Writing a Scientic Paper: From Clutter to Clarity

Gregory S. Patience, Daria C. Boto, Paul A. Patience

Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, C.P. 6079, Succ. CV
Montréal, H3C 3A7 Québec, Canada

Abstract

Preparing a manuscript is a time-intensive activity: organizing the technical

content, preparing graphs and tables, writing, proofreading, and correcting
syntax. Wordiness is a major impediment to communication: this document
advocates writing concisely. We identify best practices for preparing graphs
and tables. Together with conventions for signicant gures, we tabulate
typical grammatical errors and extraneous expressions. Write your paper
well so that reviewers concentrate on the content.
Keywords: Syntax, Graphs, Tables, Grammar
1. Introduction

A poorly written paper frustrates reviewers and risks rejection. The ab-
stract is the rst indicator that the manuscript will be hard-to-read. Symp-
toms include incorrect grammar, a lack of substantive results, erroneus units,
grocery lists of equipment and modeling techniques, and jargon. A good ab-
stract is short, grammatically correct and highlights the important results.
Tips for writing are available on the internet and in books [1], [2]. Even
textbooks [3] discuss writing practice and the philosophy of preparing docu-
ments and reports. Peters et al. [4] outline common errors related to personal
pronouns, verb tenses, diction, and dangling modiers. We go beyond de-
scribing the sections of a scientic paper. We list extraneous parenthetical
expressions and verbs and illustrate, with examples, how to correctly express
signicant gures. We give precise dimensions for graphs that can be repro-
duced directly in a journal paper. Finally, for each section of the manuscript,
we discuss the necessary content and advocate letting the experimental data
tell the story.
Preprint submitted to Elsevier January 9, 2014
 2 GRAMMAR

2. Grammar

A well-written document gets to the point (quickly, eciently, and free

of superuous words) . Avoid meaningless parenthetical phrases, adverbs and
adjectives. Keep the language simple. Verb mutilation is one of the major
causes of wordiness [5].
2.1. Verbs

The verb to do and particularly the participle are prime examples

done
of verbiage. For example, phrases like experiments were done , or the mea-
surement was done shift the focus away from the data. 50 C
At
◦
the solvent
evaporated is preferable to the measurement was made at 50 C... The fol-
◦

lowing sentence: When using the infrared camera, the calibration was done
between −20 C 120 C is better expressed by removing the participle
◦
to
◦
done :
The infrared camera was calibrated between −20 C
◦
to 120 C.
◦

Try, use, perform and make are other verbs that often hide the active
verb. For example, rather than stating a needle valve was used to regulate
pressure , write . The action worth mention-
a needle valve regulated pressure
ing is regulating pressure, not using a needle valve.
Table 1: Problematic Verbs

Do (done)
Verb Weak Phrase
The experiment was done at atmospheric pressure
Try (tried) We tried an experiment at atmospheric pressure
Use (used) A transducer was used to measure pressure
Perform (performed) They performed experiments at high pressure
Make (made) They made the experiments at high pressure

Sentences in Table 1 are improved by eliminating the participle (on the

left) and the irrelevant words such as and
experiment .
measure Experiment
shifts the focus from the phenomenon in question to what was or how it
done
was . When the sentence is properly constructed, the message becomes
done
explicit: The thermodynamic equilibrium favors the products at atmospheric
pressure compared to high pressure.

2.2. Expressions to Avoid

If you can delete a parenthetical expression at the beginning of a sentence

without changing the meaning, it is extraneous. Avoid expressions such as
c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience 2
2.3 Quantitative vs. Qualitative 2 GRAMMAR

as can be seen from the gure even though many top journals accept this
construction. The journal describes the information in the gure and
Nature
cites the gure number in parentheses following the sentence (Fig. 1). Other
expressions to avoid are:
• It is shown that
• It can be noticed that
• It has to be mentioned that
• It should however be noted that
• It is clear that
• Regarding this fact that
• Is given by the fact
• Based on our experiments, understanding
• As can be seen from the gure (table)
• It takes into account the fact that
• It is identied that

Sentences including words such as however, moreover, nevertheless , etc.,

are acceptable when used sparingly.
2.3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative

In a recent article sent for review, the author wrote ve times in
huge
the rst page of the printed manuscript. How much is huge? Is the author's
huge the same as everyone else's? Under certain circumstances, huge may
be as little as 1 %. Quantitative values are preferable. Rephrase sentences
containing the adverbs in Table 2.
Be specic  instead of stating that samples were withdrawn often, cite
the frequency. Be quantitative: is better than
rates double rates increase a
lot, or . Adjectives are appropriate when they have been dened.
signicantly
A parenthetical expression may follow a quantitative statement to empha-
size the authors' perception of the phenomenon: the rate doubles for every
increase in 10 C, ◦
.
which is signicant
Adverbs like , , and
approximately about express uncertainty but
around
should be dropped if the uncertainty is already expressed or if the numerical
value is stated with two or more signicant gures. Change The pump costs
around 103 k$ to either or
The pump costs 103 k$ The pump costs around
100 k$ In some patents, the words , about and
approximately are
around
explicity dened to represent an uncertainty of ±5% to ±10%.
c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience
3
2.3 Quantitative vs. Qualitative 2 GRAMMAR

Table 2: Problematic Adverbs

extremely
Adverb Imprecise Clear
the rate is extremely depen- the rate depends on temper-
dent on operating tempera- ature
ture
signicantly the rate increases signi- the rate doubles for every
cantly with temperature increase in 10
◦
C
very, a lot samples were withrawn from samples were withdrawn at
the tube very often a frequency of 2h
−1

approximately the test lasted approximately the test lasted between 5 s to

between 5 s to 30 s 30 s
Be careful to correctly assign the adjective with the physical quantity,
height, value, time, etc. (Table 3).
Table 3: Adjectives and their Properties

bigger, larger physical size

Adjective Property

higher height, position

greater quantity, value
longer time, length
Avoid the word worksexcept for the third-person singular. When refer-
ring to previous studies, articles, or work, is unacceptable.
works
Use the word sparingly. Texts are easier to read and assimilate when
not
they are structured in the positive tense. Use prexes when possible (Ta-
ble 4): insensitiveis better than . Adjectives are often included
not sensitive
for emphasis, which is unwarranted. Thus, should just
not sensitive enough
read . Also, be careful with expressions like
insensitive .
show high similarity
Write instead are similar.
Table 4: Negative Prexes
Not accurate Inaccurate Not correct Incorrect
Not complete Incomplete Not favourable Unfavourable
Not sensitive Insensitive Not sucient Insucient
Not necessary Unnecessary

c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience

4
2.4 Wordy 2 GRAMMAR

2.4. Wordy

Reducing the number of words in a document results in a text that is

direct and readable. In the phrase the verb
show high similarity is to be
substituted by the verb . As a consequence, the adjective
to show is similar
replaced by the noun . Wordy texts transform adjectives to nouns
similarity
and hide the active verbs. Below, we list poorly constructed sentences and
their improved counterparts.
• It has been found that CO2 and H2 O formation has been reduced at high
temperatures.
This sentence's rst deciency is the parenthetical expression It has
been found that. It can be removed without changing the sentence.
Secondly, has been reduced can be replaced and the sentence becomes:
CO2 and H2 O formation is lower at higher temperatures.

The sentence may be further improved by recognizing that the verb to

form is hidden in the noun .
formation

Less CO2 and H2 O was formed at higher temperature.

• Briey, it is reported here that the preparation method has involved a

solid liquid reaction between an n-hexane solution of small Rh clusters
and the powdered oxides (Al2 O3 , MgO and CeO2 ).
As with the previous example, this sentence contains the unnecessary
phrase . Also the verb
Briey, it is reported here has been
to prepare
converted to the noun . Small  an unspecied quantity
preparation
 is replaced with a specic quantity: 100 nm. Thirteen words are
removed from the sentence.
The powder was prepared by reacting 100 nm Rh clusters and Al2 O3 ,
MgO and CeO2 powder in n-hexane.

• Conversion over 90% was achieved with a residence time of 20 minutes.

The number of words (and characters) is reduced by a factor of 2 by

using the active voice: substituting with
were achieved .exceeded

Conversion exceeded 90 % in 20 min .

• Coal pyrolysis to acetylene is carried out under ultra high temperature

and milliseconds residence time.

c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience 5

2.4 Wordy 2 GRAMMAR

What is the demarcation between and

high temperature ultra high tem-
perature? How much time does represent? Why let the
milliseconds
reader guess? Be specic. Be brief. Use verbs.
10 ms
Coal pyrolyses to acetylene in 1500 C
above
◦
.

• Figure 1 shows the relationship between butane conversion and yield as

a function of butane and oxygen concentrations.

Referencing tables and gures in the body of the manuscript is a matter

of taste. The journal allows the above contruction but
Science Nature
rejects it. Rather than wasting space stating the obvious, describe the
relationship between yield and conversion as a function of composition.
Describing the gure could take several sentences but the rst sentence
can be more specic.
MA yield increases linearly with conversion regardless of butane or oxy-
gen mole fraction (Fig. 1).

• The catalyst is characterised using BET, mercury intrusion porosime-

try, Raman spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and density mea-
surements, before and after h
500 of on stream operation.

Avoid a grocery list of techniques like the sentence above. In the ab-
stract, cite the results:
After 500 h 71 m g
on stream, the surface area dropped from 5m g 2 −1
to
2 −1

and the porosity declined 15 % , ...

• ... as already extensively documented [ref1 , ref2 ].

...[ref1 , ref2 ].

• ... was demonstrated to be excellent

was excellent

• ... must be kept to a minimum

must be minimized

The passive voice here can often be converted to the active voice using
the imperative:
minimize

c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience 6

 3 REPORTING DATA

• found to be able to account for

accounted for

• at three levels of temperature

at three temperatures

or, better yet

at 360 C 380 C
◦
,
◦
400 C
and
◦

Other expressions to avoid:

• best results were obtained...

• The use of the model and experimental results lead to four main con-
clusions.

• In this study, a set of experiments in an original set-up and with a new

data treament procedure is presented

• ... additional experimentation was completed.

• Considerable eort has been applied in order to gain an understanding

• The comparison of simulation and experimental results validates the

model.

3. Reporting data

Eighteen out of twenty articles published in a journal with an impact

factor (IF) greater than 2.2 reported data poorly. Errors included carrying
too many signicant gures and poor choice of units. Experimental data is
imprecise. Temporal and spatial variations in reactors are greater than 10 C◦

(and as much as 100 C). Reporting temperature to ve signicant gures

◦

is unwarranted. Cost data is often unrealistically reported to within 1 $.

Fitted parameters to calculate thermodynamic properties (C , for example)
are reported with seven signicant gures or more. Atmospheric pressure is
p

stated as 101 325 Pa but barometric pressure varies by as much as 5000 Pa in

a single week. Derived variables such as conversion and selectivity depend on
ow rates, species concentration, pressure and temperature, each of which
has a certain level of uncertainty. The target on closing a mass balance
c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience 7
 3 REPORTING DATA

around a reactor is 5 %: reporting conversion with three signicant gures

overstates the certainty.
If the standard deviation of a measurement is ±2 %, how many measure-
ments are required to justify carrying three signicant gures? Standard
deviation, error and uncertainty are often confused. Error is the dierence
between the measured (reported) value and the true value as established
by a recognized standard. There are random errors, systematic errors and
blunders [6]. Random errors are characterized with statistical methods. Sys-
tematic errors are corrected through calibration, modifying procedures, etc.
Standard deviation is the square root of the variance and characterizes the
random error around the mean of a population of data. The uncertainty (also
known as the margin of error), ∆, refers to a range of values in which the
true value is likely to be found. It is expressed as the product of the standard
deviation, σ, and a condence interval, k(α), where the level of condence,
α, is often assumed to be 95 %.

∆ = k(α) · σ (1)
The condence interval equals 1.96 (≈ 2) for a 95 % level of condence for
a normally distributed population of data. Therefore, any single measured
value has a 95 % likelihood of lying within ±2σ.
The uncertainty is lower when multiple experiments are made and the
results are averaged. It equals the product of the t-value of the Student's
t-statistic and the sample standard deviation, s, divided by the square root
of the number of repeats, n (degrees of freedom):
√
∆ = t(α, n − 1) · s/ n (2)
How many repeats are required to justify carrying three signicant g-
ures? Assume the sample standard deviation of 30 measurements equals 2 %
(so, t(α, n − 1) ≈ 2). The number of experiments required to carry the third
signicant gure to an uncertainty of ±0.005% becomes
2 2
n = [t(α, n − 1) · s/∆)] = [2 · 0.02/0.005] = 64 (3)
Conducting 64 tests is prohibitive and a precision of three signicant
gures is excessive. Note that to reduce the level of uncertainty to ±0.001%,
1600 repeat experiments would be required.
As an exercise in expressing data, improve the following expressions:
c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience 8
 4 GRAPHS

1. d = 2.5 × 10 m−6

2. T = 793.15 K
p

3. 3962 $/metric ton

4. Q = 1.46 × 10 m s
3 3 −1

5. σ = 6.9 × 10 m s
2 3 −1

6. ∆H = −1501.660 kJmol
Q
−1

7. Ea = 50.208 kJmol ± 0.053

f
−1

8. Ash content = 12.34 %

9. An estimate of 0.693
10. An increase of 39 % and 35.6 %
11. Identify all of the expressions that are acceptable
(a) 7.928 ± 0.0495
(b) 7.928 ± 0.049
(c) 7.928 ± 0.05
(d) 7.93 ± 0.05
12. The following correlation is accurate to within 3.2 %
Sr = 2.12(1 + 0.279S)0.156 St0.0755 Re0.377 (4)
The expressions above were taken from the same journal (with an IF>2.2).
Most of them could be improved by expressing the uncertainty with fewer
signicant gures or as a percentage. Item 11(d) would become 7.93 ± 0.6 %.
(Note that the units corresponding to 7.93 are absent.)
4. Graphs

Graphs are an eective means to communicate data. Make graphs in-

stead of tables. However, when the trends are simple (straight lines, three
data points or less), cite the data within the text of the document: Increasing
the temperature from 120 C◦
to140 C
◦
doubled the reaction rate.When dis-
cussing graphs, highlight trends and discuss their signicance with respect to
expectations. Avoid sentences that give no information other than directing
the reader to the gure or table, for example: Figure 1 shows the summary
results of the TGA analysis.
The principal elements of a graph are axes, number of ticks, tick labels,
axes' titles, symbols for experimental data, lines (for trends or models), grid
lines, legends, symbol size, line thickness and colours.
c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience
9
4.1 Axes 4 GRAPHS

4.1. Axes

Choose the axes so that the experimental data extends to its limits. Often,
the axes begin at (0,0). However, if the data ranges are distant from (0,0),
then the minimum and maximum values of the axes should correspond to
those of the data. For data that varies logarithmically, begin the origin at
the lowest exponential value near the minimum. Place the origin at 10 for
values ranging from 10 to 100; place it at 1000 when the minimum value
lies between 1000 to 10 000, etc. Exclude grid lines except for log-log plots
(perhaps). Graphs help the reader understand signicant trends. Extraneous
lines add clutter. Readers can extract precise values from PDF graphs with
computer discretization technology.
The maximum number of major ticks on a graph should be about 5
(excluding the origin). The maximum number of minor ticks should not
exceed 10. Often, minor ticks are unnecessary.
4.2. Data

Reserve symbols for experimental data and lines for models and corre-
lations. Many authors include lines to help the reader follow the trends in
the data. This practice is discouraged. Symbols should include error bars.
However, the size of the symbol may also be chosen to represent the error.
When the graph contains several sets of data, each set should have its own
colour and symbol type (circle, square, diamond, etc.). Colours are useful
even when the article is printed in black and white because it results in dif-
ferent shades of gray. Moreover, articles are increasingly available on the
internet in colour.
4.3. Text

Minimize the text in graphs. Instead of writing ( C) as an

Temperature
◦

axis title, write , C. This recommendation applies to legends as well as

T
◦

tick labels. Report the tick label as 2 µm instead of 2 × 10 m. A recent

−6

article wrote the following for the text in the legend: Temperature prole
from simulation with cooling temperature 690 C. This is an extreme exam-
◦

ple. Obviously Temperature prole is extraneous since the plot was tem-
perature versus time. The word simulation is unnecessary when following
the norm that data are expressed as symbols and models are expressed as
lines. Temperature should be abbreviated and could be subscripted:
cooling
Tcooling= 690 C.
◦

c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience

10
4.4 Format 4 GRAPHS

30

20 %C4H10, %O2
Y, % 1.5 4.0
1.5 10
10 5.0 4.0
5.0 10
9.0 4.0
9.0 10
0
0 20 40 60
X, %

Figure 1: MA Yield v. Butane Conversion

4.4. Format

Figure 1 illustrates a graph that minimizes text while maximizing infor-

mation. It respects the guidelines discussed above and is also easily embedded
in the body of the text. Respect the following geometrical and congurational
criteria in order to facilitate preparing graphs that are ready for publication.
Some of the recommendations are cosmetic while others are critical to making
a scalable graph.
Figure 1 was prepared in Sigmaplot . The frame is 85 mm wide by
R
55 mm high. The text is 12 pt Arial for legends, tick labels and axes' titles.
The legend is reported within the graph and is organized in columns to
eliminate the necessity of repeating %C H and %O . The symbol type and
color are unique for each data set. Dierent shades of gray result when the
4 10 2

graph is printed in black and white. The symbol size is 2.6 mm with a 0.1
mm thick black contour line. The line thickness of the axes is 0.4 mm. Major
ticks point inward with a line thickness of 0.3 mm and a line length of 1.6
mm. Minor ticks are absent. When minor ticks are necessary, make them
shorter (0.8 mm) and narrower (0.1 mm) than the major tick. When a graph
contains multiple lines, distinguishing one line from another is dicult. In
this case, place the text in the vicinity of the line instead of writing a legend.

c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience

11
 6 PREPARING THE MANUSCRIPT

5. Tables

As mentioned above, graphs are preferred to tables when presenting ex-

perimental data. Tables are appropriate for lists. Write explicit and informa-
tive titles. Avoid sentences. Column titles should contain the symbol name
(abbreviate the titles  T instead of Temp. or Temperature ). Include the
units in the title instead of reporting the symbol unit after each value in the
table. For large or small numbers, adopt the appropriate SI prex. Most
data warrant no more than three signicant gures, or even two. Carrying
more signicant gures is only justied for a large number of experiments.
6. Preparing the Manuscript

When writing your manuscript for the rst time, ignore the grammatical
rules cited in this document! Write quickly and come back later to correct.
When you start to write, do not stop to edit. Concentrate solely on writ-
ing; try a pen instead of a text editor/word processor. Typing can be slower
because of the tendency to correct spelling mistakes and grammar while com-
posing text. Collect your thoughts and structure your paper with mindmaps
[7]. You can even write paragraphs with this technique.
• write
• correct
• type
• correct

6.1. Organize the data

Data is everything. Data talks, bullshit walks. Organize it to be clear and

concise. Before organizing the data, list the tests that were made, decide what
is important, and arrange the ideas in a logical order. During this step, check
for consistency. Is it complete and coherent? Calculate the uncertainties. If
the standard deviation is too large, repeat experiments. When the data set
is complete (to your satisfaction), you must be critical and decide what is
appropriate to report and what is unnecessary. Characterize the trends with
physical phenomena. If the trends run counter to the phenomena, repeat
tests to conrm the trends (and look for a alternative hypotheses).

c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience 12

6.2 Title 6 PREPARING THE MANUSCRIPT

6.2. Title
Try to catch the reader's attention with the title. It represents the sub-
ject, the objective and even the results. Limit it to 12 words or less than
100 characters; shorter is better. Avoid abbreviations (except for chemical
symbols) as well as long strings of nouns and adjectives. Consider the follow-
ing title: Kinetics of mixed copper-iron based oxygen carriers for hydrogen
production by chemical looping water splitting [8]. It is long. It mentions the
technology and the focus on kinetics with mixed metal oxide. The following
title is much more powerful: Cu-Fe mixed oxides split water . It is intriguing
and focuses on the result: splitting water.
6.3. Abstract
The abstract is arguably the most important part of a manuscript. Like
the title, a short abstract is better. Summarize the major contributions
such that the reader appreciates the signicance of the work without reading
the entire document. Focus on the results, not the means. We recommend
writing the abstract several times: at the beginning (even before all the data
is collected!), when the paper is nearly complete, and at the end to reect
the nished manuscript. Organizing and writing the abstract brings clarity.
As with all writing, do it rapidly. The following sentence is an example of
what not to do:
The eects of various design and operating parameters on the performance of
the proposed reactor were investigated using a detailed model-based analysis.
This sentence is uniformative and conveys valueless information. What de-
sign and operating parameters were changed? What was the model? What
was the eect? Two or three sentences are required to convey pertinent
information.
Selectivity decreased by20 % while increasing temperature from 700 C◦
to
1000 C
◦
at constant pressure. Selectivity increased by10 % with increasing
pressure from 1 bar 5 bar
to 87 %
. A redox kinetic model accounted for of the
variance in the data.

6.4. Introduction
The introduction delimits the scope of the work. General introductions
allow readers to appreciate the importance of the subject. The rst couple
of paragraphs may include a historical context, or mention the economic in-
centive or the scientic interest. The problem can be described with possible
solutions proposed by others. A critical review of the literature follows. The
c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience
13
6.5 Experimental Methods 6 PREPARING THE MANUSCRIPT

novelty of the work comes next and includes the main objectives. Bear in
mind what Joseph Pulitzer had to say about writing:
Put it before them briey so they will read it, clearly so they will appreciate
it, picturesquely so they will remember it and, above all, accurately so they
will be guided by its light.

6.4.1. Literature Review

Reviewing literature is a continuous activity. Mention the major contri-
butions, any controversy and what is left to be done in this section. A critical
review requires a couple of sentences for each reference to describe the salient
features of the previous work and its limitations. When several articles touch
on the same subject in a similar manner, they can be referenced simultane-
ously [ref − ref ]. As many as 20 pertinent references is sucient. Most
scientic articles ignore patents and vice versa. In fact, patent literature can
x x+y

be an enormous source of inspiration.

6.5. Experimental Methods
Considering what Pulitzer said, the Experimental Methods and materi-
als section must be stated concisely, clearly and accurately so that others
may replicate the results. Include only professional images that demonstrate
the experimental apparatus. Include schematic diagrams and describe major
pieces of equipment individually as well as the experimental sequence chrono-
logically. Describe the sampling procedure, if any. Use tables to summarize
the experimental conditions. State the invariant factors in the body or in
the captions to keep tables manageable.
List all materials and reagents as well as their purity. Indicate if the
reagants were further puried or were synthesized as part of the study. Ref-
erence the synthesis steps where appropriate rather than repeating them.
Provide the brand and the model of the analytical instruments as well as the
conditions. Highlight data that helped design the experiments described in
the results section.
6.6. Results and Discussion
This section constitutes the bulk of your paper. It substantiates what
you say in the abstract and conclusions. Summarize the data in graphs and
tables and discuss the obvious trends in the body of the text. Interpret the
data. Include literature references to corroborate your results. If the results
are inconsistent with literature, highlight the dierences. Explain all your
results and be critical.
c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience 14
6.7 Conclusions REFERENCES

6.7. Conclusions

People often read the conclusions directly after the abstract. Do not
repeat the abstract. In fact, some journals skip the conclusions section.
Avoid restating the problem and the context of the work but highlight the
most signicant ndings. Consider mentioning the limitations of the work
or issues that remain. Address the implications of the work in a context
relevant to other systems, scale-up, and applications.
References

[1] http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/ug/research/paper.html
[2] http://journaltool.asme.org/help/authorhelp/webhelp/guidelines/
writing a technical paper.htm
[3] J.P. Holman, Experimental Methods for Engineers, 7th Ed., McGraw
Hill, 2001.
[4] M.S. Peters, K.D. Timeerhaus, R.E. West, Plant design and Economics
for Chemical Engineers, 5th Ed., McGraw Hill, 2003.
[5] http://www.burgerwriting.com/
[6] G.S. Patience, Experimental Methods and Instrumentation for Chemical
Engineers, Elsevier BV, Amsterdam 2013.
[7] M. J. Gelb, Present Yourself, Jalmar Press, 1988.
[8] Chiron, F.-X., G.S. Patience, S. Riart, 2012. Kinetics of mixed copper-
iron based oxygen carriers for hydrogen production by chemical looping
water splitting, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 37 (14), 10489-10498.

c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience

15
 APPENDIX A SOLUTION TO EXERCISES

Appendix A. Solution to exercises

dp = 2.5 × 10−6 m d = 2.5 µm

K T=520 C (Implied uncertainty ±10 C)
p
◦ ◦
T = 793.15
3962 $/metric ton 4000 $/t
Q = 1.46 × 10 m s
3 3 −1
Q = 1460 m s ±x % 3 −1

σ = 6.9 × 10 m s
2 3 −1
σ = 700 m s 3 −1

∆H = −1501.660 kJmol ∆H = −1500 kJmol ± x %

Q Q
−1 −1

Ea = 50.208 kJmol ± 0.053 Ea = 50.2 kJmol ± 0.1 kJmol

f f
−1 −1 −1

An estimate of 0.693 An estimate of 0.7

An increase of 39 % and 35.6 % An increase of 39 % and 36 %
Ash content = 12.34 % Ash content = 12.3 % ±x %
7.93 ± 0.05 Missing units
For an equation with a 3.2 % error, three signicant gures for the expo-
nents is excessive:
S = 2.12(1 + 0.28S) St
r
0.16
Re0.076 0.38
(A.1)

c G.S. Patience, D.C. Boto, P.A. Patience

16