Solidification process of metal,

crystal defects & diffusion

MENJANA MINDA KREATIF DAN INOVATIF

 Solidification Process

Solidification of Metals
Metals are melted to produce finished and
semi-finished parts.

Casting Process
Two steps of solidification
Nucleation : Formation of stable nuclei
Growth of nuclei : Formation of grain structure

Crystals will form grains

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 Solidification Process
Solidification- result of casting of molten material
– 2 steps
• Nuclei form
• Nuclei grow to form crystals – grain structure
• Start with a molten material – all liquid

nuclei crystals growing grain structure

liquid

• Crystals grow until they meet each other

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 Solidification Process

Nucleation Process

Liquid Liquid

Liquid

Solid Solid

Liquid Homogeneous Heterogeneous

nucleation Nucleation

Nucleation :
Formation of a new phase during solidification, involves the
formation of small solid particles surrounded by liquid

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 Solidification Process
Stages in the formation of a grain
structure during solidification

Nucleation Growth

Cooling Curve
A : Solidification begins Grain boundaries
Growth
B : Solidification ends
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 Solidification Process

(a)
Nucleation of crystals at
random sites in the molten
metal.

The crystallographic orientation

of each site is different

(b) - (c)
Growth of crystals as
solidification continues.

(d)
Solidified metal, showing individual grains and grain
boundaries; note the different angles at which neighbouring
grains meet each other.
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 Solidification Process

Dendrite

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 Solidification Process

Cooling curve for pure metal (with impurities).

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 Solidification Process

Cooling curve for pure metal (without impurities).

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 Solidification Process

A-B : Liquid cools as specific heat

is removed
B-C : Undercooling is necessary
C : Nucleation begins
Homogeneous nucleation.
latent heat is released causing an
increase in the temp. of the liquid Cooling curve : Alloy
(C increase to D)

E : Solidification continue at
constant temperature until
complete

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 Cast structure

(a)
(b) (c ) (d)

(a) Nucleation begins

(b) The chill zone forms
(c) Preferred growth produces the
columnar zone
(d) Additional nucleation creases
the equiaxed zone

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Solidification Process

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Cast structure

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 Cast structure

Dendrite, Primary arm,

secondary arm, tertiary
arm, DAS, SDAS

Effect of Cooling Rate (Solidification rate)

Rapid cooling leads to greater nucleation and more, smaller
grains

Slow cooling leads to slower nucleus formation and fewer,

larger grains

More grains means more grain boundary

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 Solidification defect

Shrinkage can occur between the dendrite arm

(a)
Small SDAS result in smaller, more evenly
distributed shrinkage porosity (b)
Short DAS can help avoid shrinkage (c)
Interdendritic shrinkage in an Al alloy (d)

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Solidification defect

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 Classification of Defect

Defect in the crystalline structure can have a tremendous effect

on a materials behavior.

We can modify and improve many of physical, electrical,

magnetic, and optical properties of crystalline materials by
controlling the imperfections in their lattice structure.

1. Point Defects

2. Line defects

3. Volume defects

4. Surface Defects

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 Point Defects
1. Point Defects
Vacancies, Interstitial, substitutional
….move by diffusion

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 Line Defects
2. Line Defects
Dislocations : Edge and Screw
…move by glide

i. Edge Dislocation

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Line Defects

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 Line Defects

Movement of an edge dislocation

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 Line Defects

ii. Screw Dislocation

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 Surface Defects

3. Surface Defects
Grains boundaries and materials surface

Grain Boundaries

The grain boundaries is a narrow

zone where the atoms are not
properly spaced.

4. Volume Defect
Porosity, shrinkage, hot tears, misrun etc

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 Surface Defects
Grain boundaries:
• are boundaries between crystals.
• are produced by the solidification process, for example.
• have a change in crystal orientation across them.
• impede dislocation motion.
Metal Ingot

grain
boundaries

heat
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 Diffusion
•What is diffusion?
Diffusion is the atom movement in materials
(solids, liquids, or gases)

Why is diffusion important?

Heat treatment (phase transformation from solid to solid)
Solidification (liquid to solid)
Surface hardening of steel (carburising, nitriding, carbo-
nitriding etc…)
Coatings
Sintering of ceramics
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 Diffusion

Diffusion in Solid Materials

Heat causes atoms to vibrate.

Vibration amplitude increases with temperature.
Melting occurs when vibrations are sufficient to rupture bonds

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 Diffusion

Two types of diffusion in crystalline solids:

i. Inter-diffusion
ii. Self-diffusion

Impurity diffusion also called inter-diffusion

Occurs in a solid material with more than one type of element
(such as an alloy)

Self-diffusion
Occurs in chemically pure materials (only one type of atoms)

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 Diffusion
Initially After some time
i. Inter-diffusion:
In an alloy, atoms tend to
migrate from regions of large
concentration.

ii. Self-diffusion:
In an elemental solid, atoms also migrate.
Label some atoms
After some time

C
A
D
B
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 Diffusion

Two types of diffusion mechanism

i. Interstitial diffusion
ii. Vacancy diffusion

i. Vacancy Diffusion
Atom are constantly in motion and vibrating
Change of atom position requires :
- Vacant site
- Energy to break atomic bonds

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 Diffusion

Processing Using Diffusion

Case Hardening:
Diffuse carbon atoms into the host iron
atoms at the surface.

Example of interstitial :
Diffusion is a case hardened gear.

Result
The "Case" is :
hard to deform: C atoms "lock“
planes from shearing.

Hard to crack: C atoms put the

surface in compression.
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 Diffusion

Diffusing carbon
atoms C%

Low carbon
Steel part Carbon Gradients
In Carburized metals

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 Diffusion
How do we quantify the amount or rate of diffusion?
moles (or mass) diffusing mol kg
J Flux or
surface area time cm2s m2s
Measured empirically
Make thin film (membrane) of known surface area
Impose concentration gradient
Measure how fast atoms or molecules diffuse through the membrane

Rate of diffusion independent of time

dC
Flux proportional to concentration gradient =
dx
Fick’s first law of diffusion
C1C1

C2 C2 dC
J D
x1 x2 dx
x D diffusion coefficient
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 Diffusion

Example:
Methylene chloride is a common ingredient of paint removers.
Besides being an irritant, it also may be absorbed through skin.
When using this paint remover, protective gloves should be worn.

If butyl rubber gloves (0.04 cm thick) are used, what is the diffusive
flux of methylene chloride through the glove?
• Data:
– diffusion coefficient in butyl rubber: D = 110 x10-8 cm2/s
– surface concentrations:
C1 = 0.44 g/cm3 C2 = 0.02 g/cm3

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 Diffusion

• Solution – assuming linear conc. gradient

glove
dC C2 C1
C1 J -D D
2 dx x2 x1
tb
paint 6D
skin Data: D = 110 x 10-8 cm2/s
remover
C1 = 0.44 g/cm3
C2
C2 = 0.02 g/cm3
x1 x2
x2 – x1 = 0.04 cm

-8 2 (0.02 g/cm3 0.44 g/cm3 ) g

J (110 x 10 cm /s) 1.16 x 10 -5
(0.04 cm) cm2s
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 Diffusion

• Diffusion coefficient increases with increasing T.

Qd
D Do exp
RT

D = diffusion coefficient [m2/s]

Do = pre-exponential [m2/s]
Qd = activation energy [J/mol or eV/atom]
R = gas constant [8.314 J/mol-K]
T = absolute temperature [K]

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