extreme rigidity in some tribes.

Max Weber writes in Social Structure that when an Indian tribe loses its territorial
significance it assumes the form of an Indian caste. In this way the tribe is a local group
whereas caste is a social group.

According to D.N Majumdar the tribe looks upon Hindu ritualism as foreign and extra -
religious even though indulging in it and the in the worship of God and Goddess where as
in the caste these are necessary part of the religion. In caste individuals generally pursue
their own definite occupations because functions are divided under the caste system. In
the tribe individuals can indulge in whatever profession they prefer as there is no fixed
relation between them and occupation.
According to Bailey tribe and caste should be viewed as continuum.
He seeks to make distinction not in terms of totality of behavior but in more limited way
in relation to the political economic system. Briefly Bailey's argument is that a caste
society is hierarchical while a tribal society is segmentary and egalitarian. But in
contemporary India both caste and tribe are being merged into a different system which is
neither one nor the other.

The tribes in India have been influenced by certain traditions of the communities around
them. Major neighboring community in all the areas has always been Hindus. As a result
from the very period there have been several points of contact between the Hindus of the
area and tribal communities living within it. The nature and extent of contact the pattern
of mutual participation and characteristics of revitalization movements have been
different in different parts of India.

The ethnographic records establish that the contacts varied from semi-isolation to
complete assimilation. The numerous castes among Hindus have emerged out of the
tribal stratums. The recent studies of tribes of Himalayan western and middle India have
left no doubt that some of the tribes are Hinduized to the extent that they have been
assimilated with the different castes at different levels in the caste system.

The study of two major Central Himalayan tribes Tharu and Khasa reveal that though
they have a tribal matrix and continue to practice certain distinctive tribal customs they
have been accepted as Kshatriya.Their culture have been modeled on the ways of living
of the Rajputs and Brahmins of the neighbor plain areas. With their fast adoption of the
Hindu names and establishment of social connections with the Rajputs and Brahmins of
the plains.

They declare themselves as Rajputs and with Brahmins constitute the apex of the social
order. With the long and continuous contacts with the regional Hindu castes the tribals of
Kharwars has long been assimilated as Rajput castes. There are numerous other tribes
which have undergone selective acculturation and have added selected traits or features
of the regional Hindus to their respective traditional cultures. In this practice of
acculturation most of them failed to occupy any rank in the castes hierarchy while few of
them were integrated into the lower strata of the Hindu social system.

Exploitation and Unrest of the tribes:-

For ages tribals are considered primitive segment of Indian society. They lived in forests
and hills without any contact with civilizations.
During British rule they consolidated their position and their political aspirations and
administrative needs necessitated to open up the entire country. The British introduced
the system of landownership and revenue. Annual tax was trebled which was beyond the
paying capacity of tribal cultivators.

Many nontribals began to settle in the tribal areas offering credit facilities. Initially it
provided relief to tribals but gradually the system became exploitative. Over the years the
tribal population faced all types of exploitation. This aroused the tribal leaders to
mobilize the tribals and start agitations.

Thus it is the cumulative result of a number of factors:-

• Indifference from administrators and bureaucracy in dealing with tribal grievances.

• Harsh and unfriendly forest laws and regulations.
• Lack of legislation to prevent the passing of tribal land into the hands of non-tribals.
• Lack of credit facilities.
• Ineffective government measures to rehabilitate tribal population.
• Delay in implementation of recommendations of different committee
• Discrimination in implementation of reform measures.

Problems of tribal communities:-

Land Alienation:-

The history of land alienation among the tribes began during British colonialism in India
when the British interfered in the tribal region for the purpose of exploiting the tribal
natural resources. Coupled with this tribal lands were occupied by moneylenders,
zamindars and traders by advancing them loans etc. Opening of mines in the heart of
tribal habitat and even a few factories provided wage labor as well as opportunities for
factory employment.
But this brought increasing destitution and displacement. After the British came to power,
the Forest policy of the British Government was more inclined towards commercial
considerations rather than human. Some forests were declared as reserved ones where
only authorized contractors were allowed to cut the timber and the forest -dwellers were
kept isolated deliberately within their habitat without any effort to ameliorate their
economic and educational standards. The expansion of railway in India heavily
devastated the forest resources in India.

The Government started reserving teak, Sal and deodar forests for the manufacture of
railway sleepers. Forest land and its resources provide the best means of livelihood for
the tribal people and many tribes including the women engage in agriculture, food
gathering and hunting they are heavily dependent on the products of the forest. Therefore
when outsiders exploit the tribe's land and its resources the natural life cycle of tribal
ecology and tribal life is greatly disturbed

Poverty and Indebtedness:-

Majority tribes live under poverty line.

The tribes follow many simple occupations based on simple technology. Most of the
occupation falls into the primary occupations such as hunting, gathering, and agriculture.
The technology they use for these purposes belong to the most primitive kind. There is no
profit and surplus making in such economy. Hence there per capita income is very
meager much lesser than the Indian average. Most of them live under abject poverty and
are in debt in the hands of local moneylenders and Zamindars.In order to repay the debt
they often mortgage or sell their land to the moneylenders. Indebtedness is almost
inevitable since heavy interest is to be paid to these moneylenders.

Health and Nutrition:-

In many parts of India tribal population suffers from chronic infections and diseases out
of which water borne diseases are life threatening. They also suffer from deficiency
diseases. The Himalayan tribes suffer from goiter due to lack of iodine. Leprosy and
tuberculosis are also common among them. Infant mortality was found to be very high
among some of the tribes. Malnutrition is common and has affected the general health of
the tribal children as it lowers the ability to resist infection, leads to chronic illness and
sometimes leads to brain impairment. The ecological imbalance like cutting of trees have
increased the distances between villages and the forest areas thus forcing tribal women to
walk longer distances in search of forest produce and firewood.

Education:-

Educationally the tribal population is at different levels of development but overall the
formal education has made very little impact on tribal groups. Earlier Government had no
direct programme for their education. But in the subsequent years the reservation policy
has made some changes. There are many reasons for low level of education among the
tribal people: Formal education is not considered necessary to discharge their social
obligations. Superstitions and myths play an important role in rejecting education. Most
tribes live in abject poverty. It is not easy for them to send their children to schools, as
they are considered extra helping hands. The formal schools do not hold any special
interest for the children. Most of the tribes are located in interior and remote areas where
teachers would not like to go from outside.

Cultural Problems:-

Due to contact with other cultures, the tribal culture is undergoing a revolutionary
change. Due to influence of Christian missionaries the problem of bilingualism has
developed which led to indifference towards tribal language. The tribal people are
imitating western culture in different aspects of their social life and leaving their own
culture. It has led to degeneration of tribal life and tribal arts such as dance, music and
different types of craft.

Tribal Development Efforts after Independence:-

Funding of Tribal Development Programmes:-

The sources of funds made available are:-

1. State Plan
2. Special Central Assistance
3. Sectoral Programmes of Central Ministries/Departments
4. Institutional Finance.

The State Governments are required to quantify the funds from State Plan for tribal area
development in proportion to percentage of tribal population in the states.

Construction of the Hostels for Tribal students:-

Construction, Maintenance expense is to be borne by the State Governments/Union
Territories. The rates for construction of the hostels are fixed which are different for the
plains and the hills. It has been represented by various States that these rates are not
workable any more in view of the escalation of prices of building materials and long
distance involved particularly for the hilly areas. It is, therefore, proposed to revise the
norms and to adopt the State PWD schedule of rates as in the case of construction of
Ashram Schools.

During 1990-91 to 1992-93, the amount of Rs. 8.64 crores has been released to the
States/Union under various stages of completion. The scheme envisages setting up of
vocational training institutes in inner tribal areas away from the district headquarters to
impart training in various courses relevant to the areas. The tribal youth would be given
training in three trades of his or her choice, the course in each trade having duration of
four months. The trainee is to be attached at the end of one month training to master
craftsman for a period of three months to learn his skills by practical experience.
At the end of 15 months, the trainee will emerge as a multi-skilled person who can
exploit existing employment potentials to his/her best advantage. This is a Central Sector
Scheme where the construction and maintenance costs are fully borne by the Central
Government. It is implemented through the State Governments. Proposals are obtained
from them along with details of existing infrastructure as well as the employment
potentials in the proximity of the proposed location.

Educational complex in low literacy pockets for women in Tribal areas This Scheme
provides cent percent financial assistance to NGOs/ Organization established by
government as autonomous bodies/educational & other institutions like Cooperative
Societies, to establish educational complexes in 136 identified districts of erstwhile 11
states (now 13) where tribal female literacy is below 10% as per 1991 census.

Educational complex is meant for girls studying from class I to V with strength of 30
students in each class. The grants are provided to meet non-recurring as well as recurring
expenses on building (hiring or maintenance) teaching, boarding, lodging and to also for
medical and health care of students.
Grant-in-Aid to state Tribal development Cooperative Corporation and
others:-

This is a Central Sector Scheme, with 100% grant, available to the state Tribal
Development Cooperative Corporation (STDCCs) and other similar corporations of State
engaged in collection and trading of minor forest produce (MFP) through tribals Grants
under the Scheme are provided to strengthen the Share Capital of Corporations,
construction of Warehouses, establishment of processing industries of MFPs etc.
To ensure high profitability of the corporation so as to enable them to pay remunerative
prices for MFPs to the tribals.

Price Support to Trifed:-

The Ministry provides Grants-in-aid to its corporation, TRIFED to set off losses on
account of fluctuations in prices of MFPs being marketed by it for ensuring remunerative
prices to tribal engaged in collection of MFPs either directly or through STDCCs and
other such Cooperative Societies. Investment in Share Capital of Trifed The Ministry is
the largest shareholder of TRIFED with over 99% contribution in its Share Capital.
Under this Scheme, the Ministry provides funds to TRIFED as its contribution in the
Share Capital.

Village Grain Banks:-

This Scheme provides Grants for establishment of Village Grain Banks to prevent deaths
of STs specially children in remote and backward tribal villages facing or likely to face
starvation and also to improve nutritional standards. The Scheme provides funds for
building storage facility, procurement of Weights & Measures and for the purchase of
initial stock of one quintal of food grain of local variety for each family. A Committee
under Chairmanship of village Headman runs the Grain Bank thus established.

Grant-In-Aid to Voluntary Organizations:-

As many as 27 types of projects with focus on tribal education, literacy, medical & health
care, vocational training in agriculture, horticulture, craftsmanship etc., are being
supported by the Ministry under this Scheme through registered Non-Governmental
Organizations.

Research and Training:-

Under the Scheme "Research & Training" the Ministry provides financial assistance
under Grants to Tribal Research Institutes on 50:50 sharing basis; for conducting
Research & Evaluation Studies, Seminars, and Workshops etc. Award of Research
Fellowship to Tribal Students on 100% basis registered in Indian Universities. Supporting
projects of All-India or Inter-State nature on 100% basis to NGOs/Universities etc. for
conducting research on tribal matters, Travel Grants and for Publication of Books on
tribals.

Development of Primitive Tribal Groups:-

Under this Scheme cent per-cent assistance is provided to NGOs and other institutions for
under-taking projects on development of PTGs on activities mainly focusing on their
food security literacy, agriculture technology up gradation, etc.
Post Matric Scholarships, Overseas Scholarships and Book Banks:-

The post-matric scholarship Scheme provides financial assistance to all ST students for
pursuance of post-matric studies in recognized institutions within India. The Scheme
provides for 100% assistance from the Ministry to State Governments and UT
Administrations implementing the Scheme, over and above their respective committed
liabilities. The Ministry also gives financial assistance for setting up Book-Banks in
institutions running professional courses like Medicine, Engineering, Law, Agriculture,
Veterinary, Chartered Accountancy, Business Management, and Bio-Sciences. Annually,
Ministry provides financial assistance to 9 meritorious ST students for Post-graduate,
Doctoral and Post-Doctoral studies in foreign universities/institutions of repute.

Up gradation of Merit and Coaching:-

These Schemes provide 100% central assistance to State/UT Administrations. The up
gradation of merit Scheme is for arranging coaching classes in reputed colleges for
developing competence among ST students for their better performance in competitive
examinations conducted by various universities institutes for admission to Medical and
Engineering courses while the Scheme for coaching is for conducting Pre-Examination
Coaching for tribal students for various examinations conducted by UPSC, SSC, Banking
Services Recruitment Boards etc.

Tribal Advisory Council (Tac) :-

Eight states having scheduled areas, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar (now Bihar &
Chhatisgarh), Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh (now Madhya
Pradesh and Chhatisgarh), Orissa & Rajasthan and two non-scheduled area states,
namely, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal have constituted tacs. The TAC consists of not
more than twenty-five members of whom as many as three-fourth members are scheduled
tribe representatives of the state legislative assembly.

The governor of the state may refer matters concerning to administration of welfare of
tribals to the TAC for recommendations. The ministry issues guidelines for TAC. As per
latest guidelines the TAC should meet at least twice a year and discuss the issues
concerning tribal interests and making appropriate recommendation for protection of
tribal interests.

Point 11(b) of 20-point Programme

The point 11 (b) of 20-point programme is to provide economic assistance to the

scheduled tribe families to enable them to rise above poverty line. The ST families are
assisted through various schemes implemented by departments of agriculture, rural
development, horticulture, animal husbandry, sericulture, forestry, small & cottage
industries, etc. The ministry fixes the targets for 22-states/ut s and also monitors the
progress of achievements on monthly basis. The officers of the ministry inspected more
than 75 projects in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Orissa,
West Bengal, Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.

Tribal Struggles:-
Numerous uprisings of the tribals have taken place beginning with the one in Bihar in
1772 followed by many revolts in Andhra Pradesh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
Arunchal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram and Nagaland.

The important tribes involved in revolt in the 19th century were Mizos (1810),
Kols(1795&1831), Mundas (1889), Daflas (1875), Khasi and Garo (1829), Kacharis
(1839), Santhals (1853), Muria Gonds (1886), Nagas (1844 & 1879) and Konds (1817).

After independence the tribal struggle may be classified into three groups:-

• Struggles due to exploitation of the outsiders.

• Struggles due to economic deprivations
• Struggle due to separatist tendencies
The tribal movements may also be classified on the basis of their orientation into four
types:
• Movements seeking political autonomy and formation of separate state.
• Agrarian movement
• Forest -based movements
• Socio-religious movements

Most of the tribal movements were result of oppression and discrimination, neglect and
backwardness and apathy of government towards tribal problems.

Tana Bhagat Movement:-

In the Tana Bhagat movement an attempt was made to emulate the way of life of the
Hindu higher castes. It emerged among the Oraon of Chotanagpur; Bihar.It tried to raise
the status of its members in the eyes of the surrounding Hindu society and was
characterized by a large scale incorporation of Hindu belief-practices into its ideology.

Birsa Munda Movement:-

During the second half of the 19th century the whole of Chotanagpur underwent a
tremendous change. The old Munda system of Khuntakatti tenure gave way to a new and
alien system of exploitation by the landlords known as jagirdar and thikadar.In 1895
Birsa Munda of Chalkad started a movement. In him the Munda found the embodiment
of their aspiration. He gave them leadership, a religion and a code of life. He held before
them the prospect of Munda Raj in place of foreign rule.

Tribal policy- Isolation, Assimilation and Integration:-

Historical Perspective –Isolation:-

The coexistence of fundamentally different culture patterns and styles of living has
always been a characteristic feature of the Indian stage.

Unlike most parts of the world, in India, the arrival of new immigrants and the spread of
their way of life did not necessarily cause the disappearance of earlier and materially less
advanced ethnic groups.

The old and the new co-existed. Such a consequence was partly due to the great size of
the sub-continent and dearth of communications. More important than this was an
attitude basic to Indian ideology, which accepted variety of cultural forms as natural and
immutable, and did not consider their assimilation to one dominant pattern in any way
desirable.

This does not mean, however, that none of the tribes ever became incorporated in the
systems of hierarchically ranked castes. Wherever economic necessity or encroachment
of their habitant by advanced communities led to continued inter-action between tribes
and Hindus, cultural distinctions were blurred, and what had once been self-contained
and more or less independent tribes gradually acquired the status of castes.

In many cases they entered caste systems at the lowest rung of the ladder. Some
untouchable castes of Southern India, such as the Cherumans and the Panyers of Kerala,
were undoubtedly at one time independent tribes, and in their physical characteristics
they still resemble neighboring tribal groups, which have remained outside the Hindu
society.

There are some exceptions, such as the Meitheis of Assam who achieved a position
comparable to that of Kshatriyas. Tribes who retained their tribal identity and resisted
inclusion within the Hindu fold fared on the whole better than the assimilated groups and
were not treated as untouchables, even if they indulged in such low-caste practices as
eating beef.

Thus the Raj Gond princes sacrificed and ate cows without thereby debasing their status
in the eyes of their Hindu neighbors, who recognized their social and cultural
separateness and did not insist on conformity to Hindu patterns of behavior.

This respect for the tribal way of life prevailed as long as contacts between tribes and
Hindu populations of open plains were of a casual nature. The tribal people, though
considered strange and dangerous, were taken for granted as part of the world of hills and
forests, and a more or less frictionless co-existence was possible, because there was no
population pressure and the advanced communities did not feel any urge to impose their
own values on people placed clearly outside the spheres of Hindu civilization.

This position remained unchanged during the Muslim period.

Now and then a military campaign extending for a short spell into the wilds of tribal
country would bring the inhabitants temporarily to the notice of princes and chroniclers,
but for long period the hill men and forest-dwellers were left to themselves. Under British
rule, however, a new situation arose.

The extension of a centralized administration over areas, which previously were outside
the effective control of princely rulers, deprived many aboriginal tribes of their
autonomy. Though British administrators had no intention of interfering with tribesmen's
rights and traditional manner of living, the very process of establishment of law and order
in outlying areas exposed the tribes to the pressure of more advanced populations.

Thus in areas which had previously been virtually un-administered and hence unsafe for
outsiders who did not enjoy the confidence and goodwill of the tribal inhabitants, traders
and money-lenders could now establish themselves under the protection of the British
administration and in many cases they were followed by settlers who succeeded in
acquiring large stretches of tribes' land.

Administrative officers who did not understand tribal system of land tenure introduced
uniform methods of revenue collection. But these had the un-intended effect of
facilitating the alienation of tribal land to members of advanced populations. Though it is
unlikely that British officials actively favored the latter at the expense of primitive
tribesmen, little was done to stem the rapid erosion of tribal rights to land.

In many areas tribals unable to resist the gradual alienation of their ancestral land, either
withdrew further into hills and tracts of marginal land, or accepted the economic status of
tenants or agricultural labourers on the land their forefathers had owned.

There were some tribes, however, who rebelled against an administration, which allowed
outsiders to deprive them of their land. In the Chhota Nagpur and the Santhal pargansas
such rebellions of desperate tribesmen recurred throughout the nineteenth century, and
there were minor risings in the Agency tracts of Madras and in some of the districts of
Bombay inhabited by Bhils. Thus the Santhals are believed to have lost about 10,000 men
in their rebellion of 1855.

None of these insurrections were aimed primarily at the British administration, but they
were a reaction to their exploitation and oppression by Hindu landlords and money-
lenders who had established themselves in tribal areas and were sheltered by a
Government which had instituted a system of land settlement and administration of
justice favoring the advanced communities at the expense of simple and illiterate tribes.

In some cases these rebellions led to official inquiries and to legislative enactments aimed
at protecting tribes' right to their land. Seen in historical perspective it appears that land
alienation laws had, on the whole, only a palliative effect. In most areas encroachment on
land held by tribes continued even in the face of protective legislation.
Assimilation of Tribals:-

Acceptance or denial of the necessity for assimilation with Hindu society is ultimately a
question of values. In the past, Hindu society had been tolerant of groups that would not
conform to the standards set by the higher castes.

True, such groups were denied equal ritual status; but no efforts were made to deflect
them from their chosen style of living.

In recent years this attitude has changed. Perhaps it is the influence of the Western belief
in universal values which has encouraged a spirit of intolerance vis-a-vis cultural and
social divergences. Yet India is not only a multilingual and multiracial country, but is also
multi-cultural. And as long as Muslims, Christians, and Parsis are free to follow their
traditional way of life, it would seem only fair that the culture and the social order of
tribes however distinct from that of the majority community should also be respected.

Assimilation, of course, will occur automatically and inevitably where small tribal groups
are enclosed within numerically stronger Hindu populations. In other areas, however, and
particularly all along India's northern and north-eastern frontier live vigorous tribal
populations which resist assimilation as well as inclusion within Hindu caste system.
Democratic Decentralization and Tribals:-
With the introduction of a system of democratic decentralization to take the place of
paternalism characteristic of traditional form of Indian government, a new element has
entered the relations between tribes and the more advanced majority communities.

The ability to vote in general elections for the Parliament in Delhi and the Legislative
Assembly of their respective States did not make much difference to tribals, because they
did not understand the implication of the franchise, but the local elections aroused their
interest to a much greater extent. The very fact, that some of the most powerful people of
the district approached the poorest villagers for their votes and tried to gain their
confidence, convinced them of a fundamental change.

The very idea that they could choose their representatives was novel. At first, tribals only
voted, for non-tribals, for very few were sufficiently educated to stand for election. Even
in areas with a preponderance of tribals, the elected representatives were often non-tribes
and abused their powers by exploiting those who had voted for them. But as time passed
and the tribes gained experience, they have become shrewder in the choice of their
representatives.

The Government of India has adopted a policy of integration of tribals with the
mainstream aiming at developing a creative adjustment between the tribes and non tribes
leading to a responsible partnership. By adopting the policy of integration or progressive
acculturation the Government has laid the foundation for the uninhibited march of the
tribals towards equality, upward mobility, and economic viability and assured proximity
to the national mainstream.
The constitution has committed the nation to two courses of action in respect of
scheduled tribes,viz
• Giving protection to their distinctive way of life

• Protecting them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation and discrimination
and bringing them at par with the rest of the nation so that they may be integrated with
the national life.

Thus by the Constitution Order 1950 issued by the President of India in exercise of
powers conferred by Clause9 (i) of Article 342 of the Constitution of India 255 tribes in
17 states were declared to be scheduled tribes. Besides enjoying the rights that all citizens
and minorities have the member of the Scheduled Tribes have been provided with special
safeguards as follows:

Protective Safeguards :-

• Educational safeguards-Article 15(4) and 29

• Safeguards for employment -Articles 16(4), 320(4) and 333
• Economic safeguards -Article 19
• Abolition of bonded labour -Article 23
• Protection from social injustice and all forms of exploitation -Article 46
Political Safeguards :-

• Reservation of seats for ST in LokSabha and Assemblies-Article 330,332,164

• Appointment of Minister in charge of Tribal welfare
• Special provisions in respect of Nagaland,Assam and Manipur -Articles-371(A),371(B)
and 371

Developmental Safeguards :-

• Promoting the educational and economic interests of the Scheduled Tribes-Articles 46

• Grants from Central Government to the states for welfare of Scheduled Tribes and
raising the level of administration of Scheduled Areas-Article 75.

Following the reorganization of states, the list of STs was modified by the Scheduled
Castes and Tribes List (Modification) order, 1956 on the recommendations of the
Backward Classes Commission. In the revised list 414 tribes were declared STs.Since the
revision of the list in 1956 there have been several proposals for fresh inclusions and
deletion from the lists of the SC and STs

Civil Services Examination Strategy For Sociology

Paper I:-
For short notes, these are the important sections in paper I:
· Sociology - The Discipline
· Scientific Study of Social Phenomena
· Techniques of data collection and analysis
· Economic System
· Political System
· Educational System
· Science & Technology
To prepare for the long questions in paper I, students are required to thoroughly
prepare Pioneering contributions to Sociology. This includes
· Karl Marx: Historical materialism, mode of production, alienation and class
struggle.
 · Emile Durham: Division of labour, social fact, religion and society.
· Max Weber: Social action, ideal types, authority, bureaucracy, protestant ethic
and the spirit of capitalism.
· Talcott Parsons: Social system, pattern variables.
· Robert K Merton: Latent and manifest functions, anomie, conformity and
deviance, reference groups.
While revising Pioneering contributions to Sociology', students need to focus on
areas like socio-economic and political background, views of thinkers, their analysis,
contemporary perspective and evolution. The section on `Pioneering contributions to
Sociology' is the most important part of paper I. It helps to understand the theoretical
inferences of paper II. So, if you are thorough with this section, it will be easier for
candidates to get a gist of sections like Social Stratification, Economic System,
Political System, Educational System, Social Movements and Social Change and
Development.

Candidates are required to understand argumentative aspect of thinkers like Karl

Marx, Emile Durham, Max Weber, Talcott Parsons, Robert K Merton, with an eye to
use their arguments in other sections of paper I. The theoretical inference of these
thinkers need to be carried forward in paper II wherever required.

For long questions, students need to focus on topics such as Pioneering Contributions
to Sociology, Marriage and Family, Social Stratification and Mobility, Political
System, Social Movements and Social Change and Development. Students who can
thoroughly focus on these sections are expected to answer 70% of queries in paper I.
They should, however, have an overall view of the paper with focus on emerging
trends like education, religion and economic developments.

Paper II:-
While preparing for this paper, students should ensure that they should not confine
their preparation in terms of different sections. They need to focus on interrelation
between different topics. Students need to have an analytical eye with focus on
continuity and change. Like, despite so many changes, why caste system is still
prevalent in our country. Or, despite the break-up of the joint family system, the
mentality of joint family still exists among Indians.

For short notes, the important sections are:

· Historical Moorings of the Indian Society
· Class Structure
· Marriage, Family and Kinship
· Education
· Political System
· Population Dynamics
 · Social Movements
· Social Problems
For long questions, the important sections are:
· Caste System
· Class Structure
· Agrarian Social Structure
· Industry and Society
· Political Processes
· Tribal Societies
· Social Change
· Social Movements
· Women and Society
Apart from these, students need to keep an eye on sections like Caste System,
Agrarian Social Structure and Tribal Societies. You can always have short or long
questions from these three sections. Paper II actually works like mathematics and it is
a high-scoring paper.

There are many topics in paper II which seem to be essay-type. But in Sociology,
they need to be approached through sociological perspectives. Suppose you are asked
a question on poverty, this can have theoretical inferences. You need to give
empirical or sociological or case studies examples to analyse the topics.

Writing Short notes:-

You need to directly start answering the question. Avoid flowery language with an
eye on all perspectives while answering the question

Long questions:-
Perspectives which have been asked needs to be kept in view while answering the
question. Theoretical dimension are to be substantiated with analysis.

PREVIOUS YEAR PAPERS:-

Sociology Preliminary Examination 2003 - Solved (Series - D)

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1). The National Commission for Women was set up as a national level
statutory body to
(a) review the constitutional and legal safeguards for women
(b) eradicate gender disparities
(c) abolish gender bias against women
(d) improve the status of women

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(A)

2). Which of the following characteristics distinguishes man from the other (C
animals? )
(a) Ability to stand erect
(b) Ability to adapt to the environment
(c) Ability to make tools
(d) Ability to live in a group

3). The biological capacity to reproduce is usually called (d

(a) Fertility (b) Celibacy )
(c) Infecundity (d) Fecundity

4). Consider the following statements : (d

Political modernisation goes hand in hand with )
1. illiteracy
2. political participation
3. urbanisation
4. use of mass media
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4

5). Consider the following statements : (d

Authority consists of )
1. legitimacy
2. qualification
3. power
4. regularity
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4

6). Consider the following factors : (d

1. Seasonal migration )
2. Weekly commutation
3. Change of residence on permanent or at least semi-permanent basis
4. Being away from the place of normal residence during the entire period of
Census count
Which of these is/ are the determining factor(s) in defining a migrant in the
Indian Census?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 4 only

7). There is freedom of association between members of all strata including (a

intermarriage and equalitarian social relations in )
(a) open-class (b) open-ethnic
(c) closed-caste (d) closed-estate

8). Disparity in income levels of different economic entities are measured on (d

(a) Supply curve (b) Demand curve )
(c) Cost curve (d) Lorez curve
Directions :
The following 14 (fourteen) items consist of two statements, one labelled as
the ‘Assertion (A)’ and the other as ‘Reason (R)’. You are to examine these
two statements carefully and select the answers to these items using the codes
given below :
Codes :
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the correct explanation of
A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

9). Assertion (A) : (a

The father who has to be the loving parent, faces the problem of role-strain )
because he finds it necessary to discipline his son with stern measures.
Reason (R) :
Role-strain is a feeling of difficulty or stress in fulfilling the demands of one’s
role obligations.

10). Assertion (A) : (b

Durkheim observed that crime is an integral part of all ‘healthy societies’. )
Reason (R) :
All deviant acts are not criminal.

11). Assertion (A) : (b

The importance of work as well as its frequency is not going to experience a )
considerable decline in the society of the future.
Reason (R) :
Wages or the money that people need for sustenance will be based on flexi-
time

12). Assertion (A) : (A

Socially sanctioned sex gratification is a basis for marriage )
Reason (R) :
Marriage regulates sexual relations between individuals.

13). Assertion (A) : (A

Secondary groups are more influential in industrial society than in tribal and )
agrarian societies.
Reason (R) :
Industrial society has more technical and complex system

14). Assertion (A) : (b

Urbanisation refers to the process whereby people are influenced by the )
values, behaviour, institutions and material things that are products of the city.
Reason (R) :
The city is considered as a dynamic source of change that produces a complex,
heterogeneous and highly specialised social organisation.

15). Assertion (A) : (b

The forces, making for industrialisation, work to the detriment of religion. )
Reason (R) :
Religion is an internal attitude which is not easily amenable to observation and
measure.

16). Assertion (A) : (c

The death rate among the Korkus in Amaravathi district of Maharashtra is very )
high due to a certain genetic defect.
Reason (R) :
The tribe suffers from sickle cell disease which reduces the immunity of the
tribals.

17). Assertion (A) : (c

In order to survive, an authoritarian State resorts to repression, permanent )
mobilization and manipulation.
Reason (R) :
In an authoritarian State, the bureaucratic apparatus becomes responsive to the
needs of the masses.

18). Assertion (A) : (a

In post-independent India, Dalits have gained political protection but their )
socio-economic progress is not satisfactory.
Reason (R) :
Indian society is a caste-ridden society where only certain caste-groups can
have social and economic domination.

19). Assertion (A) : (b

In village India, factions are hardly based on caste. )
Reason (R) :
In spite of changes in the actions, strategies and rules of the game, clash of
personal interests is the real cause of factionalism.

20). Assertion (A) : (a

Electronics, automobiles and other means of modern transport have brought )
significant changes in the social relationships among the human beings.
Reason (R) :
Science and technology have affected the attitudes, values and behaviours of
people across the societies.

21). Assertion (A) : (a

All cities are growing rapidly. Nearly 40 per cent of the population is below 20 )
years of age and 48 per cent are adults between 20 and 49 years.
Reason (R) :
Land degradation together with other social and economic factors has also led
to greater immiserisation of the peasantry prompting greater labour mobility to
urban areas.

22). Assertion (A) : (d

Poverty in Indian rural families is due to too much technology introduced in the )
post-independence India.
Reason (R) :
Indian rural masses are not able to cope with complexities of modern
technology due to their illiteracy and traditional ways of life.

23). Match List I (Scholar) with List II (Views on Family) and select the (d
correct answer using the codes given below the Lists : )
List-I List-II
(Scholar) (Views on Family)
A. Morgan 1. In the beginning of human society, there was neither family nor
marriage
B. Westermark 2. Family was the outcome of male possessiveness
C. Briffault 3. The supreme authority of mother in all family matters
D. Murdock 4. Family is a multifunctional institution
Codes :
ABCD
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 3 4 1 2
(c) 1 4 3 2
(d) 3 2 1 4

24). Consider the following statements : (a

1. Modern political systems combine power and authority as they are needed to )
regulate public affairs.
2. Power and authority are two different things. Power is the capacity of the
individual to take independent actions while authority goes with office;
officials cannot take action without authority.
3. Power and authority are one and the same. They go together.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3

25). Consider the following statements : (c

1. Equal access to property, power and prestige ends up in social stratification. )
2. Differential access to property, power and prestige ends up in social
stratification.
3. Unequal access to property, power and prestige ends up in social
stratification.
Which of these statements is/ are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3

26). Who pointed out that social stratification is needed to ensure effective role (d
allocation and role performance? )
(a) Moore and Parsons (b) Davis and Parsons
(c) Parsons and Weber (d) Davis and Moore

27). Which one of the following represents a form of differentiation and not (d
stratification? )
(a) Class (b) Gender
(c) Caste (d) Sex

28). Consider the following statements : (c

Functionalist theory of stratification states that )
1. social stratification is a necessity.
2. every society must select among individual members to fill a wide variety of
social positions.
3. in order to attract the most talented individuals to each position, society must
set up a system of differential rewards.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 2

*Questions 29 to 39 are missing

40). Which of the following sectors of economic activities will be (d

predominantly found in the post-industrial societies ? )
(a) Primary sector
(b) Primary and secondary sectors
(c) Territory sector
(d) Secondary and tertiary sectors

41). Who coined the term ‘folk-urban continuum’? (b

(a) R. E. Park (b) R. Redfield )
(c) R. Dahrendorf (d) B. K. Malinowski

42). The monetary authority in India is the (b

(a) State Bank of India )
(b) Reserve Bank of India
(c) Planning Commission
(d) Ministry of Finance

43). Which one of the following is known as human capital? (c

(a) Returns on industry )
(b) Returns on savings
(c) Returns on education
(d) Returns on business

44). Which one of the following is a process, by which parts of the middle class (b
become effectively absorbed into the working class? )
(a) Embourgeoisement (b) Proletarianization
(c) Alienation (d) Homogenization

45). There is a dispute between management and the workers in a factory over (d
wages and working conditions. The management and the representatives of the )
workers try their best to resolve the dispute through dialogue across the table.
In spite of their best efforts they do not succeed in resolving the dispute
resulting in the intervention by the government.
The above event involves two methods of resolving industrial disputes. These
are
(a) Conciliation and adjudication
(b) Arbitration and collective bargaining
(c) Adjudication and arbitration
(d) Collective bargaining and conciliation

46). Who among the following said that “Industries are the Temples of Modern (b
India”? )
(a) Ambedkar (b) Jawaharlal Nehru
(c) Mahatma Gandhi (d) S. Radhakrishnan

47). Match List I (Institution) with List II (People) and select the correct (c
answer using the codes given below the Lists : )
List-I List-II
(Institution) (People)
A. Potlatch 1. Naga
B. Genna 2. Trobrianders
C. Kula 3. Haithians
D. Pratik 4. Kwakiutl
5. Javanese
Codes :
ABCD
(a) 4 2 5 3
(b) 3 1 2 4
(c) 4 1 2 3
(d) 3 2 5 4

48). Price mechanism means (c

(a) Price manipulation by producers )
(b) Price manipulation by consumers
(c) Spontaneous play of market forces which determines prices
(d) Regulated market

49). Crony capitalism is dominated by (c

(a) Medium scale industries )
(b) Powerful business families
(c) Partnership companies
(d) Group of powerful land owners practising mechanized farming

50). Match List I (Concepts) with List II (Scholars) and select the correct (a
answer using the codes given below the Lists : )
List-I List-II
(Concepts) (Scholars)
A. Homo Ecologicus 1. Patrick Geddes
B. Village as a republic 2. Charles Metcalff
C. Conubation 3. T. Veblen
D. Conspicuous 4. Robert Park
consumption
Codes :
ABCD
(a) 1 2 4 3
(b) 4 3 1 2
(c) 1 3 4 2
(d) 4 2 1 3

51). The term ‘Gentrification’ is applied to the kind of urban growth (b

(a) When migrants from abroad start living )
(b) Where there is urban revival of stylish neighbourhood
(c) Where marginalised groups begin to live
(d) Where elderly people live

52). Consider the following concepts : (b

1. Culture of poverty )
2. Urbanism as a way of life
3. Sector theory
4. Folk-urban continuum
5. Global city
The correct chronological sequence of the above concepts is
(a) 1, 3, 2, 5, 4 (b) 3, 1, 2, 4, 5
(c) 3, 2, 4, 1, 5 (d) 1, 3, 2, 4, 5

53). What is the first and foremost criterion for defining ‘town’? (b
(a) Density of population )
(b) Higher percentage of employment in non-agricultural activities
(c) High literacy rate
(d) Presence of slums

54). The term ‘Ghetto’ refers to a slum in a city, consisting of members (b

belonging to the same ethnic community. It was originally applied to which )
one of the following ethnic settlements?
(a) A settlement of Asians in London
(b) A settlement of Jews in Europe
(c) A settlement of Chinese in Los Angeles
(d) A settlement of Italians in the U.S.A.

55). Match List I (Industry) with List II (Characteristic) and select the correct (a
answer using the codes given below the Lists : )
List-I List-II
(Industry) (Characteristic)
A. Textile 1. Capital intensive
B. Petroleum industry 2. Labour intensive
C. Banking industry 3. Flexible
D. Dot Com industry 4. Services
Codes :
ABCD
(a) 2 1 4 3
(b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 2 3 4 1
(d) 4 1 2 3

56). Consider the following statements : (b

Social demography focuses on the relationships among )
1. the size and spatial distribution of a population.
2. the age and sex composition
3. the types and forms of social structures such as clans, families and extended
kinship groups.
4. the forms or structural features of social institutions
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

57). The population age pyramid of India is broad-based and conforms to a (b

population of an underdeveloped country showing )
(a) large proportion of young and child population
(b) large proportion of younger and smaller proportion of aged persons
(c) large proportion of child and adult population
(d) large proportion of aged persons and child population

58). Match List I (Mortality and Fertility in India) with List II (Stages of (b
Population Growth) and select the correct answer using the codes given below )
the Lists:
List-I List-II
(Mortality and Fertility (Stage of Population in India) Growth)
A. Mortality and fertility 1. Approaching low were very high before stationary
stage 1921
B. Fertility remained at a 2. Late expanding very high level but stage mortality
started to decline after 1921
C. Fertility started to 3. Early expanding decline but mortality stage declined
sharply between 1971-81
D. Mortality has remained 4. High stationary steady at a very low level since
1986 but fertility continues to decline slowly
5. Declining stage
Codes :
ABCD
(a) 2 1 5 3
(b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 2 3 5 1
(d) 4 1 2 3

59). Class-I towns in India are growing at a higher rate than that of towns of (b
smaller size. These towns alone constitute )
(a) Less than 50% of total urban population of India
(b) More than 60% of total urban population of India
(c) More than 40% of total urban population of India
(d) More than 70% of total urban population of India

60). Match List I (Rate) with List II (Measure) and select the correct answer (d
using the codes given below the Lists : )
List-I List-II
(Rate) (Measure)
A. Fertility rate 1. Push and pull hypothesis
B. Mortality rate 2. Child-woman ratio
C. Migration 3. Economic dependency ratio
D. Activity rate 4. Crude death rate
5. Crude marriage rate
Codes :
ABCD
(a) 3 4 1 2
(b) 2 1 5 3
(c) 3 1 5 2
(d) 2 4 1 3

61). Which one of the following defines sequential migration? (c

(a) A body of migrants having common area of origin and common area of )
destination
(b) Children and wives migrate to follow their parents and husbands
(c) Migration of population from subsistence sectors to capitalist sectors of
economy
(d) Migration of population after severe political disturbances or natural
calamities

62). Which one of the following is the main cause of the fact that a sizeable (b
section of the population remains below poverty line in India? )
(a) Socio-political disturbances exert pressure on overall social-economic
development
(b) Population grows at a faster rate than the rate of capital formation
(c) Country’s economy is basically dependent on agriculture
(d) The ratio of workers to total population is considerably low

63). The long-term objective of the Indian National Population Policy is to (d

stabilize population by the year )
(a) 2010 (b) 2055
(c) 2035 (d) 2045

64). Match List I (Theories) with List II (Thinkers) and select the correct (b
answer using the codes given below the Lists : )
List-I List-II
(Theories) (Thinkers)
A. Historical materialism 1. Pareto
B. Circulation of elite 2. Marx
C. Survival of the fittest 3. Spencer
D. Definite, coherent and 4. Darwin heterogenous
5. Malthus
Codes :
ABCD
(a) 3 4 5 2
(b) 2 1 4 3
(c) 3 1 4 2
(d) 2 4 5 3

65). The principle that it is functionally necessary for power to come eventually (a
into the hands of a small group of people is known as )
(a) Iron law of oligarchy
(b) Circulation of elites
(c) Fascism
(d) Democracy

66). Consider the following statements : (d

Centralisation of authority goes hand in hand with )
1. acephalous society.
2. division of labour in society.
3. rationalisation of social life.
4. rule-based system.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4

67). A tribal chief enjoys (c

(a) Rational-legal authority )
(b) Charismatic authority
(c) Traditional authority
(d) Magical authority

68). Man, for the first time, became tool maker during the (a
(a) Palaeolithic age (b) Mesolithic age )
(c) Chalcolithic age (d) Neolithic age

69). Which one of the following is an integration of matter and concomitant (b

dissipation of motion, during which matter passes from a definite coherent )
homogeneity to an indefinite incoherent heterogeneity?
(a) Development (b) Evolution
(c) Growth (d) Progress

70). Auguste Comte maintained that human knowledge passed through three (a
major stages, which are : positive, metaphysical, theological. )
Identify the correct order of their emergence using the codes given below:
(a) Theological, Metaphysical, Positive
(b) Metaphysical, Theological, Positive
(c) Theological, Positive, Metaphysical
(d) Positive, Theological, Metaphysical

71). Consider the following statements about culture : (c

1. Each culture is holistic. )
2. Culture complex is the smallest unit of culture.
3. Culture is shared by the members of a given group.
4. Physical and biological features of people are determined by culture.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 4

72). Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes (a
given below the Lists : )
List-I List-II
A. Edward B. Tyler 1. Magic, Science and Religion
B. Bronislaw Malinowski 2. The Science of Culture : A study of Man and
Civilization
C. Leslie White 3. The Sociology of Subcultures
D. David O. Arnold 4. Primitive Culture
5. The Human Mind
Codes :
ABCD
(a) 4 1 2 3
(b) 2 3 5 1
(c) 4 3 2 1
(d) 2 1 5 3

73). According to Linton, which of the following classes of traits are found in a (b
culture? )
(a) Specialities, alternatives and configurations
(b) Universals, specialists and alternatives
(c) Configurations, universals and patterns
(d) Alternatives, patterns and configurations

74). When the members of a group have a belief that they are in some way (b
superior to all who are members of other groups, it is a case of )
(a) Ethnicity (b) Ethnocentrism
(c) Ethnic group (d) Ego-centrism

75). A peaceful co-existence of distinct ethnic groups in a society is called (d

(a) Integration (b) Assimilation )
(c) Amalgamation (d) Cultural pluralism
76). When a whole way of life is in the process of change under the influence (c)
of another culture, we call it
(a) Acculturation (b) Diffusion
(c) Assimilation (d) Socialization

77). Match List I (Types of Social Action) with List II (Example) and select the (d
correct answer using the codes given below the Lists : )
List-I List-II
(Type of Social Action) (Example)
A. Emotional 1. Clive conquered India with Indian soldiers
B. Strategic 2. Country is above everything else
C. Traditional 3. A fair is held on the bank of a river every year
D. Value oriented 4. He gave his life to save a life he loved
5. Rain drops are falling on the roof
Codes :
ABCD
(a) 3 1 5 2
(b) 4 2 3 1
(c) 3 2 5 1
(d) 4 1 3 2

78). Consider the following statements : (d

Modernisation brings about domination of modern cultural influences and )
changes the traditions by
1. abolishing tribalism.
2. enforcing legal norms.
3. raising incomes.
4. strengthening the authority of the State.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4

79). A pattern of behaviour organized around specific rights and duties that are (a
associated with a particular social position is called )
(a) Role (b) Status
(c) Prestige (d) Power

80). Which one of the following terms is used for the argument that ‘there is no (c
superior international or universal morality; that the moral and ethical rules of )
all cultures deserve equal respect.?
(a) Cultural parallelism
(b) Ethnocentrism
(c) Cultural relativism
(d) Cultural determinism
81). The habitual way of doing things by a group or society is called (d)
(a) Norm (b) Value
(c) Law (d) Custom

82). Match List I (Authors) with List II (Concepts) and select the correct (a
answer using the codes given below the Lists : )
List-I List-II
(Authors) (Concepts)
A. W. F. Ogburn 1. Role-set
B. T. Parsons 2. Ethnocentrism
C. R.K. Merton 3. Folk ways
D. W. G. Summer 4. Social system
5. Cultural lag
Codes :
ABCD
(a) 5 4 1 3
(b) 1 3 2 4
(c) 5 3 1 4
(d) 1 4 2 3

83). A society which achieves social unity through a complex of highly (b

specialized roles is based on )
(a) Intimate social relationship
(b) Organic solidarity
(c) Mechanical solidarity
(d) Dependency

84). Match List I (Concepts) with List II (Characteristics) and select the correct (d
answer using the codes given below the Lists : )
List-I List-II
(Concepts) (Characteristics)
A. Ethnocentrism 1. Items of a culture, beliefs, values and typical ways of
doing things
B. Cultural lag 2. Division of labour, the incest taboo, marriage, the family, rite
de passage and ideology
C. Cultural universals 3. The tendency to judge other cultures in terms of one’s
own customs and values
D. Cultural traits 4. A situation that develops when new patterns of behaviour
conflict with traditional values
5. The reaction people may have when encountering cultural traditions different
from their own
Codes :
ABCD
(a) 2 4 5 1
(b) 3 1 2 4
(c) 2 1 5 4
(d) 3 4 2 1

85). Consider the following statements : (d

The dangers of ethnocentrism are very grave in India. Efforts of bringing unity )
among people of India are defeated because ethnocentrism
1. involves a double moral standard— one for in-group and another for out-
group
2. distorts ‘self’ and originality of every individual.
3. makes individuals to look at the culture of out-groups with hatred and even
contempt.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3

86). Any small group marked by continuous close interaction of a highly (b

personal and emotionally supportive nature is called )
(a) Reference group (b) Primary group
(c) Interest group (d) Secondary group

87). The behaviour that departs significantly from the values, norms and (c
folkways of a society is called )
(a) Determinism (b) Discrimination
(c) Deviance (d) Dysfunction

88). Social relationship involves (c

(a) Co-operation )
(b) Conflict
(c) Co-operation and conflict
(d) Face to face contact

89). Erik Erikson has identified eight stages of man from birth to old age. What (b
is the key feature of Erik Erikson’s delineation of eight stages of man? )
(a) Social development of self
(b) Development of psychological insight
(c) One’s own understanding of self-development
(d) Other’s understanding of one’s development of self

90). Relative deprivation is the basis of (c

(a) Looking glass self-theory )
(b) Psycho-analytical theory
(c) Reference group theory
(d) Cultural relativism
91). Match List I (Books) with List II (Authors) and select the correct answer (b)
using the codes given below the Lists :
List-I List-II
(Books) (Authors)
A. Social Structure 1. J. G. Frazer
B. The Golden Bough 2. G. P. Mardock
C. Origin of Civilisation 3. R. Briffault
D. The Mothers 4. J. Lubbock
5. T. Veblen
Codes :
ABCD
(a) 4 3 5 1
(b) 2 1 4 3
(c) 4 1 5 3
(d) 2 3 4 1

92). Consider the following statements : (c

A bureaucratic structure is marked by the following features : )
1. It is a hierarchical organisation.
2. Applicable to large-scale organisation requiring specialisation.
3. Individual accountability is lost in a bureaucratic organisation
Which of these statements are correct ?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3

93). A group organized on the basis of the common ancestry of its members is (d
called )
(a) Primary group (b) Secondary group
(c) In-group (d) Descent group

94). The term ‘Couvade’ refers to a (c

(a) husband practising magic during the pregnancy period of his wife )
(b) husband looking after the first child during the second delivery of his wife
(c) husband leading the life of an invalid during the post-delivery period of his
wife
(d) husband leading the life of a priest performing rituals for safe delivery for
his wife

95). Consider the following statements : (a

In Indian kinship terminology, the terms referring to the ‘ego’ signify )
1. relationships of sibling’s generation.
2. relationships arising out of marriage.
3. descent relationships between the preceding and succeeding generations.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3

96). Match List I (Residence) with List II (Residing With) and select the (d
correct answer using the codes given below the Lists : )
List-I List-II
(Residence) (Residing With)
A. Uxorilocal residence 1. Bride’s maternal uncle
B. Virilocal residence 2. Bridegroom’s parents
C. Avunculocal 3. Bride’s parents
D. Bilocal residence 4. Bride’s elder sister
5. Bride’s or bridegroom’s relatives
Codes :
ABCD
(a) 5 2 1 3
(b) 3 1 4 5
(c) 5 1 4 3
(d) 3 2 1 5

97). Which one of the following Acts removed the restriction on gotra (c
marriage? )
(a) The Hindu Marriage Validity Act, 1949
(b) The Special Marriage Act, 1954
(c) The Hindu Marriage Disabilities Removal Act, 1946
(d) The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

98). Ultimogeniture is the rule whereby (b

(a) The first-born child succeeds to the estate of the father/ mother )
(b) the last-born child succeeds to the estate of the father/ mother
(c) the surviving descendant takes over the family property
(d) the sons claim absolute rights over the family property excluding the
daughters

99). The correct order of the main objectives of marriage in the traditional (d
Hindu Society is )
(a) Praja, Rati and Dharma
(b) Rati, Dharma and Praja
(c) Dharma, Rati and Praja
(d) Dharma, Praja and Rati

100). Consider the following statements : (a

In a pre-modern political system, leaders win support for exercising authority )
through
1. benefiting followers with their success.
2. causing secession in the ranks of opponents
(d) 1 2 4 5

101). (b
)

102). (b
)

103). (c
)

104). (b
)

105). (b
)

106). Consider the following statements : (d

A caste is said to be dominant when it )
1. is numerically preponderant.
2. claims ritual purity.
3. is politically powerful.
4. owns most of the land in a village.
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

107). Which of the following Articles in the Constitution of India explicitly (b

guarantee the protection of the interest of minorities in India? )
(a) Articles 27 and 28
(b) Articles 29 and 30
(c) Articles 31 and 32
(d) Articles 33 and 34

108). What percentage of women beneficiaries has been targeted under the (a
Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)? )
(a) 35% (b) 15%
(c) 20% (d) 30%

109). Which one of the following Schedules of the Constitution of India (d

mentions the laws whose validity cannot be questioned before any court on the )
ground of their alleged inconsistency with the Fundamental Rights?
(a) IXth Schedule
(b) VIIIth Schedule
(c) VIIth Schedule
(d) VIth Schedule

110). Article 332 deals with (b

(a) Reservation of seats for SCs and STs in the House of People )
(b) Reservation of seats for SCs and STs in Legislative Assemblies of States
(c) Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after thirty years
(d) Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the Lok Sabha

111). Which of the following Articles of the Constitution of India makes (a

provision for educational advancement of the Scheduled Tribes by reserving )
seats in educational institutions, grating scholarships etc.?
(a) Article 15(4) (b) Article 16(4)
(c) Article 330 and 332 (d) Article 339(1)

112). Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes (b

under the Constitution of India is provided in )
(a) the Preamble
(b) The Directive Principles
(c) The Eighth Schedule
(d) Article 18

113). Match List I (Scholar) with List II (Theory of Change) and select the (d
correct answer using the codes given below the Lists : )
List-I List-II
(Scholar) (Theory of Change)
A. Karl Marx 1. Organic theory
B. Herbert Spencer 2. Cyclical theory
C. Spengler 3. Dialectical materialism
4. Social contract theory
Codes :
ABC
(a) 4 1 2
(b) 3 2 1
(c) 4 2 1
(d) 3 1 2

114). Who among the following emphasized the role of Charismatic (c

Leadership in social change? )
(a) Sorokin
(b) Pareto
(c) Max Weber
(d) Rajani Kothari

115). Consider the following theories : (b

1. Comte’s theory of positivism )
2. Durkheim’s theory of division of labour
3. Spencer’s theory of organic analogy
The correct chronological sequence of the above theories is
(a) 1-2-3 (b) 1-3-2
(c) 3-1-2 (d) 2-1-3

116). Ogburn’s idea that change first occurs in the material technology is (b
borrowed )
(a) directly from Marx and indirectly from Saint Simon and Condorcet
(b) directly from Saint Simon and indirectly from Marx
(c) directly from Condorcet and indirectly from Marx
(d) directly from Gabriel Tarde

117). Consider the following : (a

1. Collective action )
2. Leadership
3. ideology
4. Restoration of equilibrium
5. Interest
Features concerning a social movement are
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5
(b) 2, 3, 4 and 5
(c) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(d) 1, 4 and 5

118). Which one of the following pairs is correctly matched? (c

(a) Backward Caste : Behramji Malabari Movement )
(b) Women Movement : Government of India Act, 1935
(c) Social Reforms : Ramakrishna Movement Mission
(d) Bhakti Movement : Annie Besant

119). Opposition to which one of the following was the primary goal of the (a
Kheda Movement of Gujarat (1919)? )
(a) Taxes
(b) Sudden price rise
(c) Money lending class
(d) Unpaid forced labour

120). Consider the following : (c

1. Ancient society )
2. Feudal society
3. Primitive society
4. Asiatic society
According to Karl Marx, the correct evolutionary sequence of the above
societies is
(a) 1-2-3-4 (b) 2-1-3-4
(c) 3-1-2-4 (d) 1-3-4-2