is the part of the peripheral nervous system that acts as
a control system, functioning largely below the level of consciousness, and controls visceral functions Innervates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, most exocrine glands, some endocrine glands, and adipose tissue affects heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, salivation, perspiration, pupillary dilation, micturition (urination), and sexual arousal Autonomic Nervous System Each autonomic nerve pathway extending from the CNS to an innervated organ is a two-neuron chain (except to the adrenal medulla) Autonomic Nervous System Has two subdivisions : sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems Sympathetic nerve fibers originate in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord Most sympathetic preganglionic fibers are very short, synapsing with cell bodies of postganglionic neurons within ganglia that lie in a sympathetic ganglion chain (also called the sympathetic trunk) located along either side of the spinal cord Long postganglionic fibers originate in the ganglion chain and end on the effector organs. Autonomic Nervous System Parasympathetic preganglionic fibers arise from the cranial (brain) and sacral (lower spinal cord) areas of the CNS. longer than sympathetic preganglionic fibers because they do not end until they reach terminal ganglia that lie in or near the effector organs. Very short postganglionic fibers end on the cells of an organ itself. Preganglionic fibers release the same neurotransmitter, acetylcholine (ACh),but the postganglionic endings of these two systems release different neurotransmitters Parasympathetic postganglionic fibers release acetylcholine. Most sympathetic postganglionic fibers release noradrenaline / norepinephrine The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems dually innervate most visceral organs. Afferent information coming from the viscera (internal organs) usually does not reach conscious level E.g : input from the baroreceptors that monitor blood pressure and input from the chemoreceptors that monitor the protein or fat content of ingested food This input is used to direct the activity of the autonomic efferent neurons. Autonomic efferent output regulates visceral activities such as circulation, digestion, sweating, and pupillary size autonomic efferent output operates outside the realm of consciousness and voluntary control The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems dually innervate most visceral organs. Most visceral organs are innervated by both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers (dual innervation) The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems generally exert opposite effects in a particular organ Usually both systems are partially active. Normally some level of action potential activity exists in both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic fibers supplying a particular organ sympathetic or parasympathetic tone or tonic activity Under given circumstances, activity of one division can dominate the other Sympathetic dominance : when the sympathetic fibers rate of firing to that organ increases above tonic level, coupled with a simultaneous decrease below tonic level in the parasympathetic fibers frequency of action potentials to the same organ TIMES OF SYMPATHETIC DOMINANCE promotes responses that prepare the body for strenuous physical activity in emergency or stressful situations, such as a physical threat from the outside (fight-or-flight) The heart beats more rapidly and more forcefully, blood pressure is elevated by generalized constriction of the blood vessels, respiratory airways open wide to permit maximal airflow, glycogen and fat stores are broken down to release extra fuel into the blood, and blood vessels supplying skeletal muscles dilate providing increased flow of oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood to the skeletal muscles in anticipation of strenuous physical activity. TIMES OF SYMPATHETIC DOMINANCE the pupils dilate and the eyes adjust for far vision, letting the person visually assess the entire threatening scene. Sweating is promoted in anticipation of excess heat production by the physical exertion. Because digestive and urinary activities are not essential in meeting the threat, the sympathetic system inhibits these activities TIMES OF PARASYMPATHETIC DOMINANCE dominates in quiet, relaxed situations (rest-and- digest) Under such nonthreatening circumstances, the body can be concerned with its own “general housekeeping” activities, such as digestion Exceptions to General Rule Innervated blood vessels (most arterioles and veins are innervated; arteries and capillaries are not) receive only sympathetic nerve fibers. The only blood vessels to receive both sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers are those supplying the penis and clitoris Most sweat glands are innervated only by sympathetic nerves. The postganglionic fibers of these nerves are unusual because they secrete acetylcholine Salivary glandsare innervated by both autonomic divisions, but unlike elsewhere, sympathetic and parasympathetic activity is not antagonistic. (Both stimulate salivary secretion) Adrenal Medulla There are two adrenal glands,one lying above the kidney on each side The adrenal medulla is a modified sympathetic ganglion that does not give rise to postganglionic fibers stimulation by the preganglionic fiber that originates in the CNS, it secretes hormones into the blood Output : norepinephrine (20%), and the remaining 80% is the closely related epinephrine (adrenaline) These hormones, in general, reinforce activity of the sympathetic nervous system. Cholinergic Receptors Nicotinic receptors : activated by the tobacco plant derivative nicotine Muscarinic receptors : activated by the mushroom poison muscarine found on the postganglionic cell bodies in all autonomic ganglia Muscarinic receptors are found on effector cell membranes (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands) bind with Acetylcholine released from parasympathetic postganglionic fibers ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS two major classes : norepinephrine and epinephrine -> alpha (α) and beta (β) receptors Receptors β2 : bind almost exclusively with epinephrine Receptors β1 : have about equal affinities for norepinephrine and epinephrine Receptors α : both subtypes have a greater sensitivity to norepinephrine than to epinephrine Receptors α1 : brings about an excitatory response in the effector arteriolar constriction caused by increased contraction of smooth muscle in the walls of these blood vessels Receptors α2 : brings inhibitory response in the effector decreased smooth muscle contraction in the digestive tract ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS Stimulation of β 1 : found primarily in the heart, causes an excitatory response increased rate and force of cardiac contraction. Activation β 2 : generally inhibitory arteriolar or bronchiolar (respiratory airway) dilation caused by relaxation of the smooth muscle in the walls of these tubular structures
Rule of thumb : 1 versions of adrenergic receptors lead
to excitatory, 2 versions lead to inhibitory responses Many regions of the central nervous system are involved in the control of autonomic activities information carried to the CNS via the visceral afferents is used to determine the appropriate output via the autonomic efferents to the effectors to maintain homeostasis Some autonomic reflexes, such as urination, defecation, and erection, are integrated at the spinal- cord level, but all these spinal reflexes are subject to control by higher levels of consciousness The medulla within the brain stem is the region most directly responsible for autonomic output : Centers for cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive activity via the auto-nomic system are located there hypothalamus plays an important role in integrating the autonomic, somatic, and endocrine responses that automatically accompany various emotional and behavioral states. the increased heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory activity associated with anger or fear Prefrontal association cortex through its involvement with emotional expression characteristic of the individual’s personality. blushing when embarrassed (dilation of blood vessels supplying the skin of the cheeks) mediated through hypothalamic-medullary pathways