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Autonomic Nervous System

 is the part of the peripheral nervous system that acts as


a control system, functioning largely below the level of
consciousness, and controls visceral functions
 Innervates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, most
exocrine glands, some endocrine glands, and adipose
tissue
 affects heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate,
salivation, perspiration, pupillary dilation, micturition
(urination), and sexual arousal
Autonomic Nervous System
 Each autonomic nerve pathway extending from the
CNS to an innervated organ is a two-neuron chain
(except to the adrenal medulla)
Autonomic Nervous System
 Has two subdivisions : sympathetic and the
parasympathetic nervous systems
 Sympathetic nerve fibers originate in the thoracic and
lumbar regions of the spinal cord
 Most sympathetic preganglionic fibers are very short,
synapsing with cell bodies of postganglionic neurons
within ganglia that lie in a sympathetic ganglion chain
(also called the sympathetic trunk) located along
either side of the spinal cord
 Long postganglionic fibers originate in the ganglion
chain and end on the effector organs.
Autonomic Nervous System
 Parasympathetic preganglionic fibers arise from the
cranial (brain) and sacral (lower spinal cord) areas
of the CNS.
 longer than sympathetic preganglionic fibers because
they do not end until they reach terminal ganglia that
lie in or near the effector organs.
 Very short postganglionic fibers end on the cells of an
organ itself.
 Preganglionic fibers release the same neurotransmitter,
acetylcholine (ACh),but the postganglionic endings of
these two systems release different neurotransmitters
 Parasympathetic postganglionic fibers release
acetylcholine.
 Most sympathetic postganglionic fibers release
noradrenaline / norepinephrine
The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems dually innervate most visceral organs.
 Afferent information coming from the viscera (internal
organs) usually does not reach conscious level
 E.g : input from the baroreceptors that monitor blood
pressure and input from the chemoreceptors that
monitor the protein or fat content of ingested food
 This input is used to direct the activity of the
autonomic efferent neurons. Autonomic efferent
output regulates visceral activities such as circulation,
digestion, sweating, and pupillary size
 autonomic efferent output operates outside the realm
of consciousness and voluntary control
The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems dually innervate most visceral organs.
 Most visceral organs are innervated by both
sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers (dual
innervation)
 The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems generally exert opposite effects in a particular
organ
 Usually both systems are partially active.
 Normally some level of action potential activity exists
in both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic
fibers supplying a particular organ  sympathetic or
parasympathetic tone or tonic activity
 Under given circumstances, activity of one division
can dominate the other
 Sympathetic dominance : when the sympathetic
fibers rate of firing to that organ increases above tonic
level, coupled with a simultaneous decrease below
tonic level in the parasympathetic fibers frequency of
action potentials to the same organ
TIMES OF SYMPATHETIC DOMINANCE
 promotes responses that prepare the body for
strenuous physical activity in emergency or stressful
situations, such as a physical threat from the outside
(fight-or-flight)
 The heart beats more rapidly and more forcefully,
blood pressure is elevated by generalized constriction
of the blood vessels, respiratory airways open wide to
permit maximal airflow, glycogen and fat stores are
broken down to release extra fuel into the blood, and
blood vessels supplying skeletal muscles dilate 
providing increased flow of oxygenated, nutrient-rich
blood to the skeletal muscles in anticipation of
strenuous physical activity.
TIMES OF SYMPATHETIC DOMINANCE
 the pupils dilate and the eyes adjust for far vision,
letting the person visually assess the entire threatening
scene. Sweating is promoted in anticipation of excess
heat production by the physical exertion.
 Because digestive and urinary activities are not
essential in meeting the threat, the sympathetic
system inhibits these activities
TIMES OF PARASYMPATHETIC DOMINANCE
 dominates in quiet, relaxed situations (rest-and-
digest)
 Under such nonthreatening circumstances, the body
can be concerned with its own “general housekeeping”
activities, such as digestion
Exceptions to General Rule
 Innervated blood vessels (most arterioles and veins are
innervated; arteries and capillaries are not) receive only
sympathetic nerve fibers. The only blood vessels to receive
both sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers are those
supplying the penis and clitoris
 Most sweat glands are innervated only by sympathetic
nerves. The postganglionic fibers of these nerves are
unusual because they secrete acetylcholine
 Salivary glandsare innervated by both autonomic divisions,
but unlike elsewhere, sympathetic and parasympathetic
activity is not antagonistic. (Both stimulate salivary
secretion)
Adrenal Medulla
 There are two adrenal glands,one lying above the kidney
on each side
 The adrenal medulla is a modified sympathetic ganglion
that does not give rise to postganglionic fibers
 stimulation by the preganglionic fiber that originates in
the CNS, it secretes hormones into the blood
 Output : norepinephrine (20%), and the remaining 80%
is the closely related epinephrine (adrenaline)
 These hormones, in general, reinforce activity of the
sympathetic nervous system.
Cholinergic Receptors
 Nicotinic receptors : activated by the tobacco plant
derivative nicotine
 Muscarinic receptors : activated by the mushroom
poison muscarine
 found on the postganglionic cell bodies in all
autonomic ganglia
 Muscarinic receptors are found on effector cell
membranes (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and
glands)
 bind with Acetylcholine released from parasympathetic
postganglionic fibers
ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS
 two major classes : norepinephrine and epinephrine ->
alpha (α) and beta (β) receptors
 Receptors β2 : bind almost exclusively with
epinephrine
 Receptors β1 : have about equal affinities for
norepinephrine and epinephrine
 Receptors α : both subtypes have a greater sensitivity to
norepinephrine than to epinephrine
 Receptors α1 : brings about an excitatory response in the
effector arteriolar constriction caused by increased
contraction of smooth muscle in the walls of these blood
vessels
 Receptors α2 : brings inhibitory response in the effector
decreased smooth muscle contraction in the digestive
tract
ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS
 Stimulation of β 1 : found primarily in the heart,
causes an excitatory response  increased rate and
force of cardiac contraction.
 Activation β 2 : generally inhibitory  arteriolar or
bronchiolar (respiratory airway) dilation caused by
relaxation of the smooth muscle in the walls of these
tubular structures

 Rule of thumb : 1 versions of adrenergic receptors lead


to excitatory, 2 versions lead to inhibitory responses
Many regions of the central nervous system are
involved in the control of autonomic activities
 information carried to the CNS via the visceral
afferents is used to determine the appropriate output
via the autonomic efferents to the effectors to maintain
homeostasis
 Some autonomic reflexes, such as urination,
defecation, and erection, are integrated at the spinal-
cord level, but all these spinal reflexes are subject to
control by higher levels of consciousness
 The medulla within the brain stem is the region most
directly responsible for autonomic output : Centers for
cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive activity via
the auto-nomic system are located there
 hypothalamus plays an important role in integrating
the autonomic, somatic, and endocrine responses that
automatically accompany various emotional and
behavioral states.  the increased heart rate, blood
pressure, and respiratory activity associated with anger
or fear
 Prefrontal association cortex through its involvement
with emotional expression characteristic of the
individual’s personality.  blushing when
embarrassed (dilation of blood vessels supplying the
skin of the cheeks)  mediated through
hypothalamic-medullary pathways

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