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ES658A

Natural Hazards
Geological Processes

Prof. Javed N. Malik


Department of Earth Sciences
Email: javed@iitk.ac.in
Course content
n  Natural Hazard related impact on environment;
Predicting Catastrophe

n  Plate Tectonics and related Hazards:


n  Earthquakes and their causes, mitigation
n  Active Faults and related hazard in India
n  Ground Motion and Ground Failures

n  Tsunami: Gaint Tsunamis


n  Generation and movement
n  Tsunami Hazard Assessment & mitigation

n  Volcanic Eruption and Hazard:


n  Eruption-Type of Volcanoes and Tectonic environment

n  Landslides:
n  Cause, classification, zonation and protection; Land subsidence

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Course content
n  Storms: Tropical Cyclone
n  Hurricane, Tornado, Storm damage and safety

n  Wildfires:
n  Fire Process and Secondary effects

n  Floods:
n  Streams and rivers-hydrology; types of floods, nature and
extent of flood hazard, flood hazard zoning - flood control and
protection
n  Case studies: Geological hazards

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Text Books:
n  Bell, F. G. Environmental Geology
n  Keller, E.A. Environmental Geology
n  Horn & Scott, Geological Hazards
n  Monroe, J. S., Wicander, R., and Hazlett, R. Physical
Geology: Exploring the Earth.
n  Strahler, A. Introduction to Physical Geoloyg.
n  Hyndman, D., and Hyndman, D. Natural Hazards and
Disasters.
n  Keller, E. D. Introduction to Environmental Geology

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n  Natural hazards – a growing threat (Stewart and
Donovan, 2007)

“In a time of extraordinary human effort to live


harmoniously in the natural world, the global death toll
from extreme events of nature is increasing. Loss in
property from natural hazards is rising in most regions of
the earth, and loss of life is continuing or increasing
among many of the poor nations of this world”

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n  a

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NATURAL HAZARDS:
n  Natural Hazards are the naturally occurring processes which are
dangerous to human life and property
n  Earth surface is susceptible to a variety of natural/geological
hazards
n  These events can happen anywhere

q  Atmospheric hazards q  Geologic hazards


Ø  Climate Change Ø  Earthquakes
Ø  Fog Ø  Slope failures
Ø  Tropical Cyclone/ Ø  Floods
Hurricane/Storms
Ø  Snow and ice Ø  Droughts
Ø  Tornado Ø  Volcano
Ø  Thunderstorm Ø  Tsunamis
Ø  Wild land fire
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Natural Hazards

The term natural hazard implies the occurrence of a natural condition or


phenomenon, which threatens or acts hazardously in a defined space and time

Hazards

Endogenic process Exogenic process Climate and


•  Volcanism •  Floods Land Use change
•  Earthquakes •  Karst Collapse •  Desertification
•  Snow Avalanche •  Permafrost
•  Mass Movement •  Degradation
•  Tsunami •  Floods
•  Coastal Erosion •  Salinity

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n  Plate movements
n  Geothermal energy

Earth
system
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External processes
n  Hydrological cycle
The System Concept
The System Concept
•  A system in any portion of the
universe that can be isolated
from the rest of the universe
for observing and measuring
change.
•  The simplest kind to understand
is an isolated system.
•  The boundary completely
prevents the exchange of either
matter or energy.
The System Concept (2)
•  The nearest thing to an
isolated system in the real
world is a closed system:

•  i.e., such system has a


boundary that permits the
exchange of energy with
its surroundings, but not
the matter.
1. Electromagne:c Radia:on

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The wavelength (λ) is given in µm (10-6 m) or nm (10-9 m).
•  Incoming radiation from the sun: Shortwave radiation
(Visible and UV radiation)

•  Outgoing radiation from the Earth: Long wave radiation


The Earth System (1)
•  Earth is only approximately a
closed system because:

•  Because meteorites coming


from space and fall on Earth,
causes slight escape of gases
into space

•  Moreover, Earth is comprised


of four open systems.
The Earth System (1)
•  The Earth system is composed of:
•  The geosphere (rocks)
•  The atmosphere (air)
•  The hydrosphere (water)
•  The biosphere (life in all its forms)

•  Energy and materials (like water,


carbon, and minerals) are
transferred from one system to
another.

•  To a close approximation, Earth is


a closed system.
open system

An open system can exchange


both energy and matter across
its boundary.
An open system can exchange
both energy (sunlight) and
matter across its boundary,
e.g., Drainage Basins are
internal Open Systems
Open system

•  The geosphere (rocks)


•  The atmosphere (air)
•  The hydrosphere
(water)
•  The biosphere (life in
all its forms)
Earth’s environmental systems

n  The Earth’s environment has a complex


networks of systems interlinked with one
another...
Human Influences
n  We human are influencing Earth’s
external geologic processes.
n  More than 7 billion people.
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Human Influences (2)
q  Our daily activities are having measurable
effects on:
q  Rainfall

q  Climate

q  Air

q  Water quality

q  Erosion
•  To have proper understanding of the
earth processes it is essential to know
various natural process related to the
Earth and its Environment:

•  Internal processes

•  External processes
Cyclone Vardah
Cyclones •  A tropical cyclone is an intense low
pressure area in the atmosphere
over tropical or sub-tropical waters.
•  The direction of circulation is
anti-clockwise in Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in
Southern Hemisphere due to
Coriolis effect...
•  I M D - I n d i a M e t e o r o l o g i c a l
Department classifies the low
pressure systems in the Bay of
Bengal and in the Arabian Sea into
7 classes

Type of Wind Speed in Wind Speed in


Disturbances Km/h Knots

Low Pressure Less than 31 Less than 17

Depression 31-49 17-27

Deep Depression 49-61 27-33

Cyclonic Storm 61-88 33-47

Severe Cyclonic
88-117 47-63
Storm

Super Cyclone More than 221 33 120


More than
Cyclone Vardah
•  Developed over SE Bay of Bengal
(BOB), in the afternoon 6th Dec. 2016
•  Moved westward
•  Crossed Tamil Nadu coast near
Chennai on 12th December 2016.
•  After the landfall, it moved SW and
weakened
•  18 killed in Tamil Nadu
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n  a

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Cyclone Vardah

Peak Intensity
130 km/h
The Kaikoura, New Zealand earthquake occurred
on 14 Nov. 2016
(Magnitude 7.8); depth of 22 km; 70 km ruputre (36km on
land and 34km under the sea)
Background
A M 7.8 earthquake occurred
on 13 November 2016
Geological hazards
Ø  Earthquakes
Ø  Tsunamis
Ø  Cyclones/storms
Ø  Slope failures
(Landslides)
Ø  Floods

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General Background of Natural Hazards
n  Many developing countries of the Asia and
Pacific are situated in the world’s hazard
belts and are subjected to floods, cyclones,
earthquakes, windstorms, tidal waves/
tsunamis, landslides, etc.

n  The major natural disasters that occur


periodically in this region are largely due to
climatic and seismic factors. The region has
suffered 50% of the world’s major natural
disasters

n  Vulnerability to disasters has increased due


to the increased aggregation of people in
urban centers, environmental degradation,
and a lack of planning and preparedness.

n  Vulnerability to natural hazards has


increased in many coastal areas due to the
loss of coastal habitats such as mangroves
and coral reefs that provide natural
protection from marine flooding and even
tsunamis.
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Why Natural Processes are hazardous ??
If there is change in Landuse pattern
Increase in
Population
Growth

Landslides in Hilly
Urbanization Deforestation terrain and flooding
in plains

Utilization Disturbing climate due


of to pollution and
Agricultural eco-system human
fields activity

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Human Impact of Natural Disasters
n  A natural process when poses a threat to human life or property,
- it is termed as a natural hazard.
n  Whereas, a natural event that kills or injures large numbers of
people or causes extensive damage to the property, it is called a
catastrophe
n  Many geologic processes are potentially hazardous, e.g., floods,
earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones etc.

12 Jan 2010
Haiti earthquake
Mw7.0

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Human Impact of Natural Disasters
n  We need to understand the impact of the natural disaster – which does not depend on the size
of the event but on number of people getting affected and the area vulnerable to such events.
n  e.g., An event in a thinly populated area can hardly pose a major hazard.

n  For instant, earthquake in New Zealand on July 15, 2009 with M7.6 was severe but posed little
threat because it happened in a region with few people or buildings.

n  Whereas, October 8, 2005 Muzzaffarabad earthquake with M7.6 occurred in heavily populated
valleys of the southern Himalayas killed more than 80,000 people, and a much smaller January
12, 2010, M7.0 earthquake in Haiti killed more than 222,000.

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Natural Disasters Impact on Human
n  Similarly, May 2, 2008, cyclone in
Myanmar killed about 138,000 in a
mostly rural area.

n  Whereas, the Super typhoon Choi-


Wan, of category 5 storm that passed
directly over the Northern Marianas
Islands south of Japan on September
15, 2009, resulted in no deaths
because few people live there.

n  The eruption of Mount St. Helens in


1980 caused few fatalities and
remarkably little property damage
simply because the area surrounding
the mountain is sparsely populated.
Flooding during Hurricane Ike in 2008 on the barrier island
n  On the other hand, a similar eruption east of Galveston, Texas, toppling them into the surf.
of Vesuvius, on the outskirts of
Naples, Italy, could kill hundreds of
thousands of people and cause huge
property damage.
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Why one needs to understand the natural hazards?
How to study? What one should do?

n  The study of natural hazards is a part of Environmental Geology

n  Because natural hazards are Catastrophic events, which have


direct impact of human lives and cause deaths and damage.

n  If such event occur, then it takes long time for recovery and
rehabilitation.

n  One can study the processes and identify the potentiality of the
particular hazard in particular area.

n  Make information available to the users – to avoid or to reduce


the risk

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Natural Disasters in India
n  India is vulnerable to a large number
of disasters.
n  More than 58.6 per cent of the
landmass is prone to earthquakes of
moderate to very high intensity
n  Over 40 million hectares (12%) of its
land is prone to floods and river
erosion
n  About 5,700 km, out of the 7,516 km
long coastline is prone to cyclones and
tsunamis
n  About 68% of its cultivable area is
vulnerable to droughts
n  Its hilly areas are at risk from
landslides and avalanches.
n  Moreover, India is also vulnerable to
Chemical, Biological, Radiological and
Nuclear (CBRN) emergencies and
other man-made disasters.
Source NDMA, New Delhi 60
n  Disaster risks in India are
further compounded by
i n cr e asi n g v u l n e r ab i l i t i e s
related
n  To changing demographics and
socio-economic conditions
n  Unplanned urbanization,
development within high-risk
zones
n  Environmental degradation,
climate change, geological
hazards, epidemics
n  All these contribute to a
situation where disasters
seriously threaten India’s
economy, its population and
sustainable development

Source NDMA, New Delhi 61


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Earthquake

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Earthquakes
n  The Asia-Pacific region alone records 70% of the world’s
earthquakes measuring M7 or more on the Richter scale, at an
average rate of 15 events per year.
n  The countries of the region which are badly affected by
earthquakes include Japan, Philippines, India, Nepal, Afghanistan,
Iran and the Pacific Islands.
n  Many of these countries in the region are located along, or
adjacent to, the Pacific Ocean Seismic Zone or the Indian Ocean
Seismic Zone.
n  For example 50–60% of India is vulnerable to seismic activities of
varying intensity particularly the areas in the Himalayan region and
the Union Territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
n  e.g., The earthquake in Maharashtra State in Western India in
September 1993 claimed over 12,000 lives and January 2001 Bhuj
claimed 19,000-20,000 lives; and more than a lakh due to 2004
Sumatra-Andaman quake and tsunami
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3rd August 2014 China Earthquake
Yunnan Province, China

M 6.1 earthquake hit Ludian


county, in a mountainous area
about 225 miles north-east of
Kunming, the capital of Yunnan
province, China.

398 people have been claimed dead, 1891 were injured & 29,400 have been evacuated
Pattern of Damage in Kachchh due to 2001 Bhuj quake

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1964 Niigata earthquake M7.6

n  a

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Christchurch EQ: Liquefaction
on Kilmore St.
n  a

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n  EQ with magnitude 7.9 occurred along Denali Fault
n  Investigations revealed that the fault may move by
about 20 feet if rupture
n  It moved about 18 feet, and the pipeline did not face
any damage…
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Landslides
or
Mass wasting

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Landslides
n  Landslides are very common in the hills-mountainous
parts of the Asia-Pacific regions – occur frequently in
India, China, Nepal, Thailand and the Philippines.

n  Landslides are aggravated due the influence of


topography, by human activities – such as deforestation,
cultivation and construction, which destabilize the
fragile slopes.

n  As a result of the combined actions of natural (mostly


heavy rainfall) and human-induced factors, as many as
≥12,000 landslides occur in Nepal and India each year.

n  Landslides in Himalaya are also caused along the active


faults – a result of ongoing deformation between Indian
and Eurasian plates…
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Prominent areas of
Landslides

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Disastrous landslides in India
Date/year Location Damage
Sep-68 Himachal Pradesh Active Maling slide- 1km of road and a bridge washed out

Jul-68 Garhwal Himalaya Active Kaliasaur slide- continuous damage to road

Dec-82 Himachal Pradesh Near Solding nallah 3 bridges & 1.5km length of road washed away

Jan-82 Nashri, Jammu & Kashmir Active slide from 1953. Every year road and communication network is damaged.

Mar-89 Himachal Pradesh Nathpa, 500m road section is frequently damaged during successive year

Oct-90 Nilgiris 36 people killed and several injured. Several buildings and communication network damaged

Jul-91 Assam 300 people killed, road and buildings damaged, Millions of rupees

Nov-92 Nilgiris Road network and buildings damaged, Rs.5 million damage estimate

Jun-93 Aizawal Four persons were buried

Jul-93 Itanagar Arunachal Pradesh 25 people buried alive 2 km road damaged

Aug-93 Kalimpong, West Bengal 40 people killed, heavy loss of property

Aug-93 Kohima, Nagaland 200 houses destroyed, 500 people died, about5km road stretch was damaged

Nov-93 Nilgiris 40 people killed, property worth several lakhs damaged

Jan-94 Kashmir National Highway 1A severely damaged

Jun-94 Varundh ghat, Konkan Coast 20 people killed, breaching of ghat road damaged to the extent of 1km. At several places

May-95 Aizwal Mizoram 25 people killed road severely damaged

Jun-95 Malori Jammu 6 persons killed, NH 1A damaged


Sep-95 Kullu, HP 22 people killed and several injured about 1 km road destroyed
9, Jun-97 Gangktok, Sikkim 20 people were killed
14,August -98 Okhimath 69 people killed

18,August - 98 Malpa,Kali river 205 people killed road network to Mansarovar disrupted

Nov-01 Amboori, Kerala More than 40 people were killed

Sakinaka Mumbai More than 74 people were killed


26-Jul-05
Dasalgaon Maharashtra 50 people were killed
27-Jul-07
16-Jun-13 Kedarnath 5700 people killed, multi-day cloud burst

Malin 150 people died and 100 went missing


30,July-13
Northern Sikkim 24 people died
25,Sep-14
22,April-16 Arunachal Pradesh 16 people died
Landslide in Nepal

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Pune Landslide 30 July 2014
On 30 July 2014,
a landslide occurred in the
village of Malin in
the Ambegaon taluka of
the Pune district in
Maharashtra, India.
It has been caused due to heavy
flood and has killed at least 86
people and up to 200 are buried

Nepal Landslide 2nd August 2014


A massive landslide buried dozens of
homes in Nepal, with eight people
confirmed dead. Hundreds of people
were missing and at least 40 houses
were buried in the landslide and at
least 16 people were been rescued,

The landslide blocked the Sunkoshi
river, east of the capital Kathmandu,
forced thousands of people to
evacuate their homes and move to
higher ground.

Bihar government on Saturday issued a high alert cauWoning several northern districts about imminent floods due
to drasWc rise in water level of Kosi aXer landslides blocked the course of the main river in Nepal.
Photo showing effect of Mudflow (Lahars) triggered by Volcanic eruption
and Snow melt in 1985. Destroyed the town of Armero, Colombia

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Cloudburst @ Kedarnath

n  Event occurred on June 15, 2013


n  More than 1000 people were killed

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Floods…

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Floods
n  Floods are the most common climate-related disaster

n  It includes seasonal floods, flash floods, urban floods


due to inadequate drainage facilities and floods
associated with tidal events induced by typhoons/
cyclones in coastal areas etc.

n  From June to September each year, monsoon (rainfall)


in southern Asia. The rains are crucial to agriculture,
but at the same time pose hazards to crops, homes,
and people.

n  Floods often submerge fields, destroy buildings, and


contaminate drinking water.

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n  In India, regions like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat,
Maharashtra are facing flooding problem every year.
In addition since last couple of years Rajasthan and
Kachchh region of Gujarat have experienced flooding
in some area…

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n  This image shows estimated rainfall amounts from July 10 to 16, 2011.
The lowest rainfall amounts (less than 50 millimeters, or 2 inches)
appear in pale green, and the heaviest amounts (more than 400
millimeters, or 16 inches) appear in dark blue (NASA).

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Floods

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Cloudburst @ Kedarnath

n  Event occurred on June 15, 2013


n  More than 1000 people were killed

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Floods in Uttrakhand in 2013

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Tsunami…
Marina Beach @ Chennai
affect of 2004 tsunami

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26 Dec. 2004 Sumarta-Andaman
Earthquake Tsunami

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after

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11 March, 2011 – Tohuku
Earthquake

Run-up height 39 m,
travelled 10 km inland
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n  a

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Tsunamis around the world
n  684 Kii Channel Earthquake, Japan n  1946 - Pacific tsunami
n  1096/1099 Quakes, Japan n  1958 - Lituya Bay megatsunami
n  1700 - Vancouver Island, Canada n  1960 - Chilean tsunami
n  1703 -Kanto Quake, Japan n  1963 - Vajont Dam Megatsunami
n  1755 - Lisbon, Portugal n  1964 - Niigata Earthquake
n  1771 - Yaeyama Islands, Okinawa, n  1964 - Good Friday tsunami
Japan n  1976 - Moro Gulf tsunami
n  1792 - Tsunami in Kyūshū, Japan n  1979 - Tumaco tsunami
n  1854 -Ansei Nankai Quakes in n  1983 - Sea of Japan tsunami
South Coast of Japan n  1993 - Okushiri, Hokkaido tsunami
1868 - Hawaiian Islands local 1998 - Papua New Guinea
n 
tsunami generated by earthquake n 
2004 - Indian Ocean tsunami
1883 - Krakatoa explosive eruption n 
n 
2006 - South of Java Island
1896 - Sanriku coast, Japan n 
n 
tsunami
1917 - Halifax Explosion and 2006 - Kuril Islands tsunami
n 
tsunami n 

n  1923 - The Great Kanto n  2007 - Solomon Islands tsunami


Earthquake, Japan n  2007 - Niigata earthquake
n  1929 - Newfoundland tsunami n  2011 – Tohuku earthquake
n  1933 - Sanriku coast, Japan
n  1944 - Tonankai Earthquake,
Japan
n  1946 - Nankai Earthquake, Japan
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How to provide safe environment to our people ?

n  Disaster prediction and warning


n  By identifying the location
n  By determining the probability of its
occurrence
n  Proper identification and understanding
of Precursory events
n  Forecasting of the event

n  Warning measures

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Flow Chart for Disaster and Warning
Analysis –
prediction

prediction
Scientific
inputs Government
Organisation

War
Local offices

ning
and state Govt.
Collection of organisation
Data

To the Public where


event is likely to
occur

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Benefits and disadvantages

Palm trees along the San Andreas Fault, USA Water pool along the San Andreas Fault, USA

n  Flooding causing damage to human settlement – erodes lot of material from mountains and
deposit it in the lower reaches along the river floodplains – adds nutrients to form fertile
soil
n  Landslides – in hilly areas result into formation of dam along the river courses – provide
valuable resource in form of storage of water
n  Volcanic eruption – create good agricultural and grazing land and aqua life
n  Faults – can cause blocking of ground water example shown above of SAF.
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Indo-
Gang
et ic Pla
ins

Sub-H
imala
y a

CE642 (JNM) Satellite photo from NASA 118


Central Asia Collision Zone
•  World’s highest mountains (~ 8 km) •  Influence on climate
•  World’s highest plateau (~ 5 km) •  Sedimentary processes
•  World’s thickest crust (~70 km) •  The scenery

India
Himalayas
Tibet

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n  Earthquakes are related to mountain building processes:

n  Mountains provide us beautiful scenic areas – which attracts


tourists and people love to visit to admire the beauty

n  Mountain chains like Himalaya has given lot to Indian sub-


continent
n  – it controls rainfall
n  – rivers emerging from Himalaya have provided us extensive flood
plains full of fertile soil (Indo-Gangetic Plain)
n  – used extensively for farming
n  – It has provided wealth of mineral deposits and other resources.

n  However the adverse effect


n  – the earthquakes in this region are deadly with large magnitude
n  – prone to landslides
n  – floods every year in some part in Indo-Gangetic Plain areas.

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ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS
n  Climate Change
n  Today the scientists are concerned about climate change

n  Because if this process is too fast

n  Then numerous dangerous situations could arise

n  Like wise: the global warming


n  Because if the Earth warms – then partial melting of ice
sheets or glaciers could cause rise in sea-levels, could
cause flooding along the river banks and stormy conditions
could affect the cities along the coast.
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End

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