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Critical Interventions: Journal of African Art

History and Visual Culture
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Contemporary Art in Mozambique: Reshaping

Artistic National Canons
Vanessa Díaz Rivas
Published online: 26 Aug 2014.

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To cite this article: Vanessa Díaz Rivas (2014) Contemporary Art in Mozambique: Reshaping Artistic
National Canons, Critical Interventions: Journal of African Art History and Visual Culture, 8:2, 160-175, DOI:
10.1080/19301944.2014.940751

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 CONTEMPORARY ART IN MOZAMBIQUE: RESHAPING ARTISTIC NATIONAL
CANONS
Vanessa Díaz Rivas
Since the start of the twenty-first century,
profound changes have begun to emerge in the
realm of the production and exhibition of visual
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arts in Mozambique. A new movement of artists
called MUVART (Movimento de Arte Contempo-
r^
anea de Moç ambique) have worked to imple-
ment new visual strategies in artistic production.
Defining themselves as artistas contempor^ aneos
(contemporary artists), they hope to expand the
possibilities for the fine arts in Mozambique.
Their work is characterized by a strong concep-
tual emphasis, as well as the use of materials and
techniques formerly mostly unknown in Mozam-
bique. Such artworks themselves required novel
modes of presentation, and have raised questions
and challenges at the curatorial level. With these
new initiatives, MUVART have set themselves
apart from what they consider to be traditional
Mozambican art. In this case, they consider tradi-
tional art as marked by certain aesthetic values
that are strongly linked to the political develop-
ments in the country, the beginning of the strug-
gle for independence and the search for a
Mozambican identity. In effect, they have thrown
up questions and assumptions about local artistic
production, theory and curatorial practices, thus
creating new reference points for discussing and
evaluating fine arts, both within the circle of
MUVART and in other artistic arenas.
In this article I examine the developments of
the art world in Mozambique over the last
12 years, since the group MUVART heralded the
term “Arte Contempor^ anea” as an aesthetic cate-
gory. Definitions of what qualifies as “art” and
Ó 2014 Critical Interventions: Journal of African Art History and Visual Culture
the societal and political function of “art” peren-
nially inspire intense debate in Mozambique.
Thus, I seek the locally driven definition of con-
temporary art in Mozambique in its content and
function, and in relation to the contours of inter-
national discourse. Furthermore, I want to ask to
what extent these international aesthetic dis-
courses are brought to bear in these local debates,
on individual and collective modes of art produc-
tion. New configurations and structures that have
evolved in recent years, which may collide with
presumed “global” sense of the art world, its
modes and activities, are at stake. Nevertheless, I
would like to approach these questions from the
ever-shifting perspectives of the local.1 As we will
see, the denomination and evaluation of art in
Mozambique, ascribing content and meaning, is
very much an active field. Its various contributors
critics, artists, curators and scholars have
engaged in an ongoing contested and controver-
sial discussion about what art should be, and dur-
ing this engagement they have contributed to the
development and affirmation of the arts in
Mozambique. Arts have been described in terms
such as “national,” “traditional,” “modern,”
“Mozambican” and “contemporary,” sometimes
creating dualistic models dichotomizing between
“we” and the “others” and between “local” and
“international.” Owing to the political history of
the country, marked by a very long colonization
period and two wars, studies of the emergence
and development of the arts are far from straight-
forward. Thus my discussion of the development
of contemporary art in Mozambique is inherently
Critical Interventions 8, Issue 2 2014

a wider conversation in flux, and which extends
beyond its national borders.
Here I begin to taking up the term Arte Con-
tempor^ anea, referring to the specific Mozambican
art movement that has developed with strong
roots in Maputo since the beginning of the 2000s
and which provides very concrete parameters for
art production, presentation, and dissemination.
I first describe the precedent of trade shows that
led to the creation of the artist association
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MUVART, and the politics that have governed
the creation of the group. Next, I discuss the
changes that have occurred on the level of artistic
production and presentation since the group offi-
cially introduced Arte Contempor^ anea as an aes-
thetic category. The term Arte Contempor^ anea is
used to label an art in Mozambique that is pro-
duced within certain aesthetic parameters, which
the group presented in a manifesto distributed in
2003.2 Although the term was introduced by
MUVART, it had gained popularity among other
Mozambican artists, creating an ambiguous and
contested space yet to be fully defined.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTS IN
MOZAMBIQUE
Although the development of modern art3 in
Mozambique can be dated back to the first deca-
des of colonization in the twentieth century,4
existing investigations have concentrated mostly
on individual artists like Malangatana.5 The only
academic work that deals comprehensively with
the more recent history of Mozambican art is the
recently published doctoral thesis of Mozambican
art historian Alda Costa. In her work, Costa
describes the creation and development of the
Mozambican art scene from 1932 to 2004, with
a focus on the creation and role of the National
Museum of Art that was founded in the year
1989. In this work, Costa presented a very
CONTEMPORARY ART IN MOZAMBIQUE | 161
complete description of the development of the
arts in Mozambique since their beginnings, show-
ing the richness of the Mozambican arts and the
many unknown or forgotten artists who have
contributed to its development. This work is
essential for understanding the history and devel-
opment of the fine arts and of cultural politics in
Mozambique.
The generation of artists in Mozambique
who started their work within modern art param-
eters began to participate in art exhibitions at the
end of the 1950s. It was not until the 1960s, par-
ticularly with the beginning of the fight for inde-
pendence, however, that modern art in
Mozambique gradually began to cohere. The
principal concern of artists at the time was to sup-
port the struggle for independence and denounce
the abuses of the colonial regime (Navarro, 2003,
pp. 229 234). These artists, such as Malanga-
tana, Bertina Lopes and Noel Langa, were
strongly influenced by the political events in the
country, and their work was marked by the search
for a Mozambican and African identity. This
nationalistic force was a common factor in the
development of modern art not only in Mozam-
bique, but also in other African countries. The
first years after independence in 1975 are charac-
terized by an ongoing celebration commemorat-
ing new-found independence.
In the late 1970s, the socialist government of
FRELIMO6 delineated two tasks for art and cul-
ture in Mozambique. On the one hand, art was
apt to anchor and spread the socialist program
through the establishment of popular art, in con-
trast to the bourgeois arts of the colonial era; on
the other hand was the creation of the Homem
Novo (the new man) who had won his indepen-
dence from the colonialists and was expected to
build a culture of innovation and progress. The
ideas of the socialist government also included
promoting art production as part of the country’s
Research
 162 | Díaz Rivas
modernization project, with the intention to cre-
ate a cultura nacional revolucion aria to educate
and transform Mozambican society (Costa,
2013, pp. 219 223). The socialist aspect pre-
cluded any discussion of art for art’s sake, insist-
ing instead that art be interpreted in relation to
the state and its political agendas.
The process of democratization launched at
the end of the 1980s liberalized political dis-
course in Mozambique. The peace treaty signed
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in 1992 brought 16 years of civil war to an end,
and changed not only the political but also the
artistic landscape of Mozambique. The civil war
between FRELIMO and RENAMO7 had made
it impossible to develop infrastructure in the
country (Alden, 2001, pp. 81 82). After 1992,
the art scene saw some new structures created, the
result of FRELIMO’s abandonment of socialism
and adoption of neo-liberal reforms. A variety of
new platforms for seeing and buying art emerged,
among them, private galleries like Afritique and
Cırculo Galeria de Arte, and government-funded
venues like the Brazilian and French Cultural
Centers, each with their own exhibition space. A
younger generation of artists got to work, con-
sciously experimenting with new techniques and
ushering in an immense diversity in their projects
launched during the 1990s. It seemed that a new
line was drawn in the sand, marking out old and
new forms, and generating friction among
Mozambican artists.8
By the 1980s, the outlines of this emerging
debate were already materializing. The Director
of the Secretaria de Estado da Cultura, Luıs Ber-
nardo Honwana, delineated between two creative
forces in Mozambique, one “traditional” and one
“acculturated.” By “traditional,” Honwana
referred to cultural practices purported to
embody the values of the Mozambican people;
those materializations, content, and ideas were
thought to be expressed exclusively in local
Critical Interventions 8, Issue 2 2014
materials and techniques. He used the term
“acculturated” to describe the results of the inter-
action between a local culture and a foreign one.
An example of the second category was the artist
Malangatana (1936 2011) who used
“European” art techniques to render “the roots of
the Mozambican identity” visible.9
The work and biography of Malangatana
evokes some of the complexities of Mozambican
art production in the colonial and post-indepen-
dence periods. Malangatana Valente Ngwenya,
Mozambique’s most renowned artist, referred to
simply as Malangatana, has had the strongest
influence on the country’s art production. During
the 1960s, various constituencies deployed his
artworks for their own uses; although his work
was featured by those in the liberation struggle,
the colonial regime also featured his work in exhi-
bitions in Portugal. After independence, Malan-
gatana was acclaimed a hero and the new
Mozambican state deployed his paintings amid
the new triumphalism (Seidman, 2012, pp.
7 27). Malangatana developed his own unmis-
takable style. His paintings jostle with overlap-
ping, abstracted figures: humans, animals and
mythical representations inspired by local sculp-
ture and mythology, and also Christian iconogra-
phy. Many of these works focus on the violence
and suffering of Mozambicans caused by the
colonial encounter and armed conflicts. He is
now most known for successfully creating his
own artistic idiom, which consciously inter-
twined a popular aesthetic with the subjects of
social and political issues (Seidman, 2012, p. 16).
Indeed, he defined himself as a “social painter”
(Seidman, 2012, p. 19), and it is this quality that
has had a profound and lasting effect on the work
of many Mozambican artists to this day.
The tension between role of aesthetics and
the functional or communicative properties of art
generated debates that played out on many

different levels. The dichotomy Honwana
espoused with the aim of articulating national
categorizations of art had always been challenged;
while the neo-liberal moment offered new condi-
tions for production, it also underscored the
ambiguities in those definitions. Toward the end
of the 1980s, the artists Malangatana, Augusto
Cabral, Eugenio de Lemos and the journalist
Julio Navarro founded the weekly art column
Rhandzarte.10 They commented on the various
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cultural events in Maputo and began to critically
cover and discuss the art scene. In one of the
group’s first columns, the members presented
themselves as a collective with the intention of
criticizing art, noting the lack of critical commen-
tary around the arts in Mozambique. The word
“Rhandzarte” is a fusion between the Xitsonga
word “rhanza,” meaning “love,” and the Portu-
guese word “arte,”11 coined for the column and
meaning love to the arts.
The activities of the collective were not lim-
ited to the weekly column; it also organized exhi-
bitions and workshops. Members often consulted
with various cultural centers, advising the
National Museum of Art in Maputo, and worked
with them on several exhibitions (Costa, 2013,
pp. 151, 317, 319). Rhandzarte went about set-
ting not only higher standards for those making
art, but also art platforms, curatorial choices and
broader discourse on the arts. They discussed
works of art on the merits of technique, content,
and form, but they also viewed presentation as
integral to the perception of an exhibition. Their
critiques of contemporary exhibitions in Maputo
extended to the presentation apparatus, critiquing
sloppiness and curatorial shortcomings: the lack
of information accompanying an exhibition,
typos on labels, poor lighting and abbreviated
durations of exhibitions.
Rhandzarte’s opinions were demanding and
sometimes anti-commercial, and occasionally
CONTEMPORARY ART IN MOZAMBIQUE | 163
ruffled feathers. They scolded Mozambican artists
in general, and especially the youngest, for their
drive to hold solo shows. Rhandzarte maintained
that it was necessary for an artist to have partici-
pated in many collective exhibitions, so that he or
she could gain experience before “rushing” into a
solo showing.12 In the column of May 21, 1989,
Rhandzarte criticized works by the artist Naguib
in his solo show,13 dismissing his “Africanized
hyper-realism” as a surface technique that failed
to hide the poor quality of the larger design.
They insisted on quality, suggesting that the artist
should have rather presented 10 good works of
depth and conviction than the 40 mediocre works
mounted for the show, and only recently com-
pleted.14 Years later, when Naguib worked as
director of the gallery Afritique,15 Rhandzarte
criticized the strategies of the gallery, accusing it
of flashy commercialism to draw people in, and
pandering to audiences.16 Naguib interpreted
this criticism from Rhandzarte as a boycott of his
work as an artist and gallerist (Costa, 2013,
p. 317).
Subjectivity was another point of contention
between the collective Rhandzarte and other
artists. The artist Bento Mukeswane
(1965 1999) in conversation with the journalist
Navarro, was criticized for his choice of painting
a vase of flowers Navarro asserting that the cho-
sen flowers were not part of Mozambican
culture.17
This comment caused a small uproar in
Maputo’s art world. Rhandzarte was accused of
being too narrow, approving only of work that
corresponded to an aesthetic linked to a unified
Mozambican identity, relying on the political his-
tory of the country and the styles created by the
first generation of artists, including Malangatana.
Their comments were also interpreted as a discur-
sive strategy that would dictate what was desirable
in Mozambican art production.18 As art historian
Research
 164 | Díaz Rivas
Costa explains, the intervention of Rhandzarte
came to be seen as a force that “inhibited change
and opportunities for the younger generations of
artists who began to intervene in those years”
(Costa, 2013, pp. 317 318).
In the catalogue “Art from the Frontline:
Contemporary Art from Southern Africa,” pub-
lished with the Glasgow exhibition, Paulo Soares
gestured to the historical primacy in contempo-
rary works, “deeply rooted in the form and con-
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tent of African cultural traditions . . . [with] the
aim to communicate not only the ancient tradi-
tions, but also the present” (Soares, 1990, p. 51).
In the same volume, Malangatana remarked on
the political side:
The centuries of political resistance
always had a cultural counterpart. Arts
and culture showed the Mozambican
being where he or she had come from,
was standing and going during the essen-
tial phase of cultural resistance. Plastic
arts had, have and always will have a
decisive part to play in the process.
(Ngwenya, 1990, p. 47)
Thus artists were presented with their work
carrying an idealistic and a functional burden: to
exalt both national and African identity, and link
the “traditional” with the “modern.” However,
underscoring this, and signaled by the exhibition
title, was the essential role that art had played in
the political development of Mozambique.
It was in the midst of these tensions that
Gemuce, who would become one of the key fig-
ures for the development of contemporary art in
Mozambique, founded the artists’ collective Arte
Feliz in 1996 with the artist Bento Mukeswane
(now deceased). Gemuce explained that the idea
of founding Arte Feliz arose also as a response to
Rhandzarte and the prevailing expectations he
Critical Interventions 8, Issue 2 2014
encountered (Costa, 2013, p. 337). Gemuce was
born in the early 1960s in Mozambique, and his
biography is deeply shaped by the political his-
tory of his country. His father insisted on raising
him bilingually to increase his educational oppor-
tunities. In the early 1980s, Gemuce visited the
Escola Nacional de Artes Visuais (ENAV) in
Maputo. After that he studied fine arts in Ukraine
and received a Master’s degree in Cultural Man-
agement in France. Gemuce’s engagement with
the developments of the arts in Mozambique was
not stopped by his studies abroad. Since 2000, he
has lived and worked in Maputo as an artist and
as a lecturer at the Instituto Superior de Artes e
Cultura (ISArC).19
By the 1990s, between his studies in the
Ukraine and in France, Gemuce saw the necessity
for an independent space in which artists had the
possibility to think and critically discuss their
projects. As Gemuce explained to me:
We were taught God is a dogmatist. He
doesn’t like any change, he likes his rules
to be static so people know how to
behave. The art god is the opposite. It is
a god who loves to change and to sur-
prise and expected from us to do some-
thing new every day. What is today must
be different tomorrow.20
Gemuce and Mukeswane administered their
collective in the spirit of art that is fluid and sur-
prising. Arte Feliz held exhibitions, workshops
and excursions to South Africa to visit galleries
and museums.21 With Arte Feliz, Gemuce started
a struggle against a regionalist, explicitly Mozam-
bican notion of art production and demonstrated
the need to move beyond its physical and concep-
tual borders: to engage in artistic exchange inter-
nationally, as well as to sell work (Costa, 2013,
pp. 337 338). The activities of Arte Feliz were

the predecessor to a formal association: Movi-
mento de Arte Contempor^anea de Moçambique,
MUVART.
The importance of exchange beyond the
national borders is a key point between Arte Feliz,
MUVART and other artist collectives in Mozam-
bique, working against Rhandzarte’s emphatic
nationalism. For Gemuce and Mukeswane, the
way to liberate art production from existing
expectations lay in exchange with the art produced
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in other countries, in learning new forms of art,
and in experimenting with new techniques, this
being possible only through knowledge of art pro-
duced outside of Mozambique. Rhandzarte viewed
this kind of exchange with mistrust, and warned
artists of the dangers of “academicism.”22 They
were worried about a slavish, expressionless copy
of art objects from other schools, suggesting that
“um artista academista” who “copies and mechan-
ically reproduces the ‘recipes’ he learned . . . is not
able to do . . . his own thing.” 23 Yet other artists
understood Rhandzarte’s criticism as a form of
repression of artistic freedom. Arte Feliz countered
this repression by creating spaces of artistic pro-
duction that generate new ideas in the country,
and create opportunities for younger artists.
Where painting and sculpture were the primary
fine arts media, Gemuce was slowly turning to
unfamiliar artistic genres such as photography and
video. Although reportage photography and docu-
mentary video have a long history in Mozambi-
que, they were never considered fine arts. The
platforms created by MUVART also first intro-
duced the country to performance art and action
art works. While some artists in Mozambique
have criticized these for their unfamiliarity and
foreigness, these genres have continued to develop
over the last decade, encouraged by MUVART’s
investments.
Arte Feliz’s activities came to a close with the
death of Mukeswane, and later Gemuce’s further
CONTEMPORARY ART IN MOZAMBIQUE | 165
education in France, but the ideals behind it per-
sisted. After Gemuce left France, he traveled to
Brazil and met with Mozambican artist Jorge
Dias, then finishing his studies in Fine Arts. It
was there they began to discuss an artistic associa-
tion that would promote art that was in touch
with recent developments in the international art
world. In 2002 back in Maputo, they gathered
with a group of interested artists, hashing out
their objectives and the form their association
should have and founded MUVART.24
The main aim of MUVART was to intro-
duce and support the progress of Arte Contempo-
r^
anea in Mozambique. The term Arte
Contempor^ anea referred explicitly to an aesthetic
rather than a temporal category, one that repre-
sented changes in art both inside and outside of
Mozambique. The group’s Manifesto described
the framework for an Arte Contempor^ anea with
four main characteristics: one, to constantly con-
front and challenge existing paradigms; two, to
go beyond the classic genres of sculpture and
painting and include other materials and forms
of representation, such as performance, videos,
installations, etc.; three, to produce art based on a
conceptual development of an idea; and four, to
meet aesthetic standards as understood in an
international contemporary art movement.25
These statements made by the group in their
manifesto show the need to give new meaning to
artistic production in Mozambique, in both its
function and its aesthetic content. On the aes-
thetic level, they stated that the art should be con-
ceptual and must use new forms of
representation. This means that the artwork must
start from a specific idea of a project, and opens
the door to a kind of art in which the idea in the
work is as important as the work itself. Some-
times the concept of the work prevails over its
physical appearance, and the latter becomes the
mere material support of the idea. In this sense,
Research
 166 | Díaz Rivas
the material presence of the work is released,
making it possible to use any type of material and
technique, or even objects that initially are not
directly related to artistic production. This aspect
is intrinsically linked to the function of art. The
manifesto thus states that the function of art lies
in breaking existing paradigms, creating an envi-
ronment of constant innovation both in the art
aesthetic and in its function in society. This
reflects a major break with earlier conceptions of
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art in Mozambique as an exaltation of national
identity. What MUVART’s contemporary artist
seeks is a total break with the past, encouraging
an art that lives in the “contemporary.”26
Consider the trajectory and work of Jorge
Dias, born in 1972 in Maputo. In 1992 he grad-
uated with a focus on ceramics from ENAV in
Maputo, and later focused on sculpture with his
2002 degree from the Escola de Belas Artes, Rio
de Janeiro Federal University. Presently he is the
Director of ENAV. In addition to working as an
artist, he has also curated several shows within
and outside the country, including the National
Art Museum in Maputo, and is the lead curator
of Expo Arte Contempor^ anea de Mozambique,
MUVART’s biennial exhibition of contemporary
art running since 2004.
It is difficult to describe the suspicion that
this break with the mainstream media and recog-
nizable subjects met with in the country.27 In
Dias’s work “Coisas Suspendidas” (Suspended
Things), 2005, the assemblage dangles a ceramic
ball, covered with wire insects, from the ceiling in
a net of fine threads. Compelled by the relation-
ships between human beings, Dias noted:
I observe and absorb their behavior, as
individuals and in groups. I research the
way they relate to each other, in their
home, leisure, and professional environ-
ments. I am interested in the way they
Critical Interventions 8, Issue 2 2014
treat the objects surrounding them, how
they organize them in the context in
which they are found, at the limits of
their capacity and in the midst of great
need.28
Responses varied: some artists, argued that
Mozambican art should not import a foreign aes-
thetic imposed by the international artistic cir-
cuit.29 One wondered about the relationship
between artist and object, since Dias included
plastic or metal insects he had not made. Other
suggested the pretension of labels; one argued
that “any work of art can become contemporary
. . . simply add an academic sentence as an expla-
nation to the artwork.”30 The lack of consensus
indicates dialogue, and is a clear indication that
contemporary artists in Mozambique are forcing
artists and audiences to re-examine their expecta-
tions of a work of art.
MUVART actively engaged in discourse and
theory, striving to eliminate any form of restric-
tion, and moving beyond ubiquitous painting
and sculpture. By defining Arte Contempor^ anea
as an aesthetic category with fixed parameters
(Costa, 2013, p. 262), the members of MUVART
have set their own temporal and conceptual
boundaries between modern and contemporary
art in Mozambique. For artists like Malangatana,
Mozambican art could exist only by emphasizing
its otherness within the established techniques of
painting and sculpture. For the Artistas Contempo-
r^
aneos, work developed in relation to international
art processes, with an emphasis on the art produc-
tion itself and strategizes across different artistic
media. In the manifesto, MUVART refers
to contemporary art as an “international artistic
movement,” thus emphasizing Mozambican
artists’ lack of participation in international events
of this kind. The emphasis on internationalism in
some ways reconciles the challenges and tensions

in artistic production and exhibition at the local
level in Mozambique, even while it provokes other
tensions, such as the ability of Mozambican artists
to travel abroad.
The year 2004 saw MUVART’s launch of its
biennial in Maputo. Despite limited donor sup-
port, the result was significant, with artists of dif-
ferent generations and nationalities taking part
(Costa, 2013, p. 365). The biennial continues to
include exhibitions, talks and roundtable discus-
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sions, workshops, performances and film projec-
tions. The organizing theme of the 5th biennial,
held from during August 2012, was “to be,” con-
cerning the role that artists play in Mozambican
contemporary society.31 This latest iteration was
hosted by eight different locations in Maputo,
beginning with a marathon of eight launches in
four days. New and uncommon exhibition spaces
were put to use. Berry Bickle’s 2012 photo-
graphic series Chamanculo Frieze was installed on
a public wall on Vladimir Lenin Street, close to
one of Maputo’s food markets.
Another of the great benefits that
MUVART’s Expo has generated are artist
exchanges between Mozambique and other coun-
tries. Through this exchange, MUVART made it
possible for Mozambican artists to experience
such techniques of artistic production as perfor-
mance, installation and video art, which had
been relatively unknown in Mozambique before.
One good example of this is the performance by
the Swiss artists Anne Rochat and Gilles
Furtw€angler, “Say yes or die,” presented during
the biennale in various places in the city. These
artists and their fellow Swiss artists Luc Andrie
and Elizabeth Llach gave a workshop on artistic
performance, and introducing an artistic tech-
nique that has since been taken up by a number
of Mozambican artists over the past few years.
The desire for experimentation continues to
drive Gemuce. Having been educated with the
CONTEMPORARY ART IN MOZAMBIQUE | 167
Russian Realism school, he often uses a figurative
language in his paintings; yet he also uses video,
photography, installation and performance for
his projects. Gemuce contends with his percep-
tions of Maputo and its citizens, the city formed
by several decades of migration, and for Mozam-
bicans a center of modernity and urbanity. He
considers daily life in Maputo from a global per-
spective, but raises moral questions that resonate
far beyond Maputo and Mozambique. His series
of paintings A Tale of One City32 addresses the
theme of the cosmopolitan city, raising questions
about race, religion, authority and, as he
explained to me, the difficulties of living in a cos-
mopolitan city without prejudices. In these paint-
ings (Figure 1), he positions various persons
swinging back and forth in a blue sky: a police-
man, a female enveloped in a burka, two children
and a lonely man. They all have in common this
swinging between today and yesterday, tradition
and modernity, Africa and Europe, and so on.
Although people who live in Maputo inspire
these individuals, from Gemuce’s perspective
they represent individuals, as “others,” in any big
city in the world. These individuals may be sepa-
rated by geographical space, but perhaps not in
their priorities, aspirations or interests. Overtly
outward looking, this kind of approach differs
radically from earlier artists like Malangatana’s
references circling within Mozambican culture
and traditions.
As the artist put it, even while he grew up
considering Malangatana’s achievements as an
ideal, he uses his own work to question nationalis-
tic ideas of identity. Gemuce is concerned with
the overlaps, similarities, and contradictions of
urbanized societies marked by the situations of
postcoloniality and the processes of globalization.
With the individual as his starting point, he
reveals the isolation of the privileged man and sit-
uates him floating between the historical
Research
 168 | Díaz Rivas
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Figure 1. Gemuce, painting series “A Tale of One City,” 2009, oil on canvas, 150 £ 120
determination of his Mozambican heritage, on the
one hand, and his uncertain future amid the rapid
changes happening in the world, on the other.33
MUVART AND THE NEW GENERATION OF
CONTEMPORARY ARTISTS
For the last six years MUVART has scaled
back its activities, with its members limiting their
active participation to exhibiting work during the
biennial. Part of this can be attributed to increas-
ing obligations that the artists face, including the
economic responsibilities of marriage and
Critical Interventions 8, Issue 2 2014
children. Yet also, Gemuce believes that many are
disappointed and frustrated at the lack of support
from local businesses and patrons and from the
government in Mozambique; thus there is the
concomitant pressure to promote their own
careers.34
Within the country, MUVART’s presence
and activities invoke some controversy. The
group has many supporters, but there are a signif-
icant number of artists who feel excluded or even
attacked by the group. On the one hand, Jorge
Dias and Gemuce, the founders and responsible
actors of MUVART, are recognized artists and

public figures who have done much to shape the
art scene in Maputo.35 They teach at the city’s
two art schools and are the best-known names in
the national scene, often consulted on matters
related to art and culture. They are also among
the few living artists to attain international visibil-
ity and expand their network outside of Mozam-
bique, while enjoying great respect and
recognition in Mozambican society. On the other
hand, their promotion of Arte Contempor^ anea is
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regarded by some as one-sided and almost dog-
matic. They have been accused of forgetting the
roots of Mozambican identity and of getting lost
in trendy “foreign” art forms. Despite their
efforts and successes over the past 10 years,
MUVART continues to struggle to secure finan-
cial support for its projects. Partly for this reason,
MUVART’s focus is largely on collaborations
and work exchanges which indeed changes not
only the function but also the nature of making
art. This approach, which has so far yielded posi-
tive results, particularly in the biennial, has been
interpreted negatively by other artists in Mozam-
bique. The first charge is that MUVART’s direc-
tors use the biennial for their own personal
networking, and only friends and artists who can
be useful to them are invited to participate; the
second is that the biennials are devoted to the
taste of foreign audiences more to than to enrich-
ing the Mozambican art scene.36
Nevertheless, MUVART has deeply influ-
enced the Mozambican art scene, encouraging
new forms of artistic production, providing
spaces to see them and venues at which artists
and audiences can meet. MUVART has also
forged new connections between Mozambican
artists and international art network by
exchanges, but also by creating new platforms for
interpreting and mediating the global art market
and its growing fascination with Africa. The first
international recognition of the changes followed
CONTEMPORARY ART IN MOZAMBIQUE | 169
the first biennial, when MUVART was invited to
participate in Arte Lisboa, Portugal’s contempo-
rary arts fair, and the 2006 exhibition “Replica e
Rebeldia; Artistas de Angola, Brasil, Cabo Verde
e Mocambique,”37 which focused on contempo-
rary Lusophone artists.
An upcoming generation of artists who do
not belong to MUVART are also endeavoring to
make their way; MUVART has shown that alter-
native types of autonomy are possible, even while
they have participated and benefitted to some
degree in MUVART’s events. Maimuna Adam,
Felix Mula, and Filipe Branquinho have all par-
ticipated in at least one biennial, have drawn
from the recent attention that Mozambique has
garnered since MUVART’s inception, and have
tried to move even further. Filipe Branquinho
and Camila De Sousa displayed their photo-
graphic work in an exhibition series sponsored by
the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, including
“Temporary Occupations” (2011), “Proximo
Futuro” (2012), and “Present Tense” (2013).38
MUVART’s platforms have brought even
more younger artists into the Mozambican art
scene. Interestingly, this new generation feels no
great attachment to MUVART nor to the move-
ments of Arte Contempor^ anea and it is this cir-
cumstance that signals, paradoxically, the
advances that MUVART has effected. This new
generation feels little compunction to explain
and justify the nature of their work. As we will
see in the attitudes of this new generation, there
is a palpable freedom. The artist Maimuna Adam
explained, “I don’t know if I am doing contem-
porary art or not. I am doing what I learned to
do and what I am interested in.”39 Consciously
or not, these artists are forging ahead on paths
pioneered by MUVART, creating artistic works
that continue the tradition of creativity, innova-
tion, and experiment, and that continue to stimu-
late audiences in Mozambique.
Research
 170 | Díaz Rivas
Two artists in particular illuminate some of
the recent developments by this new generation,
Maimuna Adam and Felix Mula. They work
with themes of memory and history that mark
the collective identity of the nation, but tell per-
sonal stories that question and probe the existing
narratives with new sensibilities.
The artist Maimuna Adam completed a
degree in Fine Arts at the University of Pretoria
in 2008. Since then she has lived in Maputo,
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working as an artist and teaching Arts at the
ISArC. In her work, Adam uses symbols related
to traveling and migration. She plays with ele-
ments of fiction and nonfiction to explore issues
of loss and dislocation.40 In her 2012 work
“Memories” (Figure 2), she incorporates elements
of an old photograph album and a braid made
from artificial hair. Searching for ways to recover
Figure 2. Maimuna Adam. Memories, 2012, photo album and artificial hair, 29.5 £ 26 £ 7.5 cm. Courtesy of
the artist
Critical Interventions 8, Issue 2 2014
her family history, she remembers her grand-
mother combing her long black hair every morn-
ing before braiding it.41 Of Indian descent, she
reflects on her family’s past, which is strongly
linked to her country’s past, and has produced a
dialogue between her personal history of migra-
tion and broader historical and cultural narratives
(Lamoni, 2013, p. 6). The empty photograph
album with its pages woven through with a
length of braided hair evokes her lost family his-
tory, in the absence of photographs, which is
replaced only by human and physical memory, so
arbitrary and conflicting, embodied in the woven
plait.
In Adam’s video work from 2011,
“Entrelaç ado” (Interwoven; Figure 3), braided
hair again provides the metonymic reference.
This video was made during her participation in

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Figure 3. Maimuna Adam. Entrelaçado, 2012, video (stills), 6 min 45 s (1024 £ 576 px). Courtesy of the artist
the Biennial for Art and Culture in S~ao Tome
and Prıncipe (on November 2011), a former Por-
tuguese colony and a group of islands that were
not populated before colonization. In it she
involves an actress from Sao Thome to perform
the act of braiding. With this act, Adam searches
for connections with her own family history of
migration and mixture and creates a link from
India through East Africa to the west coast in S~ao
Tome. Adam refers in her works “to the role of
specific dislocations in the process of making per-
sonal and collective identities” and “works against
essentializing notions of identity” (Lamoni, 2003,
pp. 6, 11).
Felix Mula completed his studies of Fine Arts

at the Ecole superieure d’art de l’^ıle de la Reunion
in 2011 and has lived and worked in Maputo
since then. He is also a teacher of Art at ISArC.
In his last work, Mula traveled from Maputo,
where he and his family currently live, to Gut-
suine, near Xai Xai, a city 200 km north of
Maputo, where his family comes from. Mula
walked to Gutsuine with only a small backpack,
his cell phone and a camera as equipment. He
had some money with him, but just “to enjoy the
resistance of catching the bus . . . I didn’t want to
feel like I was walking because I didn’t have the
money, that’s why I had some, to feel that I was
CONTEMPORARY ART IN MOZAMBIQUE | 171
walking by choice.”42 His food supply was
depleted by the second day, although his journey
would require six; a place to sleep and food
depended on the charity of the others. The idea
behind the project was to revive, at least in part,
the 800 km trip that his grandfather had taken
once and sometimes twice a year between Dur-
ban, a city in South Africa, and Xai Xai. His
grandfather, like many other Mozambicans,
worked throughout the year in South Africa; he
could visit his family only very rarely. Lacking
funds, he traveled the 800 km that separate the
two cities on foot. In walking, Mula made sensate
and communal the memories of his family,
through action and not form. He re-enacts and
calls to mind the thousands of people who immi-
grate to South Africa in search of work that allows
them to better the lives of their families, although
through painful separation. Although Mula
documented his walk with photos and videos, the
work of art consists primarily in the narration of
his walk. He wanted people to hear about his
walk to Gutsuine as he heard from his grand-
mother and father about the walks of his grandfa-
ther; his actions remained incomplete until he
gave his story to others. His work revolves not
only around the ephemerality of the walk, and of
action across space and time, but also Mula’s
Research
 172 | Díaz Rivas
recognition that oral history and senses of per-
sonal and familial narrative are profound histori-
cal testimony.
In my view, Adam and Mula are players in
another radical shift, focusing new forms of
expression that go beyond an emphasis on new
artistic techniques but rather focus on a critical
change in perspective. The Mozambican artists
of the first generation intertwined the construc-
tion of their artistic identity and creative pro-
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duction with the project of the nation, at a time
when the conditions for artistic production
were inextricably tied to the state and the build-
ing of the new nation. The most recent genera-
tion of artists grapple with issues of their own
identity inextricable from the history of the
country, but their perspective is more personal.
This approach might be thought of as the prod-
uct of neo-liberal conditions shaping artistic
production, where identity and family history
can be considered as subjects of more relevance
that the political events of the country, and
there is neglible social impetus to create for the
nation. Instead artists work against a singular
historical storyline, constructing and presenting
multiple perspectives, and reflecting a diversity
of experiences.
These points lead to a final observation.
MUVART’s actions, I believe, have not only
changed the physical and social landscape of the
arts scene, in building new platforms, networks
and raised international visibility. They have
also fundamentally reset the values that the
visual and performative arts hold in Mozambi-
que today, and contributed a new range to its
“aesthetic system.” As Sharman put it, the aes-
thetic value holds in “the sensory perception of
experience . . . re-created . . . intentionally to be
confirmed or dismantled as socially valuable.”
Among the range of experiences in a social
milieu, there are outstanding experiences, felt
Critical Interventions 8, Issue 2 2014
deeply and meaningfully by a community,
which tend to be replicated. Art is a sensuous
experience, taken actively and consciously in
evaluating everyday life, and communicates
directly to individuals and to a connected com-
munity (Sharman, 2006). MUVART intro-
duced the term Arte Contempor^ anea as a
definition not only of art production; it also
created social experiences that are communally
evaluated and filled with meaning. Sparking
new values, the visual arts in Mozambique have
increasingly become distanced from older forms
tied to the state, and moving toward a new aes-
thetics linked to international art production.
That said, art has always been practiced
across hazy boundaries and interpreted from
very different perspectives. It is no surprise that
artists and curators in Mozambique are cur-
rently going through a phase of experimenta-
tion, attempting to open up new platforms to
present art, and also spaces for reflection and
exchange between artists and society in general.
In a country where art has been heavily influ-
enced by the political dictates of the state and
whose art production has been long tied to the
creation of national identity, the questions
raised by artistas contempor^aneos and the youn-
ger generations in Maputo raise a dilemma. Ris-
ing concerns with self-perception and identity
challenge this old connection between art and
political rhetoric, and create new reference
points for Mozambican art production. Criti-
cally, they make way for a multitude of perspec-
tives, all of which in some way contradict the
state’s narrative of liberation. The interesting
question here remains how this still morphing
space called Arte Contempor^ anea is understood,
challenged and inscribed by the standards of
international audiences, the art market and the
notions of self and world at play in creative
projects in and outside of Mozambique.

NOTES
Vanessa Dıaz Rivas, MA, is a Research Fellow at the
Zentrum Moderner Orient in Berlin. She is currently
working on her dissertation project on Mozambique’s
contemporary art scene in the department of art his-
tory at the Freie Universit€at Berlin. She is a contribu-
tor to the research project “In Search of Europe:
Considering the Possible in Africa and the Middle
East,” funded by the Federal Ministry for Education
and Research. Within this project, she has also been
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working, since early 2012, in collaboration with the
Mozambican artist Gemuce, exploring the boundaries
between art and science. She studied Cultural Anthro-
pology at the Johannes Gutenberg-University in
Mainz, and worked there at the Department of
Anthropology and African Studies as Instructor and
Adviser in 2009 2010.
This paper is based on an ongoing research project
about contemporary arts in Mozambique. The author
has been a PhD research fellow at Zentrum Moderner
Orient, Berlin since 2010. The project is supported
with funds from the German Federal Ministry for Edu-
cation and Research (funding code 01UG0713). The
author is responsible for the content of this publication
1
For John Cooke (1989), the term “locality”
means the space in which citizens live their lives
and interact with each other. Unlike former ideas
of locality marked only by face-to-face relations
within a geographically defined location, for him
“locality” is a reference point from which people
act beyond its geographical borders. Elısio Mac-
amo (2005), too, defines “local” as the process of
constituting interpersonal action fields. In this
way, the term is used as an analytical reference
point to describe specific social interaction and is
defined by the social structure of relationships
that, as Cooke argues, can go beyond geographi-
cal boundaries. Arjun Appadurai (1995) empha-
sizes the contested process of the production of
locality, which is marked by new communica-
tions technology that allows people from every-
where to be part of this process. In the case of the
Mozambican art world, the “local” is also defined
CONTEMPORARY ART IN MOZAMBIQUE | 173
by its actors’ immediate interaction in the
(global) vicinity, as defined and redefined in
accordance with historical, political, social and
cultural processes that the country and its citizens
have been subjected to.
2
MUVART printed and photocopied the Mani-
festo and distributed it unofficially to friends
and interested people with the title “Manifesto.
Arte Contempor^anea de Moçambique 2003.”
3
I use the term “modern art” with awareness of the
difficulties implied by transferring terminology
from European to African art history. I employ
the term as the Mozambican art historian Alda
Costa uses it: to describe the Mozambican art
that developed since the 1930s and that, at least
at its beginning, followed European concepts of
art. This suggests that modern art was brought to
the continent with the project of modernity and
developed parallel to colonial rule, the struggles
for independence and the post-colonial challenges
of the new countries. See Costa (2013),
pp. 58 62. More than a temporal category, the
term “modern art,” in regard to African art, has
to be used as an analytical category with concep-
tual and historical foundations, as Chika Okeke
emphasizes. He undertakes a review of the history
of African modern art from an African perspec-
tive and argues that African modern art is not
merely an emulation of European modern art.
Despite its assimilation of Western modernist aes-
thetic terms at its beginnings, African modern art
has to be analyzed in its diversity and as a reversal
of hegemonic Eurocentric points of view. See
Okeke (2001).
4
See Costa (2013), pp. 63 124. Online publica-
tions based on her PhD can be seen at http://
www.buala.org/pt/autor/alda-costa.
5
For more information about Malangatana, see
Navarro (2003).
6
FRELIMO Frente de Libertaç a~o de
Moçambique is the ruling party in Mozambi-
que. It was founded in 1972 to fight for indepen-
dence in Mozambique. After independence,
FRELIMO turned Mozambique into a one-party
Research
 174 | Díaz Rivas
state. From 1977 until 1990, it promulgated a
Marxist Leninist ideology; then it published a
liberal-democratic constitution. See Alden
(2001), p. 15.
7 18
RENAMO Resist^ e ncia Nacional Moçambicana
is the second biggest party in Mozambique.
Before 1992, when it signed a peace treaty with
FRELIMO and became a political party, it
fought against FRELIMO with South African
support. See Alden (2001), pp. 7 9.
8
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Interview with the Mozambican artist Gemuce
on October 27, 2011. See also Costa (2013),
pp. 317 318.
9
Costa (2013), pp. 280 281. (All translations of
quotations from this book are by the author, V.
D.R.)
10
The members of Rhandzarte were J ulio Navarro,
Augusto Cabral, Malangatana, Eugenio de
Lemos (until his death in 1994) and, from 2001
on, Ulisses Oviedo. The column appeared from
1989 until 2003 in the journal Domingo.
11
Domingo, March 26, 1989, p. 7.
12
Domingo, May 21, 1989, p. 7.
13
The artist Naguib was born in 1955 in Tete. He
studied at the Fine Arts School in Lisbon and
completed internships in screen printing arts at
the University of Cape Town and in conservation
and the restoration of works of art at the Kunst-
museum of Cologne in Germany, as well as an
internship in the Department of Visual Arts and
Scenic University of Northumbria, England. He
exhibited several murals in the city of Maputo,
including “Ode to Samora Machel” in Marginal
Maputo and “The paths of water” in the water
tank Maxaquene. See: http://www.artafrica.info/
html/artistas/artistaficha_i.php?idaD456
14
Domingo, May 21, 1989, p. 7.
15
Afritique, opened in 1988, was the first private
art gallery in Mozambique. It was administrated
by Janet Mondlane, Alkis Macropulos, Diogo
Guilande and Lorna Fine. Beginning in 1991,
the gallery was run by the artist Naguib and his
associated partner Chila Smith; Costa (2013),
pp. 307, 308.
Critical Interventions 8, Issue 2 2014
16
Domingo, May 26, 1991, p.7; November 10,
1991, p.7; August 9, 1992, p.7.
17
Interview with the artist Gemuce on October 27,
2011.
Domingo, May 17, 1992, p.7; interview with the
artist Gemuce on October 21, 2011.
19
Interview with the artist Gemuce on October 24,
2011.
20
Interview with the artist Gemuce on November
1, 2011. (All translations of quotations from the
interviews with the artist are by the author V.D.
R.)
21
Interview with the artist Gemuce on October 27,
2011.
22
In Portuguese, “academismo.” Domingo Febru-
ary 11, 1990, p. 7; and March 3, 1993, p. 7.
23
Domingo, March 3, 1993, p. 7.
24
Founders of MUVART: Anesia Manjate, Car-
men Muianga, Celestino Mondlane, Chicossa,
Gemuce, Ivan Serra, Jorge Dias, Marcos
Bonifacio Muthewuye, Quentin Lambert, V^ania
Lemos, and Xavier Mbeve.
25
MUVART, “Manifesto. Arte Contempor^anea de
Moçambique 2003” (unpublished).
26
Interview with the artist Gemuce on November
1, 2011.
27
See, for example, the concern with mixed media
and conceptualism at play in Costa’s review,
http://www.buala.org/pt/cara-a-cara/jorge-dias-
olhar-o-passado-de-soslaio-abracar-avidamente-
o-presente.
28
http://www.designboom.com/art/insects-as-
artwork-by-jorge-manuel-de-oliveira-dias/.
29
Interview with (anonymous) Mozambican artist,
Maputo, on August 26, 2013. Also see interview
with Jorge Dias in: http://www.artecapital.net/
entrevista-25-jorge-dias.
30
Interview with (anonymous) Mozambican artist,
Maputo, on August 26, 2013.
31
Introductory words of the artist Gemuce
during the closing roundtable discussion of
the Expo Arte Contempor^ anea de Moçambique
12, August 29, 2012, Instituto Camoes,
Maputo.

32
These works were featured in the exhibition of
the same name, organized by the Oslo Museum
from February 20, 2009.
33
Interview with the artist Gemuce on November
1, 2011.
34
Interview with the artist Gemuce on October 27,
2011.
35
For more information about the work of Jorge
Dias, see http://www.buala.org/pt/cara-a-cara/
jorge-dias-olhar-o-passado-de-soslaio-abracar-
Downloaded by [UNAM Ciudad Universitaria] at 09:52 30 December 2014
avidamente-o-presente.
36
Conversation with various young artists during
my fieldwork from June to September 2012.
37
The exhibition “Replica e Rebeldia. Artistas de
Angola, Brasil, Cabo Verde e Mocambique”
opened for the first time in Maputo in 2006,
organized by Instituto Cam~oes in Portugal and
curated by Antonio Pinto Ribeiro.
38
For information about the Calouste Gulbenkian
Foundation and its project “Pr oximo Futuro,”
see http://www.proximofuturo.gulbenkian.pt/
en/the-next-future.
39
Conversation with the artist Maimuna Adam on
August 28, 2012.
40
From the unpublished portfolio of the artist
Maimuna Adam.
41
Conversations with the artist Maimuna Adam dur-
ing my fieldwork from June to September 2012.
42
Email from the artist Felix Mula, February 7,
2013.
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