STONE

Rocks
• It is the portion of the earth’s crust having no definite shape
and structure
• Geologist define rock as aggregates or mass composed of
one or more minerals.

– Monomineralic Rocks: having only one mineral

– Polymineralic Rocks: having several minerals

Stones
• a natural, hard substance formed from minerals and earth
material which are present in rocks.
• The stone is always obtained from rocks.

Stones
 The earth is divided into three main layers:

• Crust
– Continental crust (25-40 km)
– Oceanic crust (~6 km)

• Mantle
– Upper mantle (650 km)
– Lower mantle (2235 km)

• Core
– Outer core: liquid (2270 km)
– Inner core: solid (1216 km)

Earth’s structure
•Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic substances having
definite chemical composition and molecular structure.

•As the basic constituent of rock, minerals control much of rock

behavior. Some minerals are very strong and resistant to
deterioration and produce rock with similar properties, while
others are much softer and produce weaker rock.

Feldspars Quartz Micas Hornblende

Kaolinite Calcite (CaCO3) Dolomite (MgCO3)

Mineral composition-rocks
•Physical Classification
•Stratified
•Un stratified
•Foliated

•Chemical Classification
•Siliceous
•Argillaceous
•Calcareous

•Geological Classification
•Igneous
•Sedimentary
•Metamorphic

Classification of rocks
•Stratified Rocks:
These rocks possess planes of
stratification or cleavage. They can be
easily split up along these planes.

•Un stratified Rocks:

The structure of these rocks may
be crystalline granular or compact
granular.

•Foliated Rocks:
These rocks have a tendency to
be split up in a definite direction only.

Physical Classification
•Siliceous
•Silica predominates
•Hard and durable
•E.g. Granites, Quartzite's, etc.

•Argillaceous
•Clay predominates
•Dense, compact and soft
•E.g. Slates, Laterites, etc

•Calcareous
•Calcium Carbonate predominates
•Durability depends upon surrounding atmosphere
•Eg. Limestone, Marble, etc.

Chemical Classification
•Igneous
•Sedimentary
•Metamorphic

Geological Classification
All rocks begin as igneous, but later can be transformed via
weathering into sedimentary rocks, or via heat and pressure,
into metamorphic rocks.

Geological Cycle
There are three types of Igneous rocks
•Intrusive (also called plutonic rocks): form below the
ground surface from magma coming up from the mantle
into the crust, where they cool slowly.
•Extrusive (also called volcanic rocks) arrive at the ground
surface in a molten state, such as through volcanic
eruption. This type of igneous rock cool very rapidly.
•Hypabyssal rocks are formed when consolidation of
magma takes place very close to the Earth’s surface in the
form of smaller sheet like bodies (known as sills and dikes)
that fill cracks inside other rocks.
Igneous
Dike:
•A dike is vertical wall-like igneous body that cuts the bedding
of the rock.
•It forms where magma squeezes into fractures in the
surrounding rock and cools.
•The thickness of the dike may vary from a few centimeters to a
hundred meter or more.

Pegmatite dike cross-cutting basement gneisses

Igneous
Sill: is a tabular intrusive layer of rock.
•The sills are parallel to the layered rock beds, whereas
the dikes are perpendicular to them.
•Rising magma follows the path of least resistance. If the
magma can no longer rise, then the path of least
resistance may take it laterally in between the rock layers.
varies in thickness from a few centimeter to several
hundred meters

The darker layered diorite sill in the

Limestone flanks of Mount Gould in Glacier
National Park in Montana

(around 1300 million years old.)

Igneous
•Granite is an example of an
Intrusive Igneous Rock
•It forms under the Earth’s
surface from the cooling of
magma leaking up from the
mantle of Earth

•Intrusive igneous rocks have

noticeably large crystals and are
usually rough to the touch
unless they are polished
•Examples: Kitchen Counters

•The Continental Crust of the

Earth is primarily made of
Granite

Igneous-Examples
• Examples of Intrusive Igneous Rocks:

Gabbros Andesite Diorite

Igneous-Examples
• Examples of Extrusive Igneous Rocks:
•Basalt is an example of an
Extrusive Igneous Rock
•The Oceanic Crust is made
primarily of Basalt
•Basalt is formed from lava on
the crust of the Earth.
•Because it is formed on the
surface, the crystals are very
fine-grained

Igneous-Examples
Obsidian Scoria
Rhyolite

Igneous-Examples
• Examples of Hypabyssal Igneous Rocks:

Lamprophyre Rock

Igneous-Examples
 These rocks produced by the settling/deposition, compaction
and cementation of sediments

Limestone Sandstone Gritstone

Conglomerate Shale

Sedimentary
 Sedimentary rocks are rocks formed when particles of
sediment build up and are “cemented together” by the effect
of pressure and minerals.

Fragments washed to the sea

Rocks are broken
up by weathering
Sea
Sedimentary
rocks

Sedimentary
Types of Sedimentary Rocks:
•Clastic (physical weathering)
•Chemical
•Organic

Sedimentary
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks:
•Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
are formed from
mechanical weathering
debris
•Mechanical weathering Breccia Conglomerate
takes place when rocks are
broken down without any
change in the chemical
nature of the rocks
•breccia, conglomerate,
sandstone and shale are
some examples Sandstone Shale

Sedimentary
Chemical Sedimentary
Rocks:

•Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

form when dissolved materials
precipitate from solution
•Example : Halite that forms Halite
from dried up saltwater lakes
•Rock salt (Halite) and some
limestone are examples of
Chemical Sed. Rocks

Limestone

Sedimentary
Organic Sedimentary Rocks:

•Organic Sedimentary Rocks

form from the dead plants
and animals and their debris.
Coal and fossiliferous
limestone are examples of Fossiliferous Limestone
organic sed. rock
•An example of fossiliferous
limestone has sea shells in it
Organic material comes from
anything living or has lived
before

Coal

Sedimentary
•Metamorphic rocks are formed by the effect of heat, pressure
and chemical process on existing rocks.

•Exposure to extreme conditions alters the minerals, texture

and chemical composition of the rocks.

•Form
from igneous,
sedimentary or
other metamorphic
rocks

Metamorphic
Metamorphic rocks are formed by the effect of heat and
pressure on existing rocks.

Pressure from surface

rocks

metamorphic
rock
forming
here

Heat from magma

Metamorphic
Earthquakes and volcanic activity cause heat and pressure to act
on rocks.

Metamorphic
Sometimes pressure flattens mineral grains in rocks without
melting them.

Metamorphic
As pressure and temperature continue to increase over time,
one type of rock can change into several different metamorphic
rocks.

Metamorphic
Types of metamorphic rocks:

There are two basic types of metamorphic rocks based on their

texture:

• Non-foliated
• Foliated

Metamorphic
Foliated texture:

Mineral grains flatten and line up in parallel layers or bands

Metamorphic
Non-foliated texture:

Mineral grains grow and rearrange but do not form layers.

Metamorphic
Foliated Rocks:

•Original Rock: shale (sedimentary)

•Metamorphic Rock: slate

Metamorphic
Foliated Rocks:
•Original Rock: granite (igneous)
•Metamorphic Rock: gneiss

Metamorphic
Non-Foliated Rocks:
•Original Rock: limestone (sedimentary)
•Metamorphic Rock: marble

Metamorphic
Non-Foliated Rocks:
•Original Rock: sandstone (sedimentary)
•Metamorphic Rock: quartzite (melted sand)

Metamorphic
•The plane along which stones can be easily split is known as
natural bed of stone
•In stone masonry work , the stone should be used in such away
that the direction of applied load is perpendicular to the natural
bed of the stone

Natural Bed
1. Structure: Stones are used for foundations, walls, columns,
lintels, arches, roofs, floors, damp proof course etc.
2.Face works. Stones are adopted to give massive appearance
to the structure. Wall are of bricks and facing is done in stones
of desired shades. This is known as composite masonry.
3. Paving stones: These are used to cover floor of building of
various types such as residential, commercial, industrial etc.
They are also adopted to form paving of roads, foot paths etc.
4. Basic material: Stones are disintegrated and converted to
form a basic material for cement concrete, morum of roads,
calcareous cements, artificial stones, hallow blocks etc.
5.Misalliances: Stones are also used for (i) ballast for railways
(ii) flux in blast furnace (iii) Blocks in the construction of
bridges, piers, abutments, retaining walls, light houses, dams
etc.

Applications and Uses

 Stone
The Earliest Building Material
The Stonehenge . Post & Lintel

LINTEL

POST
Temples
The Taj
Forts and Castles
The Great wall of China
Stone Lintel
The Arch
Stone Arches
Houses
Foundations
Stone Jamb and Sill for a Window
Walls
Stone Stairways
Stone Cladding
Flooring
Decorative Flooring
Stone Roofs
Flagstone slates as Roof Covering Material
Paving
Pillars and Piers
Chimneys
Bridges
Acqueduct –Drianway – Step well
Abutments
Retaining Walls
Reservoirs and Dams
Aggregates
Ballast
 Acid test
A sample of stone weighing about 50 to 100 gm is taken.
It is placed in a solution of hydrchloric acid (1% strength)
for seven days. Solution is agitated at intervals.

Observation:
A good building stone maintains its sharp edges and
keeps its surface free from powder at the end of this
period. If the edges are broken and powder is formed on
the surface, it indicates the presence of calcium
carbonate and such a stone will have poor weathering
quality. This test is usually carried out on sandstones.

Tests
 Attrition Test:
This test is done to find out the rate of wear of stones, which are used in road
construction. The results of the test indicates the resisting power of stones against
the grinding action under traffic.
i. Samples of stones is broken into pieces about 60mm size.
ii. Such pieces, weighing 5kg are put in both the cylinders of Devil’s attrition test
machine. Diameter and length of cylinder are respectively 20cm and 34 cm.
iii. Cylinders are closed. Their axes make an angle of 300 with the horizontal.
iv. Cylinders are rotated about the horizontal axis
for 5 hours @30 rpm.
v. After this period, the contents are taken out
from the cylinders and they are passed through a
sieve of 1.5mm mesh.
vi. Quantity of material which is retained on the
sieve is weighed.
vii. Percentage wear worked out as follows:

Percentage wear =
Tests
 Crushing Test:
• Three pieces of Samples of stone is cut into cubes of size
40x40x40 mm. sizes of cubes are finely dressed and finished.
Such specimen should be placed in water for about 72 hours
prior to test and therefore tested in saturated condition.
• Load bearing surface is then covered with plaster of Paris of
about 5mm thick. Load is applied axially on the cube in a
crushing test machine. Rate of loading is 140 kg/sq.cm per
minute. Crushing strength of the stone per unit area is the
maximum load at which the sample crushes or fails divided by
the area of the bearing face of the specimen.

Tests
 Crystalline Test:

• At least four cubes of stone with side as 40mm are taken. They
are dried for 72 hrs and weighed. They are then immersed in
14% solution of Na2SO4 for 2 hours. They are dried at 100oC and
weighed. Difference in weight is noted. This procedure of
drying, weighing, immersion and reweighing is repeated at least
5 times. Each time, change in weight is noted and it is
expressed as a percentage of original weight.
• Crystallization of CaSO4 in pores of stone causes decay of stone
due to weathering. But as CaSO4 has low solubility in water, it is
not adopted in this test.

Tests
 Freezing and Thawing test:

• Stone specimen is kept immersed in water for 24 hours. It is

then placed in a freezing machine at -12 0C for 24 hours.
• Then it is thawed or warmed at atmospheric temperature. This
should be done in shade to prevent any effect due to wind, sun
rays, rain etc.
• This procedure is repeated several times and the behavior of
stone is carefully observed.

Tests
For determining the hardness of a stone, the test is carried out as
follows:
i. A cylinder of diameter 25mm and height 25mm is taken out from the
sample of stone.
ii. It is weighed.
iii. The sample is placed in Dory's testing machine and it is subjected to a
pressure of 1250 gm.
iv. Annular steel disc machine is then rotated at a speed of 28 rpm.
v. During the rotation of the disc, coarse sand of
standard specification is sprinkled on the top of
Hardness Test
disc.
vi. After 1000 revolutions, specimen is taken out
and weighed.
vii. The coefficient of hardness is found out from
the following equation:
Coefficient of hardness =
 Impact Test:

For determining the toughness of stone, it is subjected to

impact test in a Page Impact Test Machine as followed:

• i. A cylinder of diameter 25mm and height 25mm is taken out from

the sample of stones.
• ii. It is then placed on cast iron Anvil of machine.
• iii. A steel hammer of weight 2kg is allowed to fall axially in a vertical
direction over the specimen.
• iv. Height of first blow is 1 cm, that of second blow is 2cm, that of
third blow is 3 cm and so on.
• v. Blow at which specimen breaks is noted. If it is nth blow, ‘n’
represents the toughness index of stone.

Tests
 Microscopic Test:

The sample of the test is subjected to microscopic examination. The

sections of stones are taken and placed under the microscope to
study the various properties such as
• i. Average grain size
• ii. Existence of pores, fissures, veins and shakes
• iii. Mineral constituents
• iv. Nature of cementing material
• v. Presence of any harmful substance
• vi. Texture of stones etc.
 Smith’s Test:

This test is performed to find out the presence of soluble matter in

a sample of stone.
• Few chips or pieces of stone are taken and they are placed in a
glass tube. The tube is then filled with clear water. After about
an hour, the tube is vigorously stirred or shaken.
• Presence of earthy matter will convert the clear water into dirty
water. If water remains clear, stone will be durable and free
from any soluble matter.
 Water Absorption Test:
• i. From the sample of stone, a cube weighing about 50gm is prepared.
Its actual weight is recorded as W1gm.

• ii. Cube is then immersed in distilled water for a period of 24 hrs.

• iii. Cube is taken out of water and surface water is wiped off with a
damp cloth.

• iv. It is weighed again. Let the weight be W2 gm.

• v. Cube is suspended freely in water and its weight is recorded. Let

this be W3gm.

• vi. Water is boiled and cube is kept in boiling water for 5 hours.

• vii. Cube is removed and surface water is wiped off with a damp cloth.
Its weight is recorded. Let it be W4 gm.
 Qualities of a good building stone
• Crushing strength: should be greater than l000kg per cm2
• Appearance: uniform color, and free from clay holes, spots of
other color bands etc
• Durability: The factors like heat and cold alternative wet and dry,
dissolved gases in rain, high wind velocity etc affect the durability.
• Fracture: should be sharp, even and clear.
• Hardness: Greater than 17 --- Good/ Hard
In between 14 to 17 --- Medium Hard
Less1 than 14 --- Poor Hardness
• Percentage wear: Should be equal to or less then 3%.
• Resistance to fire: stone should be fire proof. Sandstone,
resists fire quite well.
 Qualities of a good building stone
• Specific gravity: should be greater then 8.7 or so.
• Texture: A good building stone should have compact fine
crystalline structure should be free from cavities, cracks or
patches of stuff or loose material.
• Water absorption: the percentage absorption by weight after
24 hours should not exceed 0.60
• Seasoning: : Stones should be well seasoned before putting into
use. A period of about 6 to 12 months is considered to be
sufficient for proper seasoning.
• Toughness Index : Impact test,
– the value of toughness less than 13 – Not tough,
– between 13 and 19 – Moderate,
– Greater than 19- high
STONE QUARRYING
Quarrying with Crowbar
Channeling
The marking of a groove along the cutting-line.
The purpose of this 1 - 2 cm groove is to guide the fracture along
which the block will be split.
Making wedge-holes
Cutting a block with wedges and a sledgehammer
Cutting a block with wedges and a
sledgehammer
Plug and feathers
Plug and feathers
 Use of explosives in stone quarrying

• An explosive is a material which, upon disintegration, produces

a shock followed by the release of a great quantity of gas. The
shock creates a crack in the rock and the gas, under pressure,
escapes into the crack which widens the crack under the effect
of the blast thus produced.

• So as not to destroy the block of stone, a deflagrating

explosive, which decomposes slowly, is used, such as black
powder (a mixture of ground charcoal, Sulphur and salt petre)
with a shock-wave propagation rate of 300 m/second.
 Block-splitting using black powder
• a groove (along which the rock will
be split) is made, following the
rock's cleavage (direction of
cracks).
• blasting holes are made along the
groove, either using the hammer
action of a rock drill (fitted with a
chisel end) or a crowbar if the rock
is soft (sandstone or limestone).
• The number of holes depends on
the size of the rock mass to be
split.
• explosive cartridges are placed at the bottom of the holes.
• The number of cartridges per hole is determined by the
strength required of the explosion, which in turn also depends
on the size of the block to be split.
• Black powder is primed using a slow fuse which transmits a
flame at the rate of 1 meter in 90 seconds. Once the primed
cartridges are in place in the holes, the holes are packed with
clay or sand.
• The fuse is lit
• The shock wave caused by the explosion will be guided by the
groove.
• Dressing of stones is a process in which their surfaces are
prepared to a form, fit to be used for any constructional
purpose. Dressing is according to the type of work and demand.
Purpose of Dressing:
• To give them good looking.
• To provide horizontal and vertical joints in the masonry.
• To make them fit, to be used for particular construction.
• Generally to give them neat/good appearance.

DRESSING OF STONES
 Dressing of Stones

HAMMER DRESSED BOASTED OR DROVED TOOLED

FURROWED RETICULATED VERMICULATED

 Dressing of Stones

COMBED OR DRAGGED PUNCHED

PICKED RUBBED POLISHED

Artificial stones
 a. Mosaic tiles:
• Pre-Cast concrete tiles with marble
chips/stone pieces/ceramics at top surface
are known as mosaic tiles.
• Effectively used as decorative
floor/wall/cladding patterns.

Mosaic tile with ceramic pieces Mosaic tile with Mosaic tile with
decorative stone pieces Marble pieces
b. Terrazo :
• This is a mixture of marble chips and cement. It is used for
flooring in residential buildings, temples etc.
 Advantages of artificial stones:
• Cavities may be kept in artificial stones to convey pipes, electric
wires etc.
• Grooves can be kept in artificial stone while it is being cast
which are useful for fixing various fittings.
• It can cast in desired shape
• It can be made in a single piece and hence trouble of getting
large blocks of stone for lintels, beams etc is avoided.
• It can be made stronger than natural stone.
• It is cheap and economical.
• It is more durable than natural stone.
• Natural bed is absent in artificial stones and hence, the
question of taking precautions with respect to the natural bed
of stones does not arise.
COMMON STONES ON
INDIA
 Sandstone
Tiles, Slabs, Blocks, Cobbles
Used in interior as well as exterior decoration including flooring, paving, wall
cladding, etc.
The weather resistant natural sandstones are extremely hard and tough material.

Kandla Grey, Kota Grey, Rajpura Pink Golden Yellow

Budhpura Grey

Agra Red, Dholpur Red Dholpur Pink Khatu Rainbow

 Limestone
• Limestones are composed largely of mineral calcite. Natural
limestone from India are generally used as limestone tiles,
limestone slabs in flooring, wall cladding, vanity tops and to
pave the floors of large commercial complexes, hospitals,
airports, shopping malls, railway stations, parks etc masonry
and architecture.

Jaiselmer Yellow Cudappa Black, Kota Brown Kota Blue

Madras Black
 Slate stone
• Slate stones render a graceful, natural finish to any building and is
more cost-effective than other wall and floor coverings.
• All natural slate stones are fireproof and slip-resistant. These grey
slate stones from India are widely used in flooring, wall cladding and
roofing.
• Apart from the usual domestic applications, Slate stones can also used
for laboratory bench tops and billiard table tops.

Badnor Silver Grey, Deoli Copper Deoli Silver Shine Kund Peacock
BAD-Grey
 Quartzite

• Quartzite stones are extremely hard and weather resistant stones.

The natural quartzite stones makes a perfect choice for wall-
cladding, roofing, flooring and all other types of interior & exterior
applications. Having granolithic texture, these Indian natural
quartzite stones are fireproof and non-slippery in nature.

White Quartzite Black Quartzite

 Marble
• Marble is a metamorphic rock formed by alteration of
limestone or dolomite, often irregularly colored by impurities.
These natural marble stones make a perfect choice for
architecture and sculpture. The natural marble stone from India
are suitable for entryways, fireplaces, living & dining areas and
bathrooms. Marble floor tiles are also used for both interior
and exterior flooring applications.
 Cobbles
• cobbles are used for decorating pathways, pavements,
landscaping and different types of exterior applications in
accordance with the architectural design. Available in different
sizes and thickness, the Indian natural cobbles can be used on
all low, medium & heavy traffic areas.

Sandstone and Limestone cobbles

 Natural pebbles
• Natural pebbles are ideal for a low maintenance ground cover.
Effectively controls weeds, prevent soil erosion and retain soil
moisture.
• These sandstone pebbles from India are great for landscape
and an essential element for a zen garden and tropical
landscaping.
 Stone strips
• Stone strips are a long narrow piece of stone usually of uniform
width. The highly durable stone strips from India are widely
used for wall cladding, roofing and flooring purposes.
• These sandstone strips can be used to make different designs
on the walls and when combined with strips of other colors,
they create an amazingly varied patterns.