Appendix B

Linearization

All results are valid for straight, symmetric flight using stability axes.

B.1 Derivation of Frequently Used Deriva-

tives
  
2 1/2  
∂V  2 2
∂ (u + v + w )  u  uRef
=  =  = =1
∂u  Ref ∂u  2 2 2
(u + v + w )1/2  VRef
Ref Ref

 
∂V  vRef ∂V  wRef
 = = 0,  = =0
∂v Ref VRef ∂w Ref VRef

 
∂ q̄  ρ ∂ (u2 + v 2 + w2 ) 
= = ρRef VRef
∂u Ref 2 ∂u 
Ref

 
∂ q̄  ∂ q̄ 
= ρRef vRef = 0, = ρRef wRef = 0
∂v Ref ∂w Ref

 
∂ p̂  ∂ (b/2V ) 
= pRef =0
∂u Ref ∂u Ref

263
264 APPENDIX B. LINEARIZATION

The latter derivative vanishes because pRef = 0. Similarly,


∂ p̂ 

∂ p̂  ∂ q̂ 
 ∂ q̂ 
 ∂ q̂ 

= = ∂u = ∂v = ∂w
∂v Ref

∂w Ref
∂ r̂ 

∂ r̂ 
Ref 
∂ r̂ 
Ref Ref
= ∂u Ref
= ∂v Ref = ∂w Ref = 0
  
∂ p̂  ∂pb/2V  b 
 b
 =  =  =
∂p Ref ∂p Ref 2V Ref 2VRef
 
∂ q̂  c̄ ∂r̂  b
 = ,  =
∂q Ref 2VRef ∂r Ref 2VRef
  
∂α  ∂ tan−1 (w/u)  −w 
= = 2 2  =0
∂u Ref ∂u 
Ref u sec α Ref
 
∂α  ∂ tan−1 (w/u) 
= =0
∂v Ref ∂v 
Ref

  
∂α  ∂ tan−1 (w/u)  1  1
 =  = 2  =
∂w Ref ∂w Ref u sec α Ref VRef
  
∂β  ∂ sin−1 (v/V )  V − v (∂V /∂v)  1
 =  = 2  =
∂v Ref ∂v Ref V cos β Ref VRef
 
∂β  ∂β 
= =0
∂u Ref ∂w Ref
 
The thrust derivative, CT V̂ , δT = T /q̄S:

T ∂(1/q̄) ∂V 
∂CT
≡ CTV = q̄S
1 ∂T
∂V
∂V
S ∂V ∂ V̂ 
+
∂ V̂ ∂ V̂
 Ref
2 
∂ (V ) 
V ∂T
= q̄S ∂V
− 2q̄
ρV T
2S
∂ V̂ 
 Ref
ρV 2 /2 
V ∂T
= q̄S ∂V
− 2T q̄2 S 
  Ref 
∂T 
1
= q̄Ref S
VRef ∂V Ref − 2TRef
B.2. NONDIMENSIONALIZATION OF THE ROLLING MOMENT EQUATION265

In the case of a rocket thrust does not vary with velocity, and the same
is very nearly true in the case of a jet engine. This leads to

CTV = −2TRef /q̄Ref S = −2CTRef (Constant Thrust)

For propeller driven aircraft with constant speed propellers, constant

thrust-horsepower is usually assumed (T V = constant = TRef VRef ) so

T = TRef VRef /V

∂T  T
∂V Ref
= − Ref VRef
CTV = −3CTRef (Constant Thrust-Horsepower)

B.2 Nondimensionalization of the Rolling Mo-

ment Equation
Dimensional form:

ṗ = I1D [(Izz Lv + Ixz Nv ) v + (Izz Lp + Ixz Np ) p

+ (Izz Lr + Ixz Nr ) r + (Izz Lδ + Ixz Nδ ) ∆δ
+ (Izz Lδn + Ixz Nδn ) ∆δn ]

Substitute:


∂→ 
∂↓ 
L N
Ref    
q̄Ref Sb q̄Ref Sb
v C Cn
 VRef 2  β  VRef 2  β
q̄Ref Sb q̄Ref Sb
p C Cn
 2VRef 2  p  2VRef 2  p
q̄Ref Sb q̄Ref Sb
r 2VRef
Cr 2VRef
Cnr
δ (q̄Ref Sb) Cδ (q̄Ref Sb) Cnδ
δn (q̄Ref Sb) Cδn (q̄Ref Sb) Cnδn
266 APPENDIX B. LINEARIZATION

  v
q̄Ref Sb
ṗ = ID
Izz Cβ + Ixz Cnβ VRef
 
+ Izz Cp + Ixz Cnp 2VpbRef

+ (Izz Cr + Ixz Cnr ) 2Vrb

  Ref
+ Izz Cδ + Ixz Cnδ ∆δ
  
+ Izz Cδn + Ixz Cnδn ∆δn

For small changes in v, v/VRef ≈ β. Also, pb/2VRef = p̂ and rb/2VRef =

r̂. Make substitutions Ixx = Iˆxx ρS (b/2)3 , Izz = Iˆzz ρS (b/2)3 ,and Ixz =
Iˆxz ρS (b/2)3 , so that

2   2
ID = Ixx Izz − Ixz
2
= ρS (b/2)3 Iˆxx Iˆzz − Iˆxz
2
≡ ρS (b/2)3 IˆD

Now evaluate the ṗ equation with appropriate substitutions:

 
(q̄Ref Sb) ˆ ˆ
ṗ = IˆD [ρS(b/2)3 ]
I C
zz β + Ixz nβ β
C
 
+ Iˆzz Cp + Iˆxz Cnp p̂
 
ˆ ˆ
+ Izz Cr + Ixz Cnr r̂
 
+ Iˆzz Cδ + Iˆxz Cnδ ∆δ
 

+ Iˆzz Cδn + Iˆxz Cnδn ∆δn

The factor on the right side simplifies:

2
q̄Ref Sb VRef
=
ρS (b/2)3 (b/2)2

When this factor is inverted and multiplied, the left hand side becomes:

   
(b/2)2 b c̄ d pb
2
ṗ = = ADp̂
VRef c̄ 2VRef dt 2VRef
B.3. BODY AXIS Z-FORCE AND THRUST DERIVATIVES 267

Therefore the completely nondimensional rolling moment equation is

 
Dp̂ = 1 ˆ ˆ
Izz Cβ + Ixz Cnβ β
A
IˆD 
+ Iˆzz Cp + Iˆxz Cnp p̂
 
+ Iˆzz Cr + Iˆxz Cnr r̂
 
ˆ ˆ
+ Izz Cδ + Ixz Cnδ ∆δ
 

+ Iˆzz Cδn + Iˆxz Cnδn ∆δn

B.3 Body Axis Z-Force and Thrust Deriva-

tives
The required dependencies for Z come from Z = CZ q̄S. Using equation 6.1
we have for CZ :

CZ = −CD (M, α, δm ) sin α sec β

−CY 
(β, p̂, r̂, δn ) sin α
 tan β
−CL M, α, α̇, ˆ q̂, δm cos α

Therefore,


∂(q̄SCZ ) 
Zu = ∂u 
Ref 
∂ q̄  ∂CZ 
= SCZRef + S q̄Ref
∂u Ref

∂u Ref
Z
= ρRef VRef SCZRef + S q̄Ref ∂C
∂u Ref

In the first term,

CZRef = −CDRef sin αRef sec βRef − CYRef sin αRef tan βRef − CLRef cos αRef

CZRef = −CLRef
268 APPENDIX B. LINEARIZATION

Therefore,

   
2
ρRef VRef S q̄S  
ρRef VRef SCZRef = −2 CLRef = − 2CLRef
2VRef VRef

In order to evaluate ∂CZ /∂u|Ref consider each term in

CZ = −CD sin α sec β − CY sin α tan β − CL cos α

None of the derivatives in the first two terms will survive the application
of reference conditions because αRef = 0 or because (as we have shown in
B.1) both ∂α/∂u|Ref and ∂β/∂u|Ref are zero. For similar reasons we need
not bother taking derivatives with respect to α in the last term. We are
therefore left with

 

∂CZ  ˆ ∂ α̇
∂u Ref
= − cos αRef ∂CL ∂M ∂V
∂M ∂V ∂u
+ ∂CL ∂ α̇
ˆ ∂ α̇ ∂u
∂ α̇ Ref
= − aRef
1
CLM
M
= − VRef
Ref
CLM

In this expression we have used ∂ α̇/∂u|Ref = 0, and aRef is the speed of

sound at VRef at the specified altitude. As a result,

q̄Ref S  
Zu = − 2CLRef + MRef CLM
VRef

Derivation of Zv and Zw are left as exercises. Arguments similar to those

used in deriving Zu may be used to show that

Zv = 0

q̄Ref S  
Zw = − CDRef + CLα
VRef
B.3. BODY AXIS Z-FORCE AND THRUST DERIVATIVES 269

The thrust derivatives can be a little tricky to get into the desired form.
For the u derivative, we have

 
∂T  ∂(q̄SCT ) 
∂u Ref
= ∂u 
Ref 
∂ q̄ 

∂CT 
= SCTRef + S q̄Ref
∂u Ref ∂u Ref 
∂CT ∂ V̂ ∂V 
= ρRef VRef SCTRef + q̄Ref S ∂ V̂ ∂V ∂u 
S   Ref
q̄
= VRef
Ref
2CTRef
+ CTV

This is a perfectly correct result, except that we normally will be given

CW , CLRef , and CDRef , but not CTRef . Also, the thrust term appears twice in
the body-axis force equations, as X + T cos "T and Z + T sin "T . The needed
relationships come from the wind-axis force equations. Since we are working
on the Z-force equation, we want the wind-axis force equation that contains
the lift L. For steady, straight flight this requires

LRef − TRef sin ("T − αRef ) = mg cos µRef cos γRef

LRef − TRef sin "T = mg cos γRef

Dividing by q̄S and rearranging yields

CTRef sin "T = CLRef − CW cos γRef

Now, using the results for Zu and Tu to evaluate Zu + Tu sin "T ,

q̄Ref S     
Zu + Tu sin "T = VRef
−2CLRef − MRef CLM + 2CTRef + CTV sin "T
q̄Ref S
= VRef
(−MRef CLM − 2CW cos γRef + CTV sin "T )
(B.1)

Of course, if the engine is a rocket or jet, Tu = 0 and the previous result

for Zu is used.
The last three thrust derivatives are straightforward,
270 APPENDIX B. LINEARIZATION

Tv = 0
Tw = 0
TδT = q̄Ref SCTδT

B.4 Nondimensionalization of the Z-Force

Equation
Dimensional form:

(m − Zẇ ) ẇ = (Zu + Tu sin "T ) ∆u + Zw w + (Zq + mVRef ) q

−mg sin γRef ∆θ + TδT sin "T ∆δT + Zδm ∆δm

Substitute (and using equation B.1):


∂→ 
∂↓ 
Z T
Ref  
q̄ Sc̄
ẇ − Ref2 CLα̇ 0
   2VRef    
q̄Ref S q̄Ref S
u −2C L − M Ref CL 2C T + CT
VRef
  Ref M VRef Ref V

q̄Ref S  
w − VRef CDRef + CLα 0
 
q̄Ref Sc̄
q − 2V Ref
CLq 0
δm − (q̄Ref S) CLδm 0
δT 0 (q̄Ref S) CTδT

  

q̄Ref Sc̄ q̄ S
m + 2V 2 CL ẇ = VRef (−MRef CLM − 2CW cos γRef + CTV sin "T ) ∆u
 Ref  α̇ 
Ref
 

q̄Ref S q̄Ref Sc̄

− VRef CDRef + CLα w − 2VRef
CLq − mVRef q − mg sin γRef ∆θ
+ sin "T (q̄Ref S) CTδT ∆δT − (q̄Ref S) CLδm ∆δm

Factor out q̄Ref S from both sides and rearrange:

B.4. NONDIMENSIONALIZATION OF THE Z-FORCE EQUATION271

 

m
+ CLα̇ ẇ = (−MRef CLM − 2CW cos γRef + CTV sin "T ) V∆u
2
c̄
q̄Ref S

2VRef
 w  2
2mVRef

Ref

− CDRef + CLα VRef − CLq − q̄Sc̄ qc̄

2VRef
− q̄Ref S sin γRef ∆θ
mg

+ sin "T CTδT ∆δT − CLδm ∆δm

On the left hand side:

  
 2V 2 
m c̄ Ref m
+ 2 CLα̇ ẇ = + CLα̇ 2Vc̄ẇ2
q̄Ref S 2VRef
 q̄Ref Sc̄   Ref 
4m c̄ d w
= ρRef Sc̄
+ CLα̇ 2VRef dt VRef
= (2m̂ + CLα̇ ) Dα

The mVRef term on the right hand side has become

2
2mVRef
= 2m̂
q̄Sc̄

(2m̂ + CLα̇ ) Dα = (−MRef CLM − 2CW cos γRef + CTV sin "T ) ∆V̂
   
− CDRef + CLα α + 2m̂ − CLq q̂ − CW sin γRef ∆θ
+ sin "T CTδT ∆δT − CLδm ∆δm
272 APPENDIX B. LINEARIZATION