Renewable Energy 126 (2018) 978e986

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Factors influencing solar drying performance of the red algae

Gracilaria chilensis
Rodrigo Poblete a, *, Ernesto Cortes a, Juan Macchiavello b, Jose

Bakit c
a
n de Riesgos y Medioambiente, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Cato
Escuela de Prevencio
lica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile
b
Departamento de Biología Marina, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Cato
lica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile
c
lica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile
Departamento de Acuicultura, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Cato

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The aim of this study was to establish the optimal conditions of distinct factors affecting the performance
Received 25 May 2017 of a closed solar dryer in drying Gracilaria chilensis, a commercially important red algae. The evaluated
Received in revised form factors were algae arrangement (vertical versus horizontal), baffle existence (present versus absent), and
4 April 2018
air fan use (on versus off). Process productivity was maximized when the algae were arranged hori-
Accepted 10 April 2018
Available online 11 April 2018
zontally, a baffle was present, and the air fan was turned on. Of these, air fan use was the most important
determinant of process performance. This optimized solar dryer system was then compared against the
productivity of an open-air system. The solar dryer achieved a greater degree of moisture evaporation
Keywords:
Solar drying
than open-air drying (86.1% versus 67.6%, respectively). This result is directly associated with the
Algae recorded peaks in air temperature (41.3
C in the solar dryer versus 21.7
C outside of the solar dryer). The
Factors influencing drying performance specific energy consumption required for the optimized solar dryer process was 1.64 kWh/kg, as due to
the energy requirements of the air fan and recirculation pump. Solar drying is very effective in drying
G. chilensis when parameters are optimized.
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Gracilaria chilensis is a native red algae to the Chilean coast, with
a distribution between the Antofagasta Region (23
380 S, 70
240 W)
and Chiloe Island (42
400 S, 73
590 W) [1]. Chile is one of the main
producers of G. chilensis [2], annually extracting approximately
400,000 tons and ultimately exporting 79,000 tons [3]. The com-
mercial value of this alga arises from extensive applications in
medical products and the food industry [4]. For example, agar, a
byproduct of G. chilensis is used in the food industry as a gelling
agent in products such as jellies, yoghurts, and ice cream. Algae, in
general, is a rich source of antioxidants, dietary fiber, minerals, and
proteins [5], and Gracilaria spp. are particularly valuable as a
nutrient source for the growth of farmed fish species [6], such as
the abalones Haliotis iris [7], Haliotis asinina [8], and Haliotis discus
hannai [9]. The consequent economic value of Gracilaria spp. means
that these algae are among the most exploited worldwide [2].
G. chilensis is, in general, harvested manually and then left to dry
naturally on the beach (sand or rocks) for several days. After this
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rpobletech@ucn.cl (R. Poblete).
period, the algae are transported to zones with lower air humidity
and once again allowed to air dry until achieving the degree of
dryness required for commercialization [10]. Drying is an impor-
tant post-handling process of food production and can reduce post-
harvest losses, improve quality, and extend the shelf life of har-
vested products [6]. These beneficial effects arise as drying slows
enzymatic activity and the growth of enzymes, bacterial, molds,
and yeasts. More specifically, drying reduces the level of moisture
content in food, which, in turn, minimizes microbial spoilage and
deterioration. In addition to preserving the materials being dried,
this process also significantly reduces product weight and volume,
meaning minimized packaging, storage, and transportation costs
[11].
Under current practices, harvested marine algae is dried
through open solar (open sun or open air) methods. This traditional
drying method has several disadvantages, including the negative
effects of wind, dust, rain, insects, and birds [12]. Open solar drying
requires large land areas and long drying times, in addition to being
subject to fluctuations in solar radiation, ambient temperature [13],
wind velocity, relative humidity, initial moisture content [14],
product mass per unit of exposed area, and equipment geometry
[15], among other factors. The inherent limitations in controlling

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.04.042
0960-1481/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 R. Poblete et al. / Renewable Energy 126 (2018) 978e986
solar drying translate into unsuitable product drying and poor
reproducibility [16]. These limitations, together with the growing
demand for algae and byproduct exports, have driven the need for
alternative, industrial drying methods [17].
Solar dryers, as compared to traditional open air drying, can
reduce food loss and improve product quality. Solar dryers have
demonstrated technical potential in more efficiently and consis-
tently drying products from the agricultural and marine sectors
[18], which ultimately translates into economic gains, such as
related to reduced energy costs [19]. Solar drying technology that
additionally uses forced convection has a reported payback period
of 1.6 years, which is well below the 20-year life span of the
required equipment [20]. Other reports provide even better esti-
mates on payback period, such as with forced-convection solar
stills used to dry bitter gourds, the payback period of which is only
0.62 years [21]. In addition to being more energy efficient, solar
dryers require less time to achieve optimal drying and occupy less
area than would be needed by traditional open-air procedures, thus
meaning that the overall process of solar drying is economically
favorable and more efficient than the traditional alternative [18].
Two categories of solar dryers exist. Passive dryers apply natural
convection, while active dryers used forced convection [22]. The
transparent chamber roof and walls of passive dryers allow sunlight
penetration and a direct absorption of solar radiation by the
product. Active dryers add forced convection to this setup, resulting
in a high convective mass transfer coefficient [23]. Active drying is
faster than passive drying due to the continuous removal of humid
air from inside the dryer chamber [24].
Other aspects of the drying process also impact outcome. For
example, algal fronds can be placed within the dryer either hori-
zontally (i.e., one next to another) or vertically (i.e., one on top of
another). If placed horizontally, each frond will receive more solar
radiation. However, vertical placement causes more air turbulence,
which could aid the drying process. The presence or absence of a
baffle, causes turbulence to facilitate heat transfer, is another
Transparent
sunroof
Air fan
Mirror
Concrete
Baffle
Fins base
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the solar dryer.
979
influencing factor [25]. In the particular case of G. chilensis, this alga
requires a high amount of energy to obtain a sufficient degree of
drying. Therefore, energy analyses are needed to assess the optimal
drying conditions for G. chilensis, a highly valuable marine
commodity.
The aim of this study was to optimize the drying process of the
red algae G. chilensis. For this, the various factors affecting the
drying process were evaluated under distinct scenarios to establish
the effect of each on drying efficiency. Both open and closed
methods were assessed, and analyses were conducted regarding
energy costs. The novelty of the conducted assessments, as
compared to prior research, is the number of factors included for
evaluating the drying process of G. chilensis. The applied factorial
design considered the following variables: algae arrangement; the
presence of a baffle; and the use of an air fan. Recommendations for
the optimal dying of G. chilensis are provided.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Description of the solar dryer
The solar dryer used for analyses was a modified version of a
previously used design [26]. Briefly, the solar dryer consisted of a
solid concrete base (10 cm thick, 2 m2 surface area), a poly-
carbonate front wall (4 mm thick, 1 m length, 0.3 m height), poly-
carbonate lateral walls (4 mm thick), and a wooden back wall (2 cm
thick, 1 m length, 1.3 m height) (Fig. 1). The bottom of the concrete
base was insulated by a plastic film (1 mm thick) and wood board
(2 cm thick). The sunroof of the solar dryer was made of glass
(2.23 m2 surface area, 1.4 mm thick, 85% optical transmittance, and
0.8 W/m
C thermal conductivity transmittance), oriented to the
north, and was tilted 30
, i.e., the same latitude as Coquimbo
(Chile). Frontal and lateral walls of the solar dryer were made of
polycarbonate (4 mm thickness, 80% optical and 0.2 W/m
C
thermal-conductivity transmittance). The interior of the back wall
Solar
collector
Air filter
980 R. Poblete et al. / Renewable Energy 126 (2018) 978e986

a)
b)

Fig. 2. (a) Horizontal and (b) vertical arrangements of solar-dryer trays where algae was placed for drying.

was equipped with a mirror to redirect solar irradiation, the goal of Table 1
which being to improve the amount of irradiation received by the Factorial experimental design applied to assess the impact of each factor on the
drying process.
material being dried. A copper pipe (8 m long, 1.9 cm diameter) was
connected to the concrete base with a solar collector. This pipe, Run Arrangement Baffle Air fan
which transported propylene glycol, was externally heated by the 1 1 1 1
Cromagen cr 120 solar collector system. 2 1 1 1
A copper pipe connected the concrete base with the Cromagen 3 1 1 1
4 1 1 1
cr 120 solar collector system (2.5 m2 surface area, 73.3% thermal
5 1 1 1
performance). The copper pipe transported propylene glycol that 6 1 1 1
was externally heated by the solar collector system and was 7 1 1 1
pumped using a recirculation pump (40 W). The top surface of the 8 1 1 1
pipe was fitted with a fin to dissipate the heat received from the
solar collector. A flat plate collector was used based on previous
research indicating a 12% evaporation/kWh performance All data were analyzed using the Minitab 17 software. The re-
improvement over solar irradiation alone [26]. sults of each experimental run were expressed in terms of per-
An air fan (20 W) placed on the back wall of the solar drier centage of evaporation divided by solar energy received, termed
(above the mirror) removed vapor produced in the system (Fig. 1). herein as productivity, in terms of process evaporation (%) divided
This air fan was used to circulate air (2.5 m/s), i.e., moving air from by received solar energy (%evap/Wh) (Eq. (2))
within the solar drier to the external environment. The air fan, in
practice, forced the occurrence of air convection, thereby % evap
Pr ¼ (2)
enhancing the efficiency of the drying process. External air was energy
input into the system by the air fan through a cellulose air filter
Global solar radiation was measured with a global pyranometer
(0.4 m wide, 0.1 m high) located in the frontal wall of the solar
(285e2800 nm wavelength, 7e14 mV/W/m2 sensitivity; CPM 10,
dryer. A Veto D8060048 thermo-anemometer was used to measure
Kipp & Zonen, Netherlands). The pyranometer was tilted 30
, i.e.,
air velocity, as well as air temperature, and the rate of mass flow
the same angle as the solar still and local latitude. This instrument
(0.025 kg/s). Mass flow was calculated based on air velocity and
provided incident irradiance (W/m2) data, or the solar radiant en-
density, with density being dependent on temperature [27], as
ergy incident per unit of surface area.
shown in Equation (1):

r ¼ 2:357  3:7894$103 $TðKÞ (1)

For the drying process, algae (300 g) were placed in three
stainless steel trays (20 cm wide, 50 cm long, and 15 cm high) that,
in turn, were placed on top of the fins fitted to the copper pipes of
the system. The initial moisture content of the algae was 86%, as
obtained by measuring initial versus final mass using an oven dryer
at 120
C until constant mass was obtained [28]. This amount of
algae was chosen to facilitate handling and measurement proced-
ures. All G. chilensis samples were harvested from the natural
environment (Herradura Beach, 29
580 5400 S, 71
210 1300 W,
Coquimbo, Chile).
2.2. Experimental design
A full 2k factorial design (i.e., two levels) was carried out to
evaluate the significance of the factors affecting the drying process
of G. chilensis. A total of eight experiments were conducted. The
factors evaluated were as follows: A) algae arrangement
(þ1 ¼ horizontal, 1 ¼ vertical; Fig. 2); B) baffle existence
(þ1 ¼ present, 1 ¼ absent); and C) air fan use (þ1 ¼ turned
on, 1 ¼ turned off). When present, the baffle (polycarbonate,
100 cm width, 50 cm height) was vertically joined to the sunroof.
The eight experimental conditions assessed are detailed in Table 1.
2.3. System comparisons
The best performing run from the factorial-deign experiments
was subsequently assessed against the performance of an open-air
solar dryer. The performances of each system in drying G. chilensis
(300 g) samples were evaluated on the same winter day over a 7 h
period. Measurements included air temperature (in and outside of
the solar dryer), relative air humidity, change in algal mass, and
solar irradiation. During the drying process, solar irradiation, air
temperature, and relative humidity in the solar dryer were recor-
ded at 1 min intervals using the CR1000 data acquisition system
(Campbell Scientific). Thermocouples were placed at the entrance
and exit of the solar dryer.
An adaptation of the cumulative energy equation proposed by
Malato et al. [29] was used to measure the received accumulated
solar energy (Qrad) (Eq. (3)):
Qrad;n ¼ Qrad; n1 þ Dtn $radg;n $Ar : (3)
where Qrad,n and Qrad,n1 are the UV energy (kJ) accumulated at
times n and n1, respectively. RadG,n is the average incident radi-
ation on the irradiated area; Dtn is the time of sampling (Eq. (4));
and Ar is the collector area (2.23 m2) receiving sunlight.
 R. Poblete et al. / Renewable Energy 126 (2018) 978e986 981

inflow and outflow).

Dtn ¼ tn  tn1 (4) Drying efficiency (ED) was defined as the ratio between the
The moisture content curve (M) was obtained as a function of energy needed to evaporate moisture and the heat supplied to the
the duration of the drying process. M was expressed as a percentage dryer, considering the amounts of provided solar energy and
of algal moisture content and was calculated using Equation (5): consumed electrical energy (i.e., by the air fan and recirculation
pump) (Eq. (9)):
wðtÞ  d
M¼ $100 (5) W$L
w ED ¼ *100 (9)
ðPi þ rad$Ar Þ$ti
where w(t) is the weight of wet algae at instant t, and d is the mass
of dry algae. where W is the amount of evaporated water (kg); L is the latent
heat from water vaporization on exiting the system (J/kg), and P is
the sum of the electrical energy (W) used by dryer equipment over
2.4. Energy analysis a set time t (s).

The thermal performances of the evaluated experimental runs

and open-air system were established via an energy analysis. 3. Results and discussion
Specific energy consumption (SEC) was calculated according to
Equation (6): 3.1. Factors affecting drying performance of G. chilensis

Pt Fig. 3 shows the main effects of each studied factor (i.e., algae
SEC ¼ (6)
W arrangement, baffle presence, and air fan use) on the productivity
of the drying process. Productivity, calculated using Equation (2),
where Pt is the total amount of energy consumed by the system’s was maximized when algae were arranged horizontally, a baffle
electrical equipment (kWh), and W is amount of moisture evapo- was present, and the air fan was turned on. Differences in the
rated from the algae, which was calculated using Equation (7): means of each factor condition were greatest for air fan use (i.e., on
  versus off), indicating that the air fan was the most important factor
m0 $ Mi  Mf for overall drying performance.
W¼ (7) Regarding algae arrangement, the better productivity results
100  Mf
obtained for the horizontal versus vertical arrangement may be due
where m0 is the initial algae mass (kg) and where Mi and Mf are to the differing amounts of surface area exposed to solar irradiation.
respectively the initial and final moisture content of the algae (%). The poorer performance of the vertical arrangement might be the
The thermal efficiency (Et) of the solar dryer was calculated result of the uppermost tray casting a shadow on the lower trays,
using Equation (8): essentially blocking direct solar irradiation. In turn, the horizontal
arrangement exposed the algae samples not only to more solar
mCp $ðTout  Tin Þ irradiation, but also to greater temperatures as a result of conduc-
Et ¼ $100 (8) tion phenomena from the copper pipes of the designed system.
rad$Ar
Similarly, the horizontal arrangement favorably benefited the baffle
where m is the mass flow rate (kg/s) of the process; Cp is the specific and air fan through convectional heat transfer, which is propor-
heat of the air (J/(kg $
C)); and Ti and Tout are respectively the tional to air velocity and temperature differences between the
temperature of air entering and exiting the solar dryer (i.e., air dryer base and air [30].

y
0.0425
Array Baffle Fan
Mean of productivity (%/Wh)

0.0400

0.0375

0.0350

0.0325

0.0300

0.0275

0.0250

-1 1 -1 1 -1 1

Fig. 3. Plot demonstrating the main effects of each factor on drying productivity.
982 R. Poblete et al. / Renewable Energy 126 (2018) 978e986

Term 0.4744

ABC

BC

AB

AC

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Effect
Fig. 4. Pareto chart for the effect.

The presence of a baffle in the solar dryer improved the pro- enhancing the heat transfer of system [34]. Better heat transfer
ductivity of the drying process. Baffles modify [31] and redirect [32] within the system would consequently improve thermal perfor-
air paths, which would favor air turbulence and, consequently, heat mance, specifically as roughness and tortuosity potentiate the
transfer. Baffle turbulence occurs inside solar stills by air passing Nusselt number for convective heat transfer from the concrete base
over the baffle at an increased velocity. This positive result for baffle to air flowing under varied Reynolds number conditions. In this
presence aligns with findings by Slama and Combarnous [25], who same line, an increase in the Reynolds number translates into
reported that drying-process efficiency increases when a baffle is greater heat and mass transfer, which would ultimately improve
present. the performance of the drying process. On the other hand, baffles
Finally, the most important factor in regards to solar drying produce a pressure drop in air flow. This drop negatively affects
productivity was the air fan (Figs. 3 and 4). Air fan use helps mass flow rates and thermo-hydraulic performance [35]. Therefore,
generate forced convection inside the solar dryer, specifically by an excess presence of baffles is not recommended.
enhancing air turbulence and increasing air velocity. These modi-
fications in turbulence and velocity translated into improved vapor
3.2. System comparisons: solar versus open-air drying
removal during the drying process, meaning drying continuity and
a better drying time. A similar observation was made by Duran et al.
The productivity of open-air drying was compared against the
[33], who concluded that airflow passing across the drying trays
solar dryer system determined optimal in terms of drying pro-
improved drying times.
ductivity, i.e., horizontal arrangement, baffle present, and air fan
Regarding the productivity of the experimental runs (Fig. 5), Run
turned on. The results evidenced that more algal moisture content
2 obtained the best productivity results (0.053 %evap/Wh). This run
was evaporated inside the solar dryer, and at a quicker rate, than
used a vertical algae arrangement, a baffle, and an air fan. Despite
the open-air system (Fig. 6). The final moisture content required for
the assessment of each factor individually indicating better pro-
commercial use of G. Chilensis is z 17%. This degree of dryness was
ductivity with a horizontal arrangement (Fig. 3), the effect of this
obtained with the solar dryer within the experimental timeframe
factor was lower than that of having a baffle and using an air fan.
(5 h drying, requiring 18,707 kJ). An adequate degree of dryness
This might explain the reason for Run 2 having the best produc-
was not obtained by the open-air system within the experimental
tivity despite using a vertical algae distribution e i.e., the contri-
timeframe.
bution of algae arrangement to improving the productivity of the
The recorded evolution of algal moisture content occurred as the
drying process would appear to be small.
result of a heat transfer from flowing air to the surface of the algae.
The results obtained from the experimental runs also demon-
This transfer evaporates moisture from the algae surface. To replace
strated that productivity increased with air fan use, independent of
this lost moisture, algae transport more water to the surface [36],
whether a baffle was present or not. Duran et al. [33] also showed
causing the heat transfer process to once again occur. Moisture was
that air fan usage improves the drying process by increasing air
removed faster inside of the solar dryer due to the higher air
flow. In turn, better productivity was achieved with a baffle present
temperature inside the dryer (Fig. 7). This deduction was based on
only when the air fan was functioning. This would be due to the
the fact that higher temperatures facilitate the internal diffusion of
dependency of baffle function on air flow e i.e., a baffle creates air
water present in materials [37].
turbulence as a result of disrupting an air flow, such as created by
At the beginning of the experimental period, the algal material
an air fan. Furthermore, baffle usage helps increase contact be-
used in both systems had the same moisture content. Over the
tween the air and the drying algal material (solid phase), thereby
course of the day, the solar dryer achieved a higher degree of
 R. Poblete et al. / Renewable Energy 126 (2018) 978e986 983

0.055

0.050
Productivity (%/Wh)

0.045

0.040

0.035

0.030

0.025

0.020
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

RunOrder
Fig. 5. Scatterplot of the productivity results obtained for each run.

100 and relative air humidity inside the solar dryer were recorded
(Fig. 7).
90
Notable differences in air inflow and outflow temperatures were
80 observed. Temperature variations within the solar dryer can be
Out attributed to the effects of direct solar irradiation and heat supplied
Moisture content (%)

70 In
by the solar collector. Peak temperature was recorded just after
60 peak irradiation for the day. The resulting heated air dried the algae
within the closed solar system. These findings indicate that algal
50 material should be dried in an enclosed space and at an elevated
40 temperature, conditions that would increase the vapor pressure of
the moisture content in the drying algae.
30 The day of experimentation was cloudy, which led to irregu-
20 larities in solar radiation. Peak irradiation was recorded at 11:25
a.m. (659.5 W/m2). As expected, air inflow temperature and relative
10 air humidity showed an opposite relationship. The SEC required for
the drying process was 1.64 kWh/kg (Eq. (6)), an energy expendi-
0
10:25 12:00 13:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 ture necessary for the air fan and recirculation pump. The presently
obtained SEC was lower than that reported by Fudholi et al. [4] and
Time of day (h)
Rabha et al. [41], who evaluated the drying processes of algae and
Fig. 6. Evolution of moisture content in algae samples drying in and outside of a solar melon, respectively.
dryer. The time of day at which measurements were taken is shown using the 24-h Changes in drying productivity and efficiency were recorded
clock system. over the course of the experimental period (Fig. 8). Notable im-
provements in productivity began at 12:00 p.m. (e.g. 0.0046 %evap/
Wh for inflow and 0.0037 %evap/Wh for outflow). This increase was
moisture evaporation (86.1%) than did the open-air system (67.6%).
related to higher solar irradiation, as habitually occurs at midday.
At the end of the experimental period, the algae material from the
When solar irradiation became greatly reduced, productivity in the
solar dryer system was fully dried, whereas the material used in the
open-air system fell, but productivity inside the closed system
open-air system had a final moisture content of 21.3%. Similar
increased. This outcome may be due to heat inside the solar dryer
comparative observations were reported by Misha et al. [38], Patil
accumulating in the concrete base and polycarbonate/wood walls.
and Gawande [39], Fudholi et al. [4], and Banout et al. [40], all of
Therefore the closed solar system was able to evaporate more
whom concluded that closed systems reduce drying process times
moisture content for the algae samples than the open-air system.
as compared to open systems.
The total amount of solar energy received by the solar dryer was
38,712.0 Wh.
3.3. Energy analyses The evolution of efficiency for the drying process (ED) was also
determined (Eq. (9)) and considered the energy required for
Changes in solar irradiation, air inflow and outflow temperature,
984 R. Poblete et al. / Renewable Energy 126 (2018) 978e986

700 40 100
Rad
90
600
RH 35
Tin 80
Tout 30
500 70

Temperature (°C)
25
Rad (w/m2)

60
400

RH (%)
20 50
300
40
15

200 30
10
20
100 5
10

0 0 0
09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00

Time of day (h)

Fig. 7. Changes in solar irradiation, air inflow and outflow temperature, and relative air humidity in the solar dryer over the course of the experimental period. The time of day at
which measurements were taken is shown using the 24-h clock system. Rad, solar irradiation; RH, relative humidity: Tin, air inflow temperature; and Tout, air outflow temperature.

60
Prodin
0.006 Prodout
EDin 50

0.005 EDout
40

Dried efficiency ( %)
Productivity (%/Wh)

0.004

30

0.003

20

0.002

10

0.001

0.000
10:00
10 11:00
11 12:00
12 13:00
13 14:00
14 15:00
15 16:00
16 17:00
13:0
17 18:00
18
Time of day (h)
Fig. 8. Fluctuations in drying productivity and efficiency over the experimental period. The time of day at which measurements were taken is shown using the 24-h clock system.
Prodin, productivity insider of the solar dryer; Prodout, productivity outside of the solar dryer (i.e., open-air); EDin, drying efficiency insider of the solar dryer; EDout, drying
efficiency outsider of the solar dryer (i.e., open-air).

moisture evaporation versus the energy consumed (solar and
electric energy) (Fig. 8). Drying efficiency tended to decrease as
algal moisture content decreased. This behavior was observed for
both the solar dryer and open-air systems, albeit more pronounced
and quicker for algae inside the solar dryer. Drying efficiency would
be expected to improve in circumstances using more mass for
drying. Indeed, the capacity of the solar dryer can accommodate
more trays than those currently assessed, which should increase
the loading capacity. A similar observation was reported by Rabha
et al. [41], who studied the drying process of ghost chili peppers
and ginger.
Variations in the thermal efficiency of the solar dryer (Eq. (8))
were mapped against the recorded differences of the temperature
entering and exiting the solar dryer (i.e., air inflow and outflow;
Fig. 9).
Increases in thermal energy occurred at the beginning and end
 R. Poblete et al. / Renewable Energy 126 (2018) 978e986 985

55
Temperature difference 14
50
Thermal efficiency
45 12

Temperature difference (°C)

Thermal efficiency (%) 40
10
35
8
30

25 6

20
4
15
2
10

5 0
09:36 10:48 12:00 13:12 14:24 15:36 16:48 18:00 19:12

Time of day (h)

Fig. 9. Fluctuations in thermal efficiency and temperature of air entering the solar dryer (i.e., air inflow) over the course of the experimental period. The time of day at which
measurements were taken is shown using the 24-h clock system.

of the drying process. This would be due to the temperature of
outgoing air, which did not decrease at the same rate as tempera-
ture of air entering the solar dryer. This can be explained by a
dissipation of accumulated heat from the walls and concrete base of
the dryer to the air, causing an increase in thermal efficiency. A
similar observation was made by Rabha et al. [41].
The recorded thermal and drying efficiency results are similar to
those reported by Fudholi et al. [4], who achieved 35% thermal
efficiency and 27% drying efficiency for a solar system used to dry
red algae. By contrast, Amer et al. [42] achieved 31.7% performance
efficiency (i.e., higher than the present study) when drying bananas
in a system equipped with a movable reflector used to enhance
solar irradiation reception. An auxiliary electrical heater or other
energy source could improve the drying process, particularly in
reducing the required drying time. Nevertheless, such options
would likely lower overall process efficiency due to added energy
demand and an increased SEC. Energy expenditures are a key
concern for the industrial application of solar dryers, and future
research should continue to optimize the balance between energy
consumption and moisture removal in achieving acceptable dry-
ness for commercial products such as G. chilensis.
4. Conclusions
did not reach commercial acceptable dryness within the experi-
mental period. Internal air temperature was notably higher than
external air temperature over the course of the experiment, and a
direct relationship was found between decreased moisture content
and increased air temperature. Regarding energy analyses, an in-
crease in the thermal efficiency of the closed system was observed
at the end of the experiment. This was due to the temperature of
outgoing air not decreasing at the same rate as incoming air. Ulti-
mately, solar drying is very effective in drying G. chilensis material,
particularly as compared to open-air systems and particularly
when parameters are optimized. Similar solar extractor systems
may be applied on greater scales to dry other algae species or fruits.
By improving productivity and decreasing time costs, solar drying
is a promising alternative for drying commercially valuable algae
such as G. chilensis.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Regional Government of
Coquimbo, Chile [project number FIC-r 30137726-0]. Equipment
support was kindly provided by the Central Laboratory for Marine
Aquaculture (Marine Sciences Department, Universidad Cato
lica
del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile).

The factor conditions that resulted in the highest drying process Nomenclature
productivity were as follows: horizontal arrangement of algae;
presence of a baffle; and use of the air fan. Of these, the most Ar Collector area (m2)
important was using the air fan, which increased productivity in- Cp Specific heat (J/(kg $
C))
dependent of the presence of a baffle. By contrast, the benefit of a d Mass of dry algae (kg)
baffle was dependent on the air fan, since the air turbulence created ED Drying efficiency (%)
by the baffle relies on the air flow generated by the air fan. As ex- Et Thermal efficiency of dryer (%)
pected, the closed solar dryer was more efficient than the open-air L Latent heat from water vaporization (J/kg)
system at drying G. chilensis material. More specifically, algal M Moisture content curve (%)
moisture content reached acceptable dryness levels (z17%) after m Mass flow rate (kg/s)
just 5 h insider the solar still. The algae from the open-air system Mf Final moisture content (%)
986 R. Poblete et al. / Renewable Energy 126 (2018) 978e986
Mi Initial moisture content (%)
m0 Initial algae mass (kg)
Pt Total amount of energy consumed by the system’s
electrical equipment (kWh)
Qrad Accumulated solar energy (kJ)
Qrad,n Accumulated solar energy at time n (kJ)
RadG,n Average incident radiation on the irradiated area (W/
m2 )
SEC Specific energy consumption (kWh/kg)
Ti Temperature of the incoming air of the dryer (
C)
Tout Temperature of the air that comes out of the dryer (
C)
W Amount of evaporated moisture (kg)
w(t) Weight of wet algae at instant t (kg)
Dtn Time of sampling (h)
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