ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1 995), No. 1, pp.

1-20
Review
The Physical and Mathematical Modelling of Gas Stirred Ladle
SYstems

Dipak MAZUMDAR
and Roderick l. L. GUTHRIE1)
Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, INDIA.
)
1 McGill Metals Processing Centre, Department of Mining & Metallurgical Engineering, McGill University.
H3A2A7.
Montreal, C~nada,

(Received on July 5. 1994; accepted in final form on September 16. l994)

Considerable efforts have been madeduring the past two decades to investigate gas injection operations
in steelmaking ladles. Towards these, numerous physical and mathematical model studies embodying
aqueousas well as full sca[e systems have been reported. Onthe basis of an extensive literature search, a
summary, discussion and analysis of these are now presented. For the sake of convenience and clarity of
)
presentation, studies have been categorised into three major groups: (1 physical mode]]ing studies, (2)
combined physica] and mathematical modelling studies and (3) mathematical modelling studies. In each
of these categories, a great number of publications on various phenomena,such as gas-liquid interac-
tions, turbulent fluid flow, mixing, solid-Iiquid masstransfer, etc. have been reported. Accordingly, and as
discussed in the text, considerable improvements have resulted in our understanding of the various gas
injection induced phenomenain ladle metallurgy operations. Coupled with these, extensive mathematical
modelling studies have also lead to a reasonably accurate framework for carrying out engineering design
and process calculations. Nonetheless, someobscu~ities and uncertainties still remain and these are pointed
out, together with those areas where further work is needed.

KEYWORDS: overview; gas stirred ladles; fluid dynamics; heat transfer; masstransfer physical modelling;
mathematical modelling.

metallurgy steelmaking operations, has been considered

1. Introduction
Since envisioned and practised by Sir Henry
first
Bessemeralmost a century and half ago for his bottom
blown steelmaking process, submergedgas injection into
melts contained in furnaces, Iadles and transfer vessels,
has becomecommon in to-day's metallurgical industries.
In steelmaking, gas injection is applied on a routine basis,
at various stages of melt refining, to enhance reaction
rates, eliminate thermal and/or composition gradients,
to remove particulates and so on. Similarly, parallel
examplescan be cited for the non-ferrous industries. For
instance, submergedgas injection plays a vital role in the
copper and aluminium industries. The many diverse
applications of gas stirring in liquid metal processing
operations have naturally resulted in a large numberof
investigations covering widely varying conditions (for
example, see Refs. l)-5)). In addition to these, a sig-
nificant amount of literature has accumulated dealing
with the fundamental aspects of gas injection into liquids
(e.g., see Refs. 6) through 13)). Indeed, the volume of
literature on the subject of "gas injection into liquids"
is
so huge that summarising every study would appear
to be beyond the scope of any single up to-date review.
A summaryof research work on the important and spe-
cific applications of gas stirring, such as those in ladle
as the appropriate subject of the current review. Con-
sequently, the purpose of the present work has been to
bring together the results of a large numberof investi-
gations in this area into a comprehensive documentand
to present a critical assessmentof the subject as a whole.
However, wherever appropriate in the text, brief remarks
and references have been madeto other relevant studies.
Since ladle injection metallurgy is becoming such an
intrinsic part of steel processing operations, the the-
oretical and industrial aspects of these processes have
been considered at some length at a number of sym-
posial4 ~ 23) over the last two decades. Morerecently, the
principles and practices underlying ladle steelmaking
metallurgy have been summarised and discussed in a
teference text24) by Fruehan. Furthermore, over the
years, several review articles,25~29) addressing specific
aspects of gas injection operations in ladles have also
been published. The limited scope of these reviews25 ~ 29)
exclude a great numberof studies reported to-date on
the ladle refining of steei. In subsequent sections there-
fore, Iaboratory, pilot scale, and mathematical studies of
gas stirred ladle systems are summarised. For the sake
of convenience, these research studies have been cate-
gorised into three groups: (1) physical models, (2) com-
bined physical and mathematical investigations and (3)

1 C 1995 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1 995), No. 1
Table l. Various investigators and their specific area of Stopper-rod assemb[y
contribution to gas stirred ladle systems.

Reference
SI. Investigator/Group of Specific area of
numbers
No. investigators contribution
in the text

1 Asai and coworkers Mixing and 49, 105

Refractory
masstransfer [ined wat[
2 Brimacombeand coworkers Fluid dynamics, 27, 28, 3033,
mixing and ll4, I15
CFD
3 Cross and coworkers CFD 118-1 19
4 Debroy and coworkers CFD 75, 109, 110
5 Farouk and coworkers CFD 12(~123
6 Fruehan and coworkers Masstransfer 64, 66, 67
7 Guthrie and coworkers Fluid dynamics, 34, 46, 56, 59,
Fig. l. Schematic of gas purging in a filled ladle of steel.
mixing, CFD, 76, 79, 112,
turbulence 126, 127, 130,
modelling 131
celerating the absorption of harmful non-metallic inclu-
8 Irons and coworkers Fluid dynamics, 37, 38, 129
sions into an overlying slag phase. While typically, under
CFDand
turbulence industrial conditions, only relatively low gas flow rates
modelling are applied to achieve thermal and/or chemical homo-
9 Johansen and coworkers Fluid dynamics 42, 44, 84 genisation, somewhatintense stirring conditions can also
and CFD
be practiced for accelerating slag-metal reactions. Con-
10 Koria and coworkers Fluid dynamics 35, 36, 106
and mass sequently, depending on the specific objectives of a ladle
refining operation, a wide range of gas flow rates
transfer may
lI Lehner and coworkers Fluid dynamics 25, 43 be applied29) (0.001 to 0.015 Nm3
(STP)/t•min).
and mixing
12 Mazumdarand coworkers Mixing, mass 56, 79-81, 98,
I
As seen from Fig. , the physical processes involved
in gas stirred ladle systems are numerous. They are
transfer, CFD 99, 104, I 13,
and turbulence 126, 128, 130, complex owing to the multi-dimensional (2 or di-
3
modelling 131 mensional), multiphase (gas-metal and slag) nature of
l3 Krishnamurthy and Fluid dynamics 54, 55, 93, 94 the system. Furthermore, several distinct phenomena can
coworkers and mixing be identified from Fig. I which include gas-liquid inter-
14 Oeters and coworkers Mixing and 51, 52, 69
actions, the development of a plume-induced turbulent
masstransfer
recirculatory motion in the bulk liquid steel, masstrans-
15 Salcudean and coworkers CFD ll2, I14, 124,
125 fer between slag and metal in the vicinity of the free
16 Sanoand coworkers Fluid dynamics 9, 10, 57 surface, and so on. High temperatures and the visual
and mixing opacity of liquid steel, as well as the large size of indus-
17 Schwerdtfeger and Fluid dynamics 32, 39
trial ladles, makethese processing units rather cumber-
coworkers
18 Szekely and coworkers Mixing, mass 47, 72, 73, 78, somefor direct experimental measurementsand observa-
transfer, CFD 89, 115-117 tions. Physical modelling embodyingaqueous as well as
and turbulence liquid metal-gas systems have therefore been carried out
modelling (water and steel have equivalent kinematic viscosities) to
19 Taniguchi and coworkers Masstransfer 68, 96, 97
investigate underlying process dynamics. Manyphysical
20 Themelis and coworkers Mixing and 26, 53
modelling studies have been reported over the past two
masstransfer
21 Wright, Schwarz and CFDand mass 85, 100, 101 decades on various aspects of gas stirred ladle systems.
coworkers transfer These are discussed in the present section under the
()
following three headings: I fluid dynamics (2) mixing
and (3) two fluid masstransfer phenomena.
mathematical models. A summaryof the various groups (a) Fluid Dynamics
of investigators, together with their specific areas of
contribution, are outlined in Table I for ready reference.
Figure 2 illustrates schematicaily the physical phe-
nomenaone would observe during gas bubbling through
2. Physical Modelling Studies a tuyere30) at a moderate gas flow rate (0.5 Nm3/mint) '

into an aqueous model of a gas stirred ladle system.

Figure I provides
a schematic of gas injection into a There, the gas-liquid two phase region has been
filled There, as seen, Ar/N2 is injected through a
ladle. subdivided into four physically distinct regions, primary
porous plug, Iocated at the base of the ladle, into a bath bubble, free bubble, plume and spout respectively. Of
of molten steel contained in a slightly tapered cylindrical these, the plume region, characterised by dispersed
vessel. The injected gas, given its buoyancy, rises to the spherical cap bubbles in an air-water mixture, is the
free surface, thereby inducing a turbulent recirculatory largest, and occupies most of the bath depth. In contract,
flow of liquid, well known for enhancing the rate of the spout typically occupies approximately to olo of
3 4
chemical and thermal homogenisation, as well as ac- the equilibrium bath depth (in aqueousand molten steel

C 1995 !SIJ 2
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1995), No. 1
..1L
\E
C U 688 m/s
Ua = 28.68 m/s v
dL
A de=4.10 mm
Jl-
:h 2.5 v d0= 6.35mm
lll *
L
v
o
a = 876 Ncm3/s
a' hb= 400 mm
:'

a'

R i'
,.~i~"I
* L 1.S

"' ~
l]
~'~~'~'!"a'dP
' ::'

'
G
"51~' ot
Z
'

Oo
~j' ,,,

~
100 200
VerticaL position
,
300
mm
400

~) Fig. 3. Variation of bubble rise velocity at the plume centre-

~) line as
a function of axial height.33)

G)
The results of these studies32~38) indicate that nor-
Fig. 2. Characteristics of the two phase air-water plumes malised radial profiles of gas volume fraction and bub-
during gas injection through a tuyere30) in a cylindrical ble frequency are essentially Gaussian. Consequently, a
vessel.
complete characterisation of the full spatial distribution
of gas and liquid within the plume (viz., plume geome-
systems). try and resultant gas voidage distributions) can be
It is accepted29-31) that during ladle
now generally conveniently expressed using only two parameters, these
refining of in the immediate vicinity of the nozzle,
steel, being the maximum axial value of gas voidage (ocmax) and
the input gas kinetic energy as well ~s the modeof gas the plume's half radius value (ra../2), in the following
injection are important variables, while in the fully dimensionless form:
developed region, these variables will have practically no
infiuence on the overall development of the gas-liquid
two phase region (i.e., bubble sizes, their spatial dis-
oema' r
= 50 L0.20 .i d Fr0.30
m
-v
(1)

tributions and rise are largely independent of

velocities
and
inlet operating conditions) since the "primary" as well
as the "free bubble" regions, occupy very little volume
of the reactor. Consequently, it is reasonable to generalise ra max/2
9
Q2
1/5
0'42 ' r
L0'20 z Fr0'30 p
~d m .
(2)

that under typical ladle refining conditions, any large

bubbles or gas envelopes forming at the nozzle/plug will As shown in several studies,30,33,34) the values of the
typically shatter a short way above the nozzle into an exponent p and y, in Eqs. (1) and (2), are functions of
the gas/liquid density ratio. Thus, the dimensions of the
array of smaller bubbles. Bubbles in the fully developed
region, with continuous coalescence and disintegration plume and the gas volume fraction within them are also
liquid/gas property dependent.
phenomenaat work, will tend to establish a dynamic
In Fig. 3, average bubble rise velocity at the axis of
range of sizes in the spherical cap regime, the equilibrium
size of which are determined by the thermophysical the plumeas a function of axial height33) is shown. There,
properties of the system and not by the inlet operating except in the vicinity of the gas injection nozzle and the
free surface, measuredbubble rise velocities are seen to
variables (gas injection device, orifice diameter etc.).
Evidence also exists that similar phenomena be practically independent of axial height. More recent
are at play
in equivalent metallic systems.6 ~ Il) experimental results by Shengand lrons38) confirm sim-
ilar trends for bubble rise velocity. These experimental
The physical characteristics of the gas-liquid (viz.,
observations33,38) also appear to confirm that hydro-
ail~water, mercur~hnitrogen, etc.) plumes of relevance
to ladle processing have been investigated extensive-
dynamic conditions at an orifice or nozzle, are not crit-
ical to bubble rise velocity over
ly.32~39) Gas volume fraction, bubble frequency and a significant portion of
the axial height.
bubble rise velocities within the two phase region, have
all been measuredby
numerousinvestigators in vessels A still photographic technique was applied by
of widely varying geometries and gas flows for a number Krishnamurthy et al.40) to macroscopically characterise
the geometry of two phase axisymmetric plumes in a
of gas-liquid systems. Typically, electro-resistivity probes
have been applied to measure these parameters in the cylindrical vessel (ID
= 0.24 m) for a wide range of gas
flow rates, bath depths and orifice diameters. Through
two-phase plumes. Thus, while Tacke et al. ,34) Koria and
Singh35,36) and Sheng and lrons37,38) applied a single a dimensional analysis of the experimental data,
element probe, Brimacombeand coworkers30 - 33) as well Krishnamurthy et al. proposed an expression for the
and Schwerdfeger39) applied a extent of gas dispersion in terms of a plume cone angle,
as Castello-Branco
e. (expressed in degrees) in
computer aided, two element resistivity probe. Their gas stirred systems, according
experimental set-ups28~31,39) to :
allowed
simultaneous
measurementsof bubble size and velocity in addition to
routine bubble frequency and gas volume fraction
distributions.
e'=
180
0915 . Fr0.12
~
--
L
D
02s4

-
d
D
0.441
(3)

3 C 1995 ISIJ
 ISIJ International. Vol. 35 (1 995), No. 1
The specific objective of these workers40) was to derive 1.o
an expression for the recirculating rate of liquid using X e ol dm3n
Eq. (3), so as to arrive at a quantitative expression for
X• O l
min
e O
x 50
recirculation or mixing time (see later).
As seen from Eqs. (1) and (3), a modified Froude 0.75 e 100
o 200
number, Fr~, has been applied in a large number of E , o I 300
studies32~40) as an important dimensionless numberto
o,

represent various parameters (gas voidage, plume cone c

o O.S
angle, etc.) in the gas stirred system. The definition of '*
to

the modified Froude numberembodies a characteristic ~

o
velocity scale, which in practically all studies31~36,40)
o
was considered to be synonymouswith the free space
0.25 I
gas velocity through the orifice. However, under ladle X -
refining conditions (viz., Q~** -- 0.01 Nm3/mint), as has '

been pointed out already, hydrodynamic conditions at

the orifice only marginally influence the physical
characteristics of the two phase region, so that the use o
O 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

of a modified Froude numberincorporating an orifice Centreline rise veLocity, m/s

velocity would appear to be an apparent contradiction Fig. 4. Variation of iiquid rise velocity at the plume centreline
and an issue for debate. A more appropriate and as a function of gas flow rates.43)
physically plausible velocity scale in the definition of a
modified Froude numberis clearly warranted.
Subsequentto their studies on the physical characteris-
tics of the two phase plume zone,30-33) Sahajwalla et
0.40
f""
al.41) reported
on their experimental investigation of the E 0,30 tttdf'
spout region in a gas-water plume. Their experimental a'
results indicated that the trend in the distribution of gas cv
volumefraction in the spout is opposite to those observed o
u'
tt,,,~
0.20
within the plume i.e., minimumgas voidages were found 1'

o
at the axis. However, the bubble frequency distribution
remained nearly Gaussian. Bubble velocities within the
v

>o OIO
tt",
spout were found to decrease with increasing axial
distance. This contrasts the plume, where, shortly beyond
the nozzle, the axial bubble velocity remains constant
t
(viz., Fig. 3).
o
O 0.10 0.20
Apart from the measurementsof various parameters Radial distance , m
within the rising two phase plume region, gas induced Fig. 5. Characteristic liquid fiow pattern in an axisymmetric
liquid flows have also been measuredand reported by gas stirred ladle.38)

various investigators. To this end, widely different flow

measuring devices and techniques have been applied.
These include an electromagnetic flow meter,42) a drag
probe,43) Laser Doppler Velocimetry,31.44)
electro-resistivity probe and Laser Doppler Veloci-
metry,37,38) video recordings, and so on. Measurements
on individual phase velocities within the two phase zone,
as well as in the bulk liquid, have all been reported.
Hsiao et al.43) with their early but extensive ex-
perimental study on fluid fiow in pilot scale (7T) and
industrial (60T) Iadles and corresponding gas stirred
viater model ladles, observed that the centreline liquid
velocity at the plume axis, at any given gas fiow rate,
was practically independent of the height of the ladle.
The only deviations from this trend were observed near
the injection nozzle and near the free surface. Their
experimental results are illustrated in Fig. 4. The more
recent study of Sheng and lrons38) confirms such
observations. Under ladle refining conditions, one can
therefore anticipate nearly constant bubble and liquid
velocities in the major portion of the upwelling two phase
region. Referring back to Figs. 3
and 4, one mayfurther
note that the free surf4ce, the rising liquid loses a
near
significant portion of its vertical momentum in favour
combined of an upwelling spout and is thereby forced to fiow
radially outward from the plume's axis. Thesephenome-
na accordingly slow both liquid and bubble rise velocities.
Figure 5shows38) experimentally measuredfiow patterns
in an axisymmetric gas stirred water model ladle. There,
a relatively high vertical velocity at the plume axis is
readily apparent. The rising fluid is seen to flow radially
outwards in the vicinity of the free surface and then
certically downwardsadjacent to the ladle side-walls.
This motion creates a recirculating flow pattern in the
vessel with its toroidal "eye" Iocated up in the ladle and
displaced towards the side wall. The bottom portion of
the ladle is relatively quiescent. The characteristic nature
of the flow recirculation in the bulk liquid, as has been
experimentally confirmed by Anagbo and Brima-
combe,31) is insensitive to the modeof gas injection, as
well as the specific gas flow rates applied.
Bubble and liquid rise velocities within the plume
region were measuredsimultaneously for the first time
in an aqueous gas bubble driven system by Sheng and

C 1995 ISIJ 4
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1995), No. 1
lrons.3s,36) While their experimental results37.38) on gas liquid. This is illustrated in Fig. 6, in which the variation
volume fraction, bubble rise velocity, etc. were similar in total energy contained in the recirculating
kinetic
in trend to earlier studies, several
new and interesting aqueousphaseis plotted against the specific energy input
findings emerged. Thus, Sheng and lrons were, on the rate, for various upper slag phase conditions (viz., rigid,
basis of their experimental data, able to suggest that the fluid and no-slag conditions are shown). From such
relative velocity of bubbles in a bubbly plume can be observations, it is clear that under practical ladle refining
reasonably well represented by the terminal rise velocity conditions, significant energy can be dissipated by an
of a single bubble (of the samesize). Their study,38) as upper slag phase, and that this will be function of slag
a
well as that by Johansen et al.,44) confirm that rising thickness, viscosity and density, etc. Further experi-
bubbles within the plume contribute significantly to the mental work is needed to adequately quantify such
production of turbulence and that this turbulence within phenomena.
the two phase plume region is somewhatanisotropic
(b) Mixing
(e.g., turbulence within the plume is slightly skewed to
the vertical direction). The intrinsic efficiencies of manychemical processing
In contrast to the large numberof experimental studies operations carried out in present day steelmaking ladles
are intricately related to mixing phenomena. Mixing
carried out on the air-water systems summarised
above,31~44) physical model studies on the hydro- enhances chemical reactions by bringing reactants
together and removing products from reaction sites. It
dynamicsof equivalent gas-metal-slag systems have been
also influences the extent of thermal and particulate
rare. Tanaka and Guthrie45) investigated someaspects
of slag metal interactions under relatively high gas flow inhomogeneities within the ladle. It is therefore desirable
to ascertain the extent of mixing, in order to evaluate
rates (e.g., corresponding to BOFsteelmaking) and
the process performance of argon or nitrogen stirred
suggested that gas bubbling can lead to the generation
ladles.
of droplets torn from around the rim of the plume (see
also later). Subsequently, Mazumdar et al.46) measured
Thestudy of mixing phenomena hasjustifiably received
flow phenomena, turbulence characteristics, considerable attention over the years. 'Most often, the
average
kinetic energy of fluid motion, etc. within a water model concept of a mixing time, T~, has beenapplied to represent
the state of agitation (and hence, an inde~ of process
ladle (ID 0.30
= and L = 0.21 m), in the presence of an
m efficiency) in the reactor vessels. Efforts have been made
upper buoyant phase using Laser Doppler Velocimetry.
It observed experimentally that at any gas flow rate, to quantify, experimentally, mixing time as a function
was of operating variables (e.g.. L, D, Q, etc.), using appro-
the kinetic energy of the meanand fluctuating motions
priately scaled aqueous models. Towards these, dif-
(i.e., the total specific kinetic energy of motion in the
ferent experimental techniques have been applied, al-
system) are considerably reduced in the presence of the
top buoyant phase. The deformation of the upper
though methodsbased on pHand electrical conductivity
buoyant phase together with its entrainment in the bulk measurementshave been relatively more popular. In
equivalent high temperature systems, radio active tracer
phase liquid was found to be responsible for observed
dispersion tests have been carried out to estimate the
rates of energy dissipation and slowing of the lower phase
rates of metal mixing.
Nakanishi et al.47) were the first to plot experimental
~r 17
fo e data on mixing time against global rates of specific ener-
ol
!x
16 e Without oi[
o gy dissipation for an RH
vacuumdegassing unit, an
15 o With wooden btock on top
induction stirred ASEA-SKFsystem, and for water
\ of bu[k Liquid
14 models of argon stirred ladles. Theseauthors47) provided
l~ x with oiL
:,
13 the following correlation betweenmixing time and energy
12 e dissipation rates according to (SI units):
11
o
:,
10
o 1000
9 e
c 8 o 500
17,
7 e
V xl X
o q)
Tmc ~~
O.4

c 6 o
,~ o
v 5 o o
Q, x o 100
c:

~ 4 ~ o 50 Targon stirred ladte

v 3 ~V
:,v,
50
e 50 TASEASXF
e

,l
u,
2
c
l 200 T R-H
X 65 kg water modet
a 1 E .~

ho O ,:E 10
O 1 2 3 4 5 610~3 7 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500
Specific energy input rate .
W/kg x Specific energy input rate (Em), Wott/kg xlO~
3
Fig. 6. Plot of totalkinetic energy contained in recirculating Fig. 7. The experimental work of Nakanishi et al.4?) show-
aqueous phase vs. specific potential energy input rate ing the functional relationship between perfect mixing
under various upper slag phase conditions i.e., rigid, times and specific energy input rates for a range of
fluid and no slag.46) metal processing operations.

5 C 1995 ISIJ
 ISIJ International,
T~= 12.68 x 103e~
o.40
In a later study, Nakanishi et al.,48) while performing
mixing studies on bottom blown reactors for steelmak-
ing, found that the preceding relationship (viz., Eq. (4))
performed remarkably well for all single tuyere
experiments. Their "universal correlation" is shownin
Fig. 7. This, as well as Eq. (4),
appear to indicate that
the vessels' shape and size and modeof energy input,
etc. have no influence on mixing. Such claims were
however, refuted in later years by several investiga-
tors49~57) and it is
now generally accepted the metal-
lurgical vessel's geometry, modeof energy input, etc.
influence mixing phenomena considerably.
Since that early study of Nakanishi et al., a large
numberof experimental studies on mixing phenomena,
of relevance to gas stirred ladle systems, have been
reported in the literature. In these, widely varying gas
flow rates, vessel geometries and nozzle configurations
were applied and their influence on mixing investigated.
Mixing times were measured via different experimental
techniques and to this end, various criteria were applied.
As a consequence, a variety of functional relationships
between mixing time, specific energy input rate and
operating variables (e.g., L. R, Q) have been proposed.
To illustrate these, experimental conditions, together
with the various proposed mixing time correlations
reported in the literature, have been surnmarised and
presented in Table 2. There, as seen, dissimilar ob-
~ervations have been reported. Furthermore, proposed
mixing time correlations differ between investigators.
Several reasons can be attributed for such diverse
observations and these are now addressed. Thus
,
referring back to Table 2, it is readily seen that
someof
the vessel's aspect ratios as well as the specific gas flow
rates applied, are very different to those expected under
typical ladle refining operations. As already pointed out,
specific flow rates in industrial gas stirred ladles, having
Vol. 35 (1995). No. 1
aspect ratios (L/D) in the range of 0.5 and 2.0, typical-
..........(4)
ly lie in the range of 0.0015 to 0.0lNm3/min't.29)
Furthermore, in some experiments and analyses, the
kinetic energy of the incoming gases has been included
in the expression for specific energy input rate to the
systems,54,5s,57,58) while others have ignored such kinet-
ic energy contributions. While consideration of input
kinetic energy makesthe energy balance
more realistic
from a conceptual standpoint, it is instructive to note
here that for the gas flow rates and orifice dimensions
normally applied in actual practice, the contribution of
gas kinetic energy in the overall energy balance is
rendered insignificant for all practical purposes (typically
less than o/,
5
or so). On the basis of such, the kinetic
energy of the incoming gas has little relevance under ladle
metallurgy steelmaking operations and therefore, the
potential energy afforded by the rising gas bubbles
can
be conveniently regarded as the dominant modeof ener-
gy supply to the system, as far as current ladle refining
operations are considered. Apart from these considera-
tions, widely varying expressions have been applied to
estimate potential energy input rates to gas stirred
systems. Someof the expressions commonlyapplied to-
gether with corresponding estimates of potential energy
input rate, e~, for a typical situation are shownin Table
3. These expressions, as one would note here were
formulated considering the work done by the gas bubbles
(viz., the buoyancy work) during their rise through the
melt. The contributions of the expansion work due to
pressure and temperature near the nozzle/tuyere and the
transfer of kinetic energy from the gas to the liquid near
the tuyere were ignored as these are not of muchrelevance
to ladle gas injection operations. Contrary to expectation,
different values of e~ results from these formulae for
an
unique operating conditions, as illustrated in Table 3.
There, while the expressions adopted by Mazumdar and
Guthrie,56) Sinha and McNallan58) and Krishnamurthy
et al.55) provide practically similar estimates, those of

Table 2.
A summaryof experimental configurations and mixing time correlations reported by various investigators.

Vessel dimensions and Specific gas fiow rates

Investigators Exp. tech. Mlxmgcrrtena Mixing time correlation
massof fluid (m3/min/T)

Nakanishi et al.47) pH Undefined L = 0.465 m, 0.015 to 0.06 r =800e 04

al.49)
D= 0.42 m; 64 kg
Asai et Electrical 990/. D=0.405, 0.2 & 0.10; Numerous;say, 0.019 2748- o. 33L~ I Rl .36
T
conductivity L/D=0.5 to 1; to 0.90 with ref. to
52kg (max) & 0.4kg D= 0.405 m&
(min) L= 0.40 m
Sinha & McNallan58) pH 97.7010 L= 0.48 m, 0.02 to 0.4 Tm= 6928~
0.89

D=0.45m; 76 kg
Themelis and Stapurewicz53) Photocell L=0.67 to 1.0m,
950/o 0.13 to 0.96 Tm 164 em~ o. 39LO39
'

D=0.66m;310 kg
(max)
Mietz and Oeters52) Electrical 950/0
L= 1.0 m, D=0.63 m; 0.038 to O.29 1,~ CIQ~"CI and n are
conductivity & 31 1kg functions of tracer
colorometr y addition and monitoring
locations
Mazumdarand Guthries6) Electrical 950/0 L=0.5 to 1.1 m, O.012 to 0.06 T~ 37 e~ 0.33L~ IR1'66
=
conductivity Bulk D= 1.12m; I OOOkg
Krishnamurthy et al.5s) Electrical 99.90/0 L=0,1 to 0.45m, 0.1 1
to 2.67 1,~=CIQ~" C and n are
conductivity D=0.48m;81 kg functions of flow regime
(max) and liquid depth

C 1995 ISIJ 6
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1995), No. 1
Staphrewicz and Themelis53) and Nakanishi et al.47) Iead investigators. As a possible reason for the shift in the
to markedly different values. A flawed derivation,47) an functional relationship between 8~ and T~ in Fig. 8(b),
error in the use of "In" vs. "log",53) are the reasons for Krishnamurthy et a/. attributed the phenomenato the
the discrepancy amongestimates shown in Table 3. swirling motion of plume at relatively high gas flow rates
These, together with the reasons already enumerated, are (e.g., Iarge
energy input rate). Contrary to this, Asai and
therefore likely to introduce somevariability in the final coworkers49) suggested that the shift in the functional
results, as is reflected in Table 2. relationship in Fig. 8(a), might be the result of
a flow
As illustrated in numerousexperimental investigations transition from laminar to a fully turbulent situation.
(viz., Table 2), operating conditions (particularly Although such argumentshave not been often adequately
gas flow
rates and vessel geometry) in gas stirred systems have supported with direct experimental evidence, these two
also considerable bearing on mixing phenomena.As an ~xperimental studies,49'55) pertaining to widely different
example of this, in Figs. 8(a) through 8(c), functional operating conditions, nevertheless, appear to indicate
relationships between experimentally measured mixing that different hydrodynamic phenomenaare at play
times and energy input rates (or gas flow rate) reported under different operating regimes. These, as already
by three different groups of investigators49'55,s6) are pointed out, are likely to induce variations in observa-
illustrated. There, over a wide range of operating tions and as a consequence, will tend to further
com-
conditions, two distinct kinds of dependencehave been plicate comparisons various studies.
among
suggested between 8~ and mixing times by the three Several investigators51,52,56,58,59) have reported that
the state of mixing in a gas stirred bath under a given
set of operating conditions is a function of tracer addition
Table 3. Various expressions for rate ofpotential energy in-
put to the gas stirred system and the corresponding and monitoring point locations. Sucha phenomenon
was
estimates in an aqueous system for a typical ex- observed at relatively low
gas flow rates52,56,59)
specific
perimental situation. (L= 1.0m, 1.0m, D= Q= (e.g., in the
range applied to typical ladle gas injection
l.10~4Nm3/s, TL=298K) operations), irrespective of the criteria applied to assess
the degree of mixing. As shown in Fig. 9, at various
Value of total
Expressions for total specific locations in the vessel, different functional relationships
Investigators specific energy
energy input rate input rate (W/t) were observed to govern the mixing phenomena.There,
as seen, the probe location as well as the tracer addition

Nakamshietal 47)
0.0285

W
. QTL
log~l
48
( + 1L 14.54
point in combination, appear to have a significant
influence on measuredmixing times.
[L (cm); Q(Nl/min); W (t)] In contrast to these observations,51'52,56,58,59) Krish-
namurthy and coworkers54.55) on the basis of their
Themelis and
742.QTLln(1+ L experimental measurements, suggested that a single,
Stapurewicz53) 2.5
W 10.34 characteristic mixing time can be ascribed to
any reactor
vessel for a given set of operating conditions, provided
[for water model only; Q(m3/s)]
Mazumdarand a degree of homogeneity up to 99.5 o/o is applied as the
Guthries6)
pLgQL acceptable mark. As already pointed out and illustrated
1.13
PL7rR2L in Table 2, the state of agitation in the experimental
[Q (m2/s)]
system of Krishnamurthy et al. was far too intense than
Sinha and those to be expected in the experimental systems of Mietz
854• QTLIog PLqL
Mcnallan58) I+ l.3 and Oeters,52) Mazumdar and Guthrie56) etc. Therefore,
W P*
it is not unlikely that at large values of specific gas flow
[Q (m3/s)]
rates applied in a relatively small vessel, the state of
Krishnamurthy In(1 mixing most parts of the reactor wasrelatively uniform
in
4QPaTL PL9L
et al.55)
298.21~D2L + P,,
l .29 and muchdifferent from those encountered at low flow
[Q (Nm'/s)] rates in relatively larger vessels, particularly when the
measuring probe is placed near the base of a vessel (which

dn = 6.66
200 r e
0,68 c
405 x 400H 100 mm 200
ac D =0.48m
u,
Ioo
t,,
e
•
Q,
-0.32 a,
50
.~
lj ?cc e E e
Q,
E
100
0.48
~o, 50 Clm
rmGcQ
,:
:b
c
H(m] H )
o o 0.10 , 0.30 c
cb
~O 34
)(
x fmeCQ
2:
~ 20 A 0.15
a 0.20
A 0.35
l O.40
::
50
(a) (b) 40 (C)
10 e 0.25 , 0.45
1 5 Io 50 100
10 O
0.5 10C 5 10 20 40 70 100 200 1.67 3.33 5.0 e.67 16.67
Specific kg/ms3
ener y input rate kg/ms Specific kg/m53 m3/
energy , energy input rate, Ges fLOWrate, s
Fig. 8. Functional relationship between mixing time and specific energy input rate/gas flow rate reproduced from
the work of various investigators. (a) Asai et al.,49) (b) Krishnamurthy et al.s5) and (c) Mazumdar and
Guthrie. 56)

7 C 1995 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1995), No. 1

T~=C38~0.33R1'66L-1 ..........(7)
tmix = 59•Q O
50 06 .

As seen, these expressions illustrate the fact that mixing

r__1L' times are inversely related to the height of the liquid
40
~~ i- I~ ~ T--
I within the vessel, that they increase with vessel radius
and decrease according to the third power of the specific
QO
l\ 38
1\ tmix :: 280
energy input rate. A
'

\\ morerecent study by Neifer et al.60)

30 \\ also appears to indicate that
\\\e'\ a functional relationship
'

E \\ tmlx '= 631 Q O54 equivalent to these equations provides reasonable

\ '

\ \\e,
a) +\\ \~e.+ c' estimates of mixing times in laboratory,
c
'x~_
+\\ as well as
20 + ~e industrial size, Iadles. The values of the fitted
~; \ constants
++__ + ~~1~
C1' C2 and C3 in Eqs. (5) through (7), are functions of
+ *+
10 2
3
tl 1 Position
+
eb
position
Position
I
2
3
~~+ the degrees and definitions of mixing time
Mixing studies in
appl' re
an aqueousmodel (di~. =0.66 m) of
a gas stirred ladle system was reported by Stapurewicz
d .

1 and Themelis.53) The effect of two different gas injection

o devices (viz., tuyere and porous plug) and large number
O 500 1000 1500 a
Gas flow rate, Ncm3ls of gas fiow rates, in the range of 19 to 68 Iit/min (e.g.,
Fig. 9. The experimental work of Mietz and Oeters52) show- approximately 0.005 Nm3/mint), on mixing wasinvesti-
'

ing the influence of monitoring point location on the gated. Basedon their experimental findings, Stapurewicz
measuredmixing times for central nozzle position and and Themelis53) confirmed that mixing conditions are
tracer addition in the dead zone. relatively insensitive to the gas injection device applied
(e.g.,
porous plug, tuyere, etc.).

isoften a deadregion). 51,5 2, s6, 58,59) Further investigation
is needed to resolve such anamolies in experimental
observations. : of an upper buoyant phase on mixing phenomena
Attempts have been madein the past to characterise
mixing phenomenain gas stirred systems in terms of
either bulk convection or eddy diffusion
dominated
phenomena. It was first suggested by Nakanishi and
coworkers47) that mixing in metallurgical reactors is
caused primarily by eddy diffusion rather than by bulk
circulation of the melt. In a later study, Asai et a/.49)
expressed a similar view. Subsequently, however,
Mazumdarand Guthrie56) through a combinedthebreti-
cal and experimental investigation
on mixing demon-
strated that such classifications do not always hold and
that mixing in gas stirred ladle systems is the result of
the combined actions of bulk recirculation and eddy
diffusion phenomena,in practically equal measure.
Despite the diverse nature of the experimental ob-
servations discussed so far, similar empirical correla-
tions have been suggested by numerousinvestigators for
estimating mixing times as a function of operating
variables at relatively
low specific gas flow rates in
cylindrical vessels (0.5 L/D 2.0) agitated by a centrally ~
rising bubble plume. Thus, Sanoand Mori57) found that
the following relationship
describes mixing
reasonably accurately:
T~ Cle~033R133L~0.67
Similarly, Asai et al.49) suggested a very similar ex-
pression for axisymmetric gas bubble driven systems
viz.,
T~=C28~0.33R1'36L~1
In a later study, Mazumdarand Guthrie,56) found a
similar functional relationship between operating vari-
ables and mixing times, as those suggested by Eqs. (5)
and (6):
The experimental studies considered above were es-
sentially carried out in water models in which the effect
was
neither simulated nor investigated. As
one would note,
the presence of a slag rather than
no slag is more typical
of industrial argon stirring operations. Thus. Haida and
coworkers,6 1) investigated the role of
an upper slag layer
(e.g., oil)
on bulk liquid mixing with the aid of a water
model. These authors found that mixing times measured
with a similated slag tended to be considerably different
to those for equivalent "no slag" situations. Such ob-
servations61)
can be readily rationalised, since the hy-
drodynamic state of the vessel, at any gas flow rate, is
known to be different in the presence of an overlying
second phase46) Iiquid. As discussed already, the upper
slag phase dissipates
a part of the input energy rate and
therefore, mixing times in ladles, in the
presence of the
overlying second phase liquid will be somewhatlonger
than those to be expected under an equivalent
no slag
situation.
Several investigators have also reported on the indus-
trial scale
measurementsof mixing phenomenain gas
stirred ladles and torpedo cars. It has been suggest-
~ ed57,60,62,63) that correlations
deduced from carefully
designed water model investigations can be extrapolated
phenomena
to industrial scale operations. However, despite the bulk
of theoretical anc experimental work
on the subject of
..........(5)
gas injection into ladles, comprehensive statement~ on
the scale up of model trial results are not available
to-date. Although someinvestigators49'57,60,62,63) have
attempted to address "scale-up" in the past, divergent
criteria have been advocated. Through consideration of
..........(6) measuredmixing time data in industrial vessels as well
as in water model ladles of various sizes and gas fiow
rates, it has been shown57,62,63) that mixing times
regardless of the configurations of the gas stirred ladle
system applied, can be adequately expressed as a function
of mixing energy, 8~ (e.g., specific potential energy input

C 1995 ISIJ 8
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1995), No. 1
NaOH(1)have been applied to simulate gas and metal
10 phases respectively.Typically, gas injection devices (e.g.,
e
eo porous plugs, tuyeres, Iance) were found to have large
5
A v JLv~A
o e
'~
effects
on the absorption rates in aqueous systems. For
2 AVOAO example, at any given flow rate, porous plugs enhance
_
.~ v' e~~
o~o A gas absorption rates significantly53) in comparison to
~ 1 l~
o
=
:~ 0.5 PLant scaLe water modeL
o injection with a tuyere. A
porous plug produces relatively
Ga5 bUbbung e o more, uniformly distributed, smaller size bubbles, Ieading
z Induction stirrin9
0.2 vpward A A
to an incre~se in the effective interfacial area and thereby,
Downward v v an increased gas-liquid mass transfer rate. However,
0.11
2 5 Io 20 50 Ioo 200 500 Iooo owing to the non-wetting behaviour of liquid steel on
2/3
~v wattlton'm2 refractory pozzles, which lead to the production of much
,
larger "blisters" of gas, the situation may be quite
Fig. 10. The experimental work of Ogawaand Onoue63) il-
lustrating the adequacyof e[MLlpL] ~ 0.66 as the scale
different in practice.

up criterion for mixing time estimation.
rate) and a scale factor (MI Ipl)
and Onoue,63) is shownin Fig. 10. This criterion, it is
instructive to note, produces a considerably different
functional relationship between 8~ and the operating
variables than those embodied in Eqs. (5) through (7).
In contrast to this, Asai and coworkers49) suggested that
water model experiments are to be carried out in similar
vessel geom~try in order to establish a functional
relationship amonge~, Iiquid depth and mixing times.
Furthermore, multiplying the results by 1.9 [=(pF./
p~)0.33], the mixing times in the corresponding liquid
steel system can be estimated. Such arguments were
however, not supported with any experimental measure-
ments. Onthe other hand, Neifer et al.60) suggested that
the following correlation (in SI units) e.g,,
T~=71.84~Qg ( Pg."
In a slightly modified experimental situation, Kim and
Fruehan67) as well as Taniguchi et al.68) investigated the
~0.66. This, after Ogawa absorption of gas from the environment to the bath via
the eye of the plume. In these studies, while inert gas
was bubbled through an aqueous solution of NaOH,a
C02 atmosphere was maintained as the ambient en-
vironment above the bath. It was observed67) that with
increase in gas flow rates, gas absorption through the
plume's "eye" increased significantly. Furthermore, an
"slag" phase found be helpful in minimising
upper was to
gas absorption in comparison to an equivalent situation
without any protective slag covering.
Water model studies have also been reported on mass
transfer phenomenabetween slag and metal in argon
stirred ladles. In these, water and organic fluids (oil,66,67)
benzene,68) cyclohexane,69) etc.) were used as simulating
fluids to represent the metal and slag phases respectively.
Typically, the intensity of slag~netal reactions have been

Pg.B
- o.38D2.0L
~ 066 .........(8) studied by monitoring the transport of a tracer, which
has an equilibrium partition ratio betweenwater and the
of gas density at normal to bath
(pg,"Ipg,B being the ratio upper phase liquid. In such systems, owing to the
difficulties in estimating the effective slag-metal inter-
temperature) provides excellent estimates of mixing times
facial area accurately under gas stirring conditions, a
(950/0) in various gas stirred ladle systems thereby
essentially indicating that Eq. (8) can be applied to volumetric mass transfer
(
coefficient
= K~A; K~= aque-
estimate mixing times in water models as well as full ous phase mass transfer coefficient) has often been ap-
plied to quantify the experimental results.
scale steel systems.
Flow visualisation studies reported so far45,46,66~69)
(c) TwoFluid MassTransfer on bubble stirred oil-water systems indicate that the
Chemical reactions between injected gas and bulk oil-water interface (viz., slag-metal interface) can
liquid, as well as between two immiscible liquids (e.g., undergo considerable disturbances and therefore, pro-
slag and metal) in gas stirred systems, are the subject of duce a host of complex physical phenomena,such as
considerable interest and importance to metallurgical extensive deformation of the interface, formation of oil
engineers. Thus, numerous experimental studies have ligaments, droplet generation and entrainment, etc. Thus,
been carried out and reported to investigate slag-met- at relatively low gas flow rates, the interface remaihs
al-gas interactions in gas stirred ladle systems, 'em- relatively imperturbed but with increasing flow rates, oil
bodying widely varying experimental conditions (viz., ligaments and droplets tend to form at the water-oil
vessel geometry, gas fiow rate, gas injection devices, etc.). interface (viz.. Fig. 11) Ieading to a significant increase
Many of these studies,48,64,6s) while of considerable in the oil-water interfacial area. At still higher specific
fundamental importance to steelmaking, are not of di- flow rates, the entire oil layer breaks downinto numerous
rect relevance to ladle metallurgy operations since the droplets leading to the formation of an oil~vater
experimental conditions (gas fiow rates, nozzle configura- emulsion. Experimentally measured66) volumetric mass
tions, etc.) applied do not exactly correspond to ladle
metallurgy operations. Consequently, an extensive dis-
transfer coefficients
rates are illustrated
(
= K~A) as a function of gas flow
in Fig. 12. There, corresponding 'to
cussion on these has been avoided. these three operating regimes, different functional
Chemical reactions between gas bubbles and a bulk relationships are seen to govern interphase massexchange
liquid has been commonlysimulated53,62,66) using ap- rates. Furthermore66,67) the flow rates at the transition
propriate reacting aqueous systems. Often C02(g) and points in Fig. 12, are a function of the volume as well

9 C 1995 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1995). No. 1

~1~;:F~;,:~,1
well as interfacial tension (a) in the aqueous and high
~•~~~~ temperature systems are likely to be someof the factors
LUME
for such observations.
DIRECTION
Entrainment as well as emulsification phenomena
':~c'~'~ ~/;1~
~~~Zi~~~~~'~)~~V'•
betweenan upper buoyant phase and a bulk lower phase
WATER 1
~~, during submerged gas injection operation has been
/
f l
t
investigated recently by Lin and Guthrie71) using low
f
INVERSION _
FB
OIL LleAMENT
temperature oil/water and oil/mercury analogues. These
authors demonstrated experimentally that these droplet
Fig. Il. Schematic ofthe interactions between the plume and
the upper and lower phase liquids.68) entrainment phenomena dependprimarily on the density
difference (Ap) between the two liquid phases. Thus, for

4.5
10wdensity differences, entrainment of the upper phase
kwAcc
Q1.43 into the lower phase was found to be pronounced while
4,0
3.5
for large density differentials, such entrainment was
CL2.51 found to be less significant than the dispersion of the
\
fQ
3.0
kwAac
E 2.5 bulk lower phase into the upper phase.
2,0
; 3. Combined Physical and Mathematical Modelling
~ 1,5

kwA aO
60
1.o
cc: '
Studies
05
The operating conditions (viz., high temperature and
o-1 o 1 2 3 visual opacity of liquid metal, massive size of industrial
O
In (Q), L/min reactors, etc.) prevalent in steel plants pose serious
Fig. 12. The experimental work of Kim et al.69) showing the problems for any direct or elaborate experimental
variation of K~Aas a function of gas flow rate for investigation. Consequently, mathematical models, in
central tuyere injection, conjunction with appropriately scaled down physical
models, have been a reasonable alternative towards
effective process analysis. To date, large number of
a
0.1
dc =75 cm combinedtheoretical and experimental investigations on
hM= 3.7 ~3.8 cm widely varying aspects of argon stirred ladles have been
h5L= 1.6 cm *,F
0.05 Q carried out and reported on. In these, considerable efforts
E
U)
Q*
l o
J have been madeto develop a reliable and predictive
mathematical frame-work which can be conveniently
extrapolated to investigate relevant phenomenain
0,01 I
Region I : Region II
I
J Region 111
I
i
industrialsystems. These are summarised below under
two headings: (1) hydrodynamics and (2) heat and mass
,
t transfer phenomena.
1 5 10 50 100
Q, cm3/s (a) Hydrodynamics
Fig. 13. Variation in masstransfer coefficient as a function of Szekely and coworkers72,73) were the first
to attempt
gas fiow rates in a high temperature gasslagmetal numerical simulation of turbulent fiow phenomena
system 71) . (embodying the Navier Stokes equations in conjunction
with the k-Wtwo equation model of turbulence74)) in
as the thermophysical properties of the upper phase fluid the bulk liquid outside the plume region. A
physically
and therefore, would vary from one physical system more realistic approach was then adopted by Debroy et
to another. The experimental studies of Kim and al. ,7 5) whorecognised the importance of plumebuoyancy
coworkers,66,67) as well as of Mietz and Oeters69) have rather than shearing and proposed a computational
also indicated that an off-centred nozzle position hinders schemein which the gas liquid mixture contained within
masstransfer rates vis a vis a central nozzle position. This the two phase region was represented by a homogene-
trend, as one would note here, is contrary to observations ous fluid of somewhat reduced density (viz., p*i*-
madeon mixing times, which are found to be accelerated oegPg+(1-ceg)pL; ceg being the gas volume fraction). In
(i.e., reduced) by an eccentric nozzle position in the
bath.52,59)
essence, an additional term =
in the axial direction momentum
( pLgoeg)
was incorporated
balance equation to
Qualitatively, similar trends of results between mass model the buoyancy force generated by the differences
transfer coefficients and gas flow rates have been observ- in density between the bulk single phase and plume two
ed by Hirasawa et al.70) in pilot/laboratory scale high phase regions. This procedure,75) requires a priori
temperature systems. This is shownin Fig. 13. However, specification of the field distribution of gas volume
close examination and a comparison between Figs. 12 fractions in the plume within the calculation domain,
and 13, particularly for region II, indicate that the func- thereby allowing computation of hydrodynamicvariables
tional relationship between and are different for
the two systems. Dissimilar density differential (Ap) as
K Q and turbulence parameters within the entire system. The
"quasi single phase calculation procedure", also known

C 1995 ISIJ 10
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1995), No. 1
Table 4. Expressions of gas volume fractions in quasi single phase calculation procedure as applied by various investigators.

Geometryof the two

Investigator Expressions for gas volume fraction, ee Remarks
phase plume

Debroy et a/.75) ec:=

1 Q Both slip and no-slip models were
21r
r(u
+ Us)dr applied.
o

Szekely et al.77) e,;=

Q- Icr~ Usoe(1
-
oc)
U. estimated by solving a separate
~c ordinary differential equation
27~rUzdr

Empirically determined
Sahai and Guthrie76) and specified a priori in
Q'
L No slip model: constant centreline
the calculation procedure velocity applied as a boundary
Up
cc= condition
7rr*~L

r*. is the radius of an equivalent volume

cylindrical shaped plume.

Q'
L
Up
Mazumdarand Guthrie79) oc= 7rr"2~L
Noslip model

Balaji and Mazumdar80) oc:=

Q- 7~r~.U*ec(1
-
cc)
Slippage assumed: UF 4.5Ql!3L1/4R ~ 113
=
~au
Up 2lcrdr

Castillejos et al.1 14)

ecmax
oc
:= exp rL~O7 '
r
rmax/2
24 '

Gasvolume fraction within the plume

estimated on the basis of empirically
are correlated to modified
oemax etc'
determined correlations
Froude No', density ratio, nozzle
dimension etc'

as the "single phase variable density formulation", has

+0,i 2
+0
beenpopular amongmathematical modellers. Numerous e
+0.1
investigations,7 5~ 8l) embodyingsuch an approach, have ,

beenreported in the literature, Nonetheless, in estimating o

h/Z=0.8 -
0.1
o(g, different concepts and procedures have been applied
by the various investigators. These, as illustrated in Table ,
e +0.1
+0.l
4, have resulted in different versions of the quasi-single
phase calculation procedure,
o Ito

,
0.6 -0.1 E
In almost all the mathematical modelling studies
, :h
reported to-date,75 ~ 81) major approximations have been +0.: u
+0.1 o
,
applied (e.g., flat plume shape, etc.),
free surface, conical
o > a,

to effectively model the fiow phenomenain the gas stirred

0,4 -0.1
-o.:
bath. Parallel to the numerical computations, experi-
o
mental measurementson liquid velocity fields via video e +0.1
+0.1
recording76,79) and Laser Doppler Velocimetry 77,7 8) were ,
o
also carried out. Comparisons between such measure- , o.
2 -0.1
-0,l
ments and corresponding predictions have generally
indicated that a quasi single phase calculation procedure, 1o 0.8 06 0.4 0.2 o
r/R
in conjunction with the standard coefficient k-8 model
• Ex~erimental Predicted
of turbulence,82) provides estimates of flow parameters h/z = Dimensionless bath depth
in the bulk of the liquid, that are in reasonable agreement
with those measured. This is shownin Fig. 14. In contrast Fig. 14. Comparison of experimentally measured and theo-
retically predicted vertical velocity component76) at
to this, the correspondence between predicted (via the different depths in a water model ladle.
standard coefficient k-8 model of turbulence) and
experimentally measured turbulence parameters (e.g.,
r.m.s, of the fiuctuating velocity components, Reynolds the standard coefficient k-8 turbulence model was in-
stress components, etc.) was found to be less sat- adequate to realistically simulate turbulence phenomena
isfactory. On the basis of their detailed LDVmea- in such gas stirred systems. In a later and more recent
surements, Grevet and coworkers77) pointed out that study, Mazumdarand coworkers81) expressed similar

11 C 1995 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1 995). No. 1
apprehensions. However, despite the uncertainties Instead of the plume dimension and gas volume frac-
associated with predicted turbulence quantities, com- tion being specified a priori, these authors set up a
puted results, together with experimental measurements computational procedure to predict the distributions of
shownin Fig. 14, indicate that for reasonably accurate gas volume fraction, Iiquid velocity, and fluid turbulence
modelling of flow phenomena, precise modelling of in an axisymmetric gas bubble driven system. In this,
an
turbulence is to someextent secondary. These observa- ordinary differential equation describing bubble motion
tions76,77,79) therefore,
appear to suggest that bulk flows was solved numerically in addition to the liquid phase
in gas stirred ladle systems are largely dominated by continuity and equations of motions (see also later).
inertial phenomena. Basedon their experimental findings,44) a modified form
'
Parallel to numerical model study,76) a
their of the standard coefficient k-8 model was applied, in
macroscopic model was proposed by Sahai and which, for the first time, the effect of turbulence
Guthrie83) to predict plume rise velocity and average generation by bubbles within the plume region wastaken
speed of liquid recirculation in gas stirred ladles as a into account via an additional source tenu. It was
funetion of operating variables. Appreciating the demonstrated that predicted flows and isotropic
relevance of hydrodynamic coupling between widely turbulence fluctuations within the plume and elsewhere
dispersed, Iarge rising bubbles and entrained liquid within in the bath, comparewell against ~quivalent experimental
the upwelling plume, Sahai and Guthrie derived from measurements.
the first principles (via an energy balance in which, the Schwarzet al. 85) Iater reported a combinedtheoretical
rate of energy supplied by the rising bubbles wasequated and experimental investigation of flow phenomena
in a
with the turbulence energy dissipation losses within the laboratory nitrogen
scale, stirred, I
kg carbon saturated
system) an expression for estimating the average rise bath of iron at 400'C. 1 PHOENICS86)
A based code
velocity of the bubble plume, Up, according to (in SI incorporating a two phase computational approach
units) : embodyingthe standard coefficient k-e turbulence model
Up~i 4.5 (Q0.33L0.25)/Ro 33 ...(9) was applied to predict flow phenomenaand turbulence
....... quantities in the reactor as a function of nitrogen flow
in which,
Q
is the
gas flow rate corrected to the mean rates. Parallel to these, attempts were also made to
liquid temperature and height, L
is the depth of liquid
measure plume velocities by carrying out experiments on
and R is
the radius of the vessel. In their analytical the isothermal dissolution of steel rods within the two
treatment,76) energy dissipation via bubble slippage phe- phase plume region of the iron bath. Significant
nomenawas entirely ignored. Similarly, through con- differences between experimental plume velocities and
sideration of their ownand others43) experimental data, those predicted via their two phase model were reported.
Sahai and Guthrie provided the following correlation for In view of such discrepancies, model improvements, such
estimating the average speed of bath recirculation, U, as as more realistic descriptions of interphase friction (e.g.,
a function of operating variables (in SI units), viz., drag coefficient,87) etc.) and turbulence phenomena were
advocated by those authors.
JoLJoR(u2+v2)o
52lrerdrdz

~= foR o86 '

' Q0'33r0'25D-0'58
L l\
(b) Heat and MassTransfer Phenomena
21Lrdrdz to the studies discussed in the preceding
In addition
section,
many combined physical and mathematical
.(10) modelling studies have also been carried out during the
Subsequently, Mazumdarand Guthrie79) modified the
last two decades to investigate
numerousheat and mass
transfer phenomenaof relevance to ladle metallurgy
plume equation83) to model flows in ladles stirred with
steelmaking opeirations. These, for example, include
a partially submerged vertical lance. To this end, an studies on such phenomenaas, mixing, slag-metal
alternative form of the plume equation was proposed
reactions, melting and disso~ution of solids, and so forth.
according to (in SI units):
These studies are summarised in the two sub-sections
Up~;4.5 (pQ)0.33L0.25
R0.33 .........
.(1 1)
below.
(i) Mixing
in which pis the fractional depth of lance submergence Experimental aspects of liquid mixing phenomenain
gas stirred ladle systems have been elaborated upon in
(e.g.,
O~ p~ 1). It is important to note here that in the
absence of any differential model solution, the siinple a previous section. So far as mathematical modelling of
algebraic relationships embodiedin Eqs. (9) through (1 1), mixing times is concerned, different approacheshave been
can provide a reasonable description of the state of adopted by researchers. A good summaryof the various
motion/agitation under a given set of operating con- procedures available for calculation has recently been
ditions. presented by Mietz and Oeters.88) From a conceptual
Experimental studies on ladle flows in conjunction with stand point, two different approaches have been applied
more elaborate mathematical models have also been and these, for example include, modelling via numerical
reported.60,84,85) For instance, Johansen and Boysan84) solutions of the species conservation equation56, 59, 89 ~ 92)
used a combined Lagrangian-Eulerian two phase and the circulation time model.53,5 7,93,94) In conjunction
computational approach for bubble stirred ladles. with mathematical modelling, experimental measure-

C 1995 ISIJ 12
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1995), No. 1

ments of mixing times in water models and industrial 3

argon stirred ladles were also carried out, some of , e ExperimentaL
which have again, already been discussed. Suchmeasure- Predicted

ments were often applied to validate model predic-

tions.53,56,s7,59) 2
In the presence of a two dimensional velocity field, the ,
e et
massconservation of an inert tracer (e.g., mi) can be i \o* ,
expressed in terms of, say a cylindrical polar co-ordinate o
1 _'• __ '__~__-1-
system, via the following convectioniturbulent diffusion
equation:

a
-(pmi) a I a (prvmi)
+ az (pumi) + o
at r ar O 4 8 12 16

eaz (T aa~~i
)++ ,( Tr
ami
(12)
Time, min

Comparison between numerically predicted and ex-

= ar
.. ...
The eddy diffusivity, DE(= Tlp), and the eddy kinematic
viscosity, VE (=pElp), are conventionally taken to be
numerically equal. Fromthe view point of engineering
calculations, the assumption of equality (viz., Sct DE/
=
vE) ~i 1) has proven to be reasonably adequate for a large
variety of turbulent flows. It is therefore apparent that
provided the fiow parameters (u and v) and turbulence
quantities (uE) are known with reasonable certainty,
mixing times [viz., mi(z, r, t) fields] can be fairly accurately
predicted since physically realistic and accurate boundary
conditions can be applied to Eq. (12). This has been a
popular approachs6,59,89-92) that has been applied in
which
numerous mathematical modelling studies in
numerically predict mixing phenomenain aqueous as
ladle systems are predicted
well as industrial gas stirred
ab initio.
al. 89)
In a muchearlier study, Szekely et
combined theoretical and experimental investigation
in industrial scale
liquid mixing phenomena argon
ladles. Mixing rates in three different size industrial ladles
(viz., 7, 40 and 60 t) were measuredfor various operating
conditions by monitoring a transient local concentration
of a radio active tracer addition. In conjunction with
their experimental work, they predicted mixing times
through solution of Eq. (12) via a two dimensional el-
lipitic,turbulent flow model.72,73) Despite some sim-
plifying assumptions,72,73) experimental me~surements
and numerical predictions were found to be in rea-
sonable agreement. This is illustrated in Fig. 15.
Similar observations on water models of argon stirred
ladle have also been reported by Ying et al. ,90) Salcudean
Fig. 15.
perimentally measuredmixing times in a 7t gas stirred
ladle.89)
industrial argon stirred ladle were numerically predicted
and reasonably good agreement with experimental
measurementsdemonstrated.
Mixing phenomenain gas stirred ladles designed fof
single and dual plug bubbling operations was reported
recently by Joo and Guthrie.59) Their59) computational
results and experimental observation confirmed that as
the bubblers are angular momenta
movedoff-centre,
increase, reducing mixing times considerably. It was
found that a mid-radius placement of a porous plug
represents an optimumlocation for single plug bubbling,
while diametrically opposed, mid radius placement of
bubblers were found to be best for dual plug bubbling.
These56,s9,89 - 92) numerical and experimental modelling
reported a exercises indicate that mixing phenomena in gas stirred
of ladle systems can be reasonably accurately predicted from
stirred first principles.
An alternative to the differential modelling approach
to investigate mixing phenomenain gas stirred ladle
systems was first applied by Sano and Mori.57) The
calculation procedure, commonlyknownas the "circula-
tion time model", is essentially based on the concept that
the circulation time is proportional to the mixing time.
Through an energy balance (e.g., at steady state, the rate
of potential energy supplied by the rising bubbles is
balanced by turbulence energy and interphase frictional
dissipation losses), Sanoand Mori derived an expression
for estimating circulation times in terms of operating
variables. Furthermore, by assuming "mixing times" to

and coworkers,91) Mazumdarand Guthrie56) and more be equivalent to three times the circulation times (e.g.,
recently by Joo and Guthrie.59) Computational studies equivalent to a degree of mixing equal to IOO 5o/.), ~
of mixing phenomena in industrial size and water model mixing times in gas stirred cylindrical vessels containing
ladles confirm that gas flow rate and vessel geometry molten iron were predicted mathematically and com-
affect mixing considerably56,s9,89-91) and that mixing pared with experimental measurements. The calculated
results were however, found to agree only roughly with
rates vary considerably from one location to another in
such gas stirred vessels.56,59) measurements. In a later study, the sameapproach was
In a subsequent investigation,92) El-Kaddah and also adopted by Stapurewicz and Themelis53) to in-
vestigate mixing phenomena theoretically.
Szekely improved their earlier hydrodynamicmodel72, 73)
in 6and 40 t industrial A similar approach57) wasadopted by Krishnamurthy
to predict the turbulent fiow fields
ladles. Embodyingthe predicted flow parameters and et al. 93) to theoretically investigate mixing phenomena

turbulence quantities in the species conservation equation in gas stirred baths. Onthe basis of manyexperimental
thermodynamic data54,55) derived from water model studies, Krishna-
(viz., Eq. (12)) and invoking some
equilibrium relationships, desulphurisation kinetics in the murthy et al.93) suggested that circulation number

13 C 1995 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1995), No. 1

(supposition
= circulation time/mixing time),
of Sanoand Mori, is
in contrast to the earlier
not a constant and can 10
rather assumea value between and 2
(for any given12 I
degree of homogeneity). In a subsequent study, g5
v
,
e e
Krishnamurthy94) applied a "tank in series model" to r~'

o
compute the circulation numberand hence, the mixing .2
xc'

time. Model predictions were assessed against experi-

E
mental measurements54,55) and reasonable agreement O1
J::
Predicted
claimed. However, for high temperature industrial e ExperimentaL
systems,47) agreement
wasfound to be less satisfactory. o10 20 50 100 200 500
The models of mixing time adopted by Sano and 3 min-1
Mori,57) Stapurewicz and Themelis,53) as well as by O, dmn

Krishnamurthy and coworkers,93'94) are
simplistic. Although, of some key
through tuning
parameters in the model equations, the "circulation time
models" can be madeto describe a particular set of
experimental conditions, nevertheless, such empirical
models, in general will have only limited utility, since
these cannot be readily extrapolated with much
confidence to other experimental configurations. The
concepts applied in the formulation of the model
equations are fundamentally weak since these do not
incorporate the physics of the mixing process (e.g.,
that macro-mixing process via bulk convection, turbu-
lent diffusion and molecular diffusion phenomena)ade-
quately. Thus, Mietz and Oeters88) suggested that the
recirculating flow, turbulent diffusion from the tracer
enriched cloud and the massexchangebetween the dead
zone and the remaining volume of liquid in tanks are
parameters that have to be considered in such "tank in
somewhat Fig. 16. Comparisonof experimentally measuredand numer-
predicted masstransfer coefficient as a function
ically
of gas flow rates in the vicinity of the free surface in
ladle.89)
an industrial
under industrial conditions, the agreement between
theory and experiment appears to be very satisfactory.
A comprehensive theoretical and experimental inves-
tigationon melting phenomenain turbulent recircula-
tory gas bubble driven aqueous and high temperature
systems has been reported by Taniguchi and cowork-
ers.96,97) These authors measuredthe melting rates (e.g.,
Nu) of ice spheres using a photographic technique and
compared these with estimates derived from three dif-
ferent heat transfer correlations reported in the litera-
ture. Such comparisons96) demonstrated explicitly that
the classrcal "Ranz Marshall" correlation (viz.,
Nu=
S + 0.6 •
(Re)o.s(pr)0.33) underpredicts heat transfer rates

senes" or "recrrculation time" models.

in gas bubble driven systems by about 40 to 50 olo. On
the other hand, the heat transfer correlation proposed
(ii) Solid-Liquid Interactions by Whitakerl03) (e.g., a modified version of the Ran2h
Thermal and mass interactions between solids and Marshall correlation and applicable to turbulent flow
fluids are a characteristic of manyprocesses (viz., alloying situation) viz.,
addition, powder injection and so on) that are carried
'xb
0.25
out in refining ladles. Over the years, several experimental (Nu 2) (04 Reo5+006 Reo66)pro.4
studies9 s- I oI )have beenre ported and
newempirical heat 'l
o
and mass transfer correlations have been developed to .(14)
estimate melting an!d/or dissolution rates in gas stirred
ladles. These investigations,95~98) have in general, ap- wasfound to produce better estimates and wastherefore
peared to indicate that in turbulent metal processing moreappropriate and adequate for investigating melting
phenomenain both aqueous and high temperature gas
systems, given that the intensity of turbulence is often stirred baths.
appreciable, classical correlations for translatory fiow are
In a later study, Szekely, Grevet and El-Kaddah,95)
insufficient to connect the hydrodynamic transport
went on to propose a correlation (applicable in the range
phenomenato process rates. Thus, in order to estimate
heat and mass transfer rates in gas stirred systems
of values for Re(between 100 and OOO)and Tu ~: O. 5))
for estimating melting rates of ice cylinders in gas bubble
2 ( 1
effectively, functional relationships embodying the driven aqueous system according to:
combined influence of flow and turbulence have been
pro posed. Nu=0.338(ReTu)0.8pro.33 .......(15)

Szekely et al.89) investigated the dissolution rates of

In order to estimate various non-dimensional numbers
graphite rods dipped into industrial size gas stirred ladles.
and hence the corresponding melting rates, a photo-
To estimate the mass transfer coefficient theoretically, graphic technique in conjunction with a turbulent flow
the correlation proposed by Lavender et al.102) was model77) was applied.
applied e.g.,
An similar approach,95) was adopted by Mazumdar
Sh 20+072 Re05Re~•25Sc0.33...........(13) and coworkers,98,99) for estimating transfer mass
coefficients for the dissolution of benzoic acid c. ylinders
A comparison between observed and predicted rates of in a gas stirred aqueousbath. Onthe basis of experimental
dissolution89) Eq. (13)) is shownin Fig. 16. There,
(via
despite the simplicity of the turbulent flow model89) and
measurementsand numerical computations. Mazumdar
et al.98) demonstrated that masstransfer coefficients for
the difficulty in obtaining reproducible measurements
vertically submergedcylinders in a water model ladle can

C 1995 ISIJ 14
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1995), No. 1
be adequately expressed via a similar correlation of the flow rates,106) it is not unlikely that the intensity of
type expressed via Eq. (13), e.g., turbulence in that system was small and therefore, a
correlation (essentially valid under laminar flow
Sh O73 (Reio")o 2s(ReT)0.32Sc0.33 ..(16)
.
conditions) embodying only object Reynolds number
in which the nominal and turbulent Reynolds numbers produced reasonable estimates of dissolution rates. It
(Reio',' and ReT) were the local flow variables and defined is also useful to note that the intensity of turbulence
as (dp(u2 within a gas stirred ladle is strongly spatially depen-
+ v2)o.5/v) and (dpa/v) respectively. In those
dent.76,77,79,83)
studies,89,99) the meanand fluctuating velocity scales Furthermore, fiows across the ladle's
embodied in the definition of nominal and turbulence base and regions deep within the ladle are amongthe
Reynolds numberwere estimated theoretically from the slowest. Consequently, the regions in which dissolution
k-8 model of turbulence (e.g., a=~1~~~~ 0.66 k). In a separate is measured
must greatly affect the conclusions drawn.
study, Mazumdaret al.104) extrapolated the above The subsurface motions and trajectories of solid
equation and demonstrated that isothermal dissolution additions to gas stirred ladle systems were investigat-
rates of steel cylinders in a carbon saturated iron melt ed both theoretically and experimentally by Mazumdar
can be predicted with reasonable certainty via Eq. 6).
Theseinvestigations,98,99, I 04) together with manyothers,
(1 and Guthrie.107) Their studyi07) suggested that under
industrial conditions, buoyant additions, irretpective
are therefore indicative of the fact that appropriately of their size, have practically no chance to undergo
designed water model investigations can be reasonable prolonged subsurface motion but rather almost in-
and effective alternatives for studying various high stantaneously resurface. Similarly they found that heavier
temperature phenomeha in ladle refining operations. additions would always sink to the bottom of the vessel.
Solid and particulate dissolution rates in laboratory In contrast to these, neutrally buoyant additions (e.g.,
scale, gas stirred iron-carbon melts were reported by somegrades of ferromanganese), have the potential to
Wright and coworkers.loo,lol) Mass transfer rates for undergo prolonged subsurface motion, and therefore
the isothermal dissolution of steel rods were measured melt within the bulk metal bath. On the basis of their
in two different sized (1 and 25 kg) bathsloo) for a wide physical and mathematical modelling studies, it was
range of gas fiow rates. It was confirmed experimentally suggested that buoyant additions such as Al, FeSi,
that gas injection enhances the rate of dissolution etc. would, in conjunction with variable amounts of
considerably. In their subsequent study,lol) recarburisa- carry-over slag, exhibit poor and erratic recovery rates,
tion phenomena in a gas stirred bath were investigated if added to argon bubbling operations. In
ladles during
via multi-particulate dissolution experiments. To com- this context, these authors highlighted the role of the

pare measuredand predicted particle masstransfer rates, C.A.S (~omposition Adjustment through ~ealed argon
Wright and coworkerslol) applied the following cor- bubbling) procedure. I 08)
relation, derived from Kolmogorofrs theory of local
isotropy, e.g., 4. Mathematical Modelling Studies
ed~ )0.25Sco Extensive numerical modelling of various aspects of
Sh=2+0.4 33 ...........(17)
ladle refining operations e.g., hydrodynamics,80,81,84,
l09- 115,1 18,ll9,124- 126) heat and mass transfer,60,120-
It
was demonstrated that Eq. (17) can adequately 124) turbulence phenomenal16,1 17, 127 ~ 129) etc., has been
simulate multi particle dissolution phenomena(e.g., carried out and reported during the last two decades. As
recarburisation etc.) in high temperature gas stirred already mentioned, hydrodynamic modelling of gas
system. stirred ladle systems has been essentially carried out using
Asai and coworkersl05) have compiled and discussed three separate approaches, namely, (i) the quasi single
someof the reported masstransfer correlations from the phase or the single phase variable density formulation
viewpoint of their applicability to ladle refining procedures,80,81,109-114) (ii) the Lagrangian-Eulerian
operations. Oneof these correlations, viz.,
two phase approach60,84,i26) and (iii)the Eulerian two
phasell6~125) models. Of these, in terms of computa-
Sh= 0.079 Re0.7Sc0.356
•
......
.....(1 8)
tional complexities, the quasi single phase procedure is
was subsequently applied by Korial06) to estimate liquid by far the simplest. In contrast, the Eulerian two phase
velocity (e.g., Re) from measureddissolution rates (e.g., model entails major computational efforts and these are
Sh) of solid oxalic acid compacts. The fluid velocities somewhatcomplex. Thus, except for the studies reported
estimated from the measured dissolution rates were by Lai and Salcudean,124,i25) practically all the two
compared with corresponding theoretical estimates phase simulations of gas stirred ladle systemsll5~123)
obtained from simplified macroscopic relationships76)
embodyingthe Eulerian approach have been carried out
and found to be in excellent agreement. This appears to using the commercial PHOENICS86) computer code.
contradict the findings of many other investiga- Coupling the hydrodynamic models with appropriate
tions,95 ~ 99) since the object Reynolds numberalone has
statements of mass and thermal energy conservation,
been shownto be inadequate to simulate observed heat numerical computations of thermal and material mixing
and masstransfer rates in gas stirred ladles. Nevertheless, were also performed. Furthermore, in some of the
in view of the relatively small size of the vessel (L O.
= 15m computational studies, different versions of turbulence
O. 15 m)106) applied in conjunction with low gas
and D= viscosity (ranging from an algebraic to two equation

15 C 1995 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1995), No. 1
turbulence models) were applied. Computational studies these calculation procedures are very similar apart from
concerned with the mathematical modelling of mo- the body force term embodiedin the momentum balance
mentum, heat and mass transfer phenomena,and not equations. These forces are derived from different
addressed so far, are discussed below. standpoints and as shownin Table 6, have widely varying
Table 5 presents the structure of the three hydro- expressions. Furthermore, descriptions of body force
dynamic modelling techniques illustrating their common terms, summarised in Table 6, show that all three
elements and distinguishing features. As seen, the liquid modelling procedures require a number of parameters
phasecontinuity and momentum conservations, together such as bubble size, plume dimensions, drag coefficients,
with the k-e modeland the system of associated boundary etc., that need to be specified
"a priori". Similarly, in
conditions represent a commoncore. The problem Table 7, drag coefficient-Reynolds
various number
involves body force terms induced by gas injection (as relationships that have been embodiedin the two phase
well as phase volume fractions for the two phase for- model studies are presented. Expressions for body forces
mulations) and therefore, further inputs are needed and drag coefficient shownin Tables 6and 7indicate that
for closure. To this end, in the two fluid model,115~125) the accuracy of numerical predictions should, for each
a set of additional partial differential equations governing category of model, be sensitive to an appropriate set of
the conservation of massand momentum of the gas phase choices of values for the various empirical parameters.
are coupled to the core model, while in the Lagrangian Withreference to the various boundary conditions
two phase approach,60,84,126) and ordinary differential applied to the hydrodynamic models, considerable
equation describing the ttajectory of single rising gas idealisations have been applied, particularly in the
bubbles is applied. In contrast to these, a set of auxilliary vicinity of the liquid's free surface and the location of
relationships (in the form of algebraic equations) togeth- the gas injection nozzle (for two phase calculation
er with the dimensions of the two phase plume have procedures). In all three categories of model to date, free
been applied in the quasi single phase calculation pro- surfaces have always been assumedto be essentially flat.
cedure.109-114) Consequently, the distribution of gas As such, the presence of a spout, as well as waves, have
voidages, plume shapes, etc., which are integral parts of altogether been ignored in computational procedures.
the solution of the two phase calculation procedures are Similarly, for the two phase models, free stream gas
specified, a priori, in the single phase model. velocity, regardless of the modeof gas injection (viz.,
The liquid phase mass and momentum conservation porous plug/tuyere/lance), been commonlyapplied as
equations in the core mathematical model, as a.pplied to one of the relevant boundary conditions to the gas
phase/bubble trajectory equations. All these aspects are
of concern, particularly whenfull scale predictions are
Table 5. General structure of the mathematical models as
applied to the hydrodynamic simulation of gas
to be made.
stirred ladle systems. A
recent analysis by the present authors summarised
elsewherel30) indicates that it is within the plume region

Model category Common

elements
Distingurshing elements and predominantly in the vicinity of the free surface and
(core model)
the gas injection plug, that the three modelling procedures
produce somewhatdifferent estimates of fiow velocity,
Eulerian two phase Liquid phase Gasphase continuity
modelsl 16~ 12s) continuity and and momentum gas volumefraction, etc. However, since the plumebarely
balance
momentum conservation equations occupies to "/o
2 3
of the reactor volume under ladle
equations refining conditions, any variations in computed rise
Lagrangian two phase + Bubble trajectory velocities within the plume (particularly in the vicinity
model60,84, 126) Theturbulence model equation of the free surface and plug/nozzle), are refiected by only
Quasi single phase + Plumemodel; Drift marginal variations within the bulk of the liquid.
models8o, 81 I o9- 114}
, Appropriate flux model and
Consequently, predicted fiows, particularly outside the
boundary conditions empirical plume
dimension two phaseplume region for all three categories of models,
correspond reasonably well with experimental measure-
Table 6. Characteristic expression of the body force in the liquid phase momentum
conservation equations as applied in the
three different calculation procedures.79,84, 123)

Expression for volumetric body in the liquid phase Empirical parameters in the expression of
Modelling procedure
momentum equations body force

Quasi single phase79) PL90e

Q
; = - ~au
C,
It:ravUsOe(1
-
OC)
Slip velocity, U*(f(db)) and the plume
dimension,
Up 27Trdr r~~

and Up=4.5Q0.33L025R025

Lagrangian two phase84) Q ;=:f:~

~=
' 3CDP
Re(Vh v)dt Bubble size db and the, drag coefficient CD
NAV d~

Eulerian two phasel23) Cf(Vb-v)' ' Cf =f(Re d CD' "

' b'
') Bubble size db and the drag coefficient CD

C 1995 ISIJ 16
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1995), No. 1
Table 7. Drag coefficien~Reynolds number relationships as applied in various two phase hydrodynamic models of bubble
stirred ladle.

Investigators Drag coefficientReynolds numberrelationships Remarks

0.622
Johansen and Boysan84) CD;: Valid for 500 ~ Red~ 5OOO:Eo Eotvos
1 +0'235) =
number
Eo

24 0.42
Turkoglu and Faroukl20) CD~
- Red +0.15
(1 - Re~.6B1)
+ (1 16)
42 500
Rd is the dispersed phase volume fraction.
+ Re~
and
CD= 2.66 (1 -Rd)2
Lai and Salcudeanl24) CD= 48/Red Red= 2RUpl,t

24 0.42
Ilegbusi and Szekelyll6) CD=: (1 +0,15 Re~.687) +
- FromRef. 87)
Red (1 42 500
+ Re~'16
Neifer et al.60) CD= al + a2Re~+ a3Rend al, a2 ' ' ' etc. are function of Red.

0.6 and models of turbulence74,82) have been

differential

\
Ca ) investigated numerous computational studies. The
in
0.5 .\ muchearlier work of Mazumdarand Guthrie79) as well
0.4
\\ 1
L -.-
2 phase Euterian approach
2 phase Lagrangian (lpproach as of Grevet and coworkers77) indicates that bulk fiows
u' 1 auasi single phase approach in gas stirred ladles are largely dominated by inertial
\ 1----
E 03 \
~\\\
e Experimenta[ rather than turbulence viscous forces. The more recent
z/H = 0,83 study by Shengand lronsl29) goes onto showthat flows
g 0.2
.~\\
\\ within the two phase zone itself are in fact quite sensitive
a'
> to the choice of turbulence models used in the calculation
~ 0.1
procedure. Similarly, Salcudean and coworkers91) noted
.~
=~~\,
O that a bulk effective viscosity formula simulates the
\
\ mixing process in a water model ladle better than the
-0.1 \
\\
\
,
k-e turbulence model. A
detailed analysis of such di-
vergent views expressed by various investigators has
- 0.2
o o.2 0,4 O.e 0.8 1.O been presented by Mazumdarand coworkers81) in a
Dimension[ess radia[ distance recent publication. There, it was demonstrated that
assumptions of bubble slippage (or no slippage), the
1.O application of wall functions with a bulk effective
(b)
viscosity formula (or no wall functions at all), etc. can
0.75
all have
2 phase Euterian
approach a significant effect on computed results and
\E pha5e approoch
Quasi singLe therefore, conclusions drawn from mathematical model
0.50 \
\ ----
~ \ e ExperimentaL studies are a function of these considerations. The
\
V \
o 0.25 \
\ z = 300 mm computational results of Mazumdaret al. 81) indicated
) +1L
~
that as far as predictions of flow phenomenaare
~ ~1~- concerned, the k-8 model, together with bubble slippage,
~ o
is adequate for all practical purposes and provides
e ~
-0.25 reasonably accurate estimates. Nevertheless, on a local
o 0.05 0,10 0.15 0.20 0.2S basis and particularly within the two phase plume, some
Radia[ position, m differences betweenmeasurementsand predictions might
Fig. 17. Comparison of experimentally measured and nu- exist, the recent work of Shengand lrons39) appears
as
merically predicted velocity distribution in a gas
to indicate. In contrast, considerable differences between
stirred aqueousbath illustrating the relative effective-
hydrodynamic modelling pro- various predicted and experimentally measured turbu-
ness of three different
cedures. 131) lence quantities (e.g., intensity of turbulence, turbulence
kinetic energy, etc.) have been reported.81) As shownin
ments, as illustrated in Fig. 17. Table 8, predictions and measurementsof various quanti-
As pointed out already, procedures adopted to mod- ties are different by considerable limits. Similar observa-
el turbulence phenomenaare also likely to introduce tions have been madeby other investigators.77,129)
some uncertainties in the predicted results. To assess Despite the inadequacies of the k-e turbulence model,
this, the role of bulk effective viscosity modelsi27,128) the large numberof studies reported in the literature and

17 C 1995 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1995), No. 1
Table 8. Numerically predicted standard coefficient k8 turbulence model) bulk average values of various turbulence
(via
quantities in a gas bath (L 0,21 m, D 0,15m) as functions of gas flow rates and their comparison with
stirred
= =
corresponding experimental measurements.81)

Turbulence kinetic energy Turbulence energy dissipation rate

Turbulence intensity
Gasflow rate x 104, m2/s2 x 104, m2/s3
x 105, m3ls
Experimental Predicted Experimental Predicted Experimental Predicted

l 66
.
0.824 7.3 0.218 O.51 6.23 3.95
3.33 2.0 8.8 O.254 0.52 12.5 5.9
5.0 2.39 14.6 0.236 0.52 18.7 ll.7

discussed already, indicate that realistic predictions of
heat and masstransfer rates can be derived via the k-g
model embodied in a turbulent flow cornputational
procedure. Towards these, it is important to recognise
that heat and mass transfer rates do not depend
significantly on the predicted turbulence kinetic energy
rates. Theseindicate that under ladle refining conditions,
apart from the vicinity of the nozzle, well dispersed
spherical caps bubbles can be expected in the two phase
region. Over most of the two phase zone, nozzle
configurations have little influence on bubble and liquid
rise velocities, gas volume fraction distributions, etc. and

or turbulence intensity (e.g., for example, from Eq. (15), are therefore not critical to the overall flow recircula-
it is
seen that Kocu0.32). A
simple calculation indicates tion produced. The rising gas liquid plume induces a
that uncertainties in predicted turbulence intensity values recirculatory motion of liquid within the vessel, which
2
by a factor of (e.g.. Table 8), are only likely to introduce typically has its "eye" Iocated in the upper quadrant of
corresponding uncertainties in predicted mass transfer the ladle and displaced towards the side wall. Under such
coefficient values, K, of about o/•.
11
Similarly, if it is conditions, the bottom of the vessel can be expected to
assu~nedthat the specific energy input rate is proportion- be relatively quiescent. Furthermore, the intensity of
al to the rate of turbulence energy dissipation losses liquid motions and liquid mixing in the vessel are
(the constant being the efficiency of turbulence gen- relatively sluggish in the presence of an upper second
eration/dissipation), ohe would then readily derive from phase liquid in comparison to an equivalent no slag
the macroscopic mixing time correlations, that errors in situation.
the predicted 8 values to the extent shown in Table 8, Theinfluence of operating variables (viz.,
gas injection
would induce muchless error in predicted mixing times. rate, vessel geometry, Iocation of gas injection nozzle,
However, errors of such magnitude in predicted results, etc.)
on bath hydrodynamics and associated transport
as one might anticipate, are well within the common processes has been extensively studied and the influence
range of uncertainties inherently associated with these variables exert under practical ladle refining
corresponding experimental techniques. conditions are now known with reasonable certainty.
Similarly, extensive mathem!atical modelling of fluid fiow
It is worth noting that
no realistic attempts have yet
been madeto model flows in the presence of an overly- and the associated transport phenomena(viz., mixing,
ing slag phase.131) Also, most computational studies slag-metal reactions, solid liquid masstransfer, etc.) and
have been reported for essentially isothermal conditions. the validation of model predictions against laboratory
Free convection phenomenahave been considered in as well as plant scale experimental data indicate that a
only a handful of cases60,91,1 14.122) together with atten- reasonable mathematical frame work now exists to
dant thermal stratifications and also a study on gas- effectively carry out design and process analysis cal-
liquid heat transfer.120) Furthermore, although com- culations in refining ladles.
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