COOLING
BEST
PRACTICE
GUIDE
FIRST EDITION
INTERNATIONAL
DISTRICT ENERGY
• ASSOCIATION
Westborough, Massachusetts, USA
Dedicated to the growth and utilization of warranty or guaranty by IDEA of any product, service,
district cooling as a means to enhance energy process, procedure, design or the like. IDEA does not
efficiency, provide more sustainable and make any representation or warranties about the suit-
reliable energy infrastructure, and contribute ability or accuracyof the Information in this publication
to improving the global environment. or that the Information in this publication is error-free.
All Information presented in this work is provided "as
Proprietary Notice is" without warranty of any kind. IDEA disclaims all
warranties and conditions of any kind, express or
Copyright©2008lnternational District Energy Association. implied, including all implied warranties and conditions
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. This publication contains of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, title
proprietary content of International District Energy and non-infringement. The Information contained in
Association (IDEA) which is protected by copyright, this publication may be superseded, may contain
trademark and other intellectual property rights. errors, and/or may include inaccuracies.
"'
Acknowledgements
It may not be possible to properly acknowledge all of design and engineering of numerous district cooling
the contributors to IDEA's District Cooling Best Practice systems around the globe. Important contributions
Guide. By its very nature, a best practice guide reflects were also made by Bjorn Andersson, Peter Beckett,
the collective experienceof industry participants, openly John Chin, Ehsan Dehbashi, Leif Eriksson, Leif Israelson,
sharing case studies, experiences and practical solutions Ryan Johnson, Todd Sivertsson, Sieiman Shakkour and
to the complex business of designing, constructing, Bard Skagestad of FVB Energy; Trevor Blank, Stanislaus
operating and optimizing district cooling systems. Since Hilton and Sai La of Thermo Systems LLC; and Peter
IDEA's inception in 1909, generations of IDEA members Tracey of CoolTech Gulf. Completing the guide
have made successive contributions to future colleagues. It demanded the focused personal commitment of these
is our sincere hopethat publishing this District Cooling Best fine industry professionals who have made a lasting and
Practice Guide will continue and extend the IDEAtradi- substantial professional contribution to IDEA and the
tion of providing guidance to future industry participants entire global industry community.
in developing reliable, efficient and environmentally
beneficial district energy systems. The world demands From the outset and over the extended development
our best efforts inthis arena. process, the IDEA Board of Directors remained committed
to the projectwith continuous support and leadership from
The principal vision for IDEA's District Cooling Best Robert Smith, Juan Ontiveros, Tom Guglielmi and Dennis
Practice Guide began with Dany Safi, CEO of Tabreed. Fotinos. In addition, a core support team of IDEA leaders
In 2004, at the start of his first term on the IDEABoard and volunteers chaired by Laxmi Raoand comprised of Cliff
of Directors, Safi proposed that IDEA assemble a guide Braddock, Kevin Kuretich, Jamie Dillard and Steve
book to help transfer the collective technical and Tredinnick contributed substantially by providing regular
business experience on district cooling that he had technical input and insight and participating in project
encountered over many years of attending IDEA updates and review meetings.
conferences. The principal founder of the burgeoning
district cooling industry in the Middle East, Safi Hundreds of pages of technical content were reviewed
foresaw the value and importance of technical guid- chapter by chapter by industry peers. These individuals
ance and experience exchange to ensure that newly volunteered to support IDEA's Best Practice Guide by
developed systems are properly designed, constructed reading, verifying and editing chapters in their areasof
and operated for highest efficiency and reliability to pre- specialty to ensure editorial balance and the technical
serve the positive reputation of the industry. Safi con- integrity of the final product. IDEA is indebted to peer
tributed personally, professionally and financially to this reviewers John Andrepont, George Berbari, Bharat
guide and deserves special recognition for his Bhola, Joseph Brillhart, Cliff Braddock, Jamie Dillard,
singular and sustaining commitment to a robust and en- Steve Harmon, Jean Laganiere, Bob Maffei, Gary Rugel,
vironmentally progressive global district energy industry. Ghassan Sahli, Sam Stone, Craig Thomas, Steve
Tredinnick and Fouad Younan. We also appreciate the
The principal authors of this guide are Mark Spurr and assistance of the operation and maintenance team at
colleagues Bryan Kleist, Robert Miller and Eric Moe of Tabreed, led by JamesKassim, who contributed insights
FVB Energy Inc., with Mark Fisher of Thermo Systems from their experience in operating a wide variety of
LLC authoring the chapter on Controls, Instrumenta- district cooling systems.
tion and Metering. These gentlemen have dedicated
hundreds of hours in organizing, writing, researching Important financial supportfor the Best Practice Guide
and editing this Best Practice Guide, drawing from was providedviaan award under the Market Development
decades of personal, professional experience in the Cooperator Grant Program from the United States
iv
Department of Commerce. IDEA acknowledges the The IDEA community has grown with the recent
important support of Department of Commerce staff addition of hundreds of members from the recently
including Brad Hess, Frank Caliva, Mark Wells, Sarah formed Middle EastChapter. The chapter would not be
Lapp and Patricia Gershanik for their multi-year in place withoutthe commitment and resourcefulness
support of IDEA. of Joel Greene, IDEA legal counsel from Jennings,
Strauss & Salmon. As former chair of IDEA, Joel has
Tabreed provided substantial financial support during been committed to IDEA's growth in the Middle East
the early stage of the project, and Dany Safi, CEO of region. Additionally, Rita Chahoud of Tabreed, the
Tabreed, made a substantial personal financial contri- executive director of the IDEA Middle East Chapter, is a
bution to sponsor the completion of the BestPractice dedicated and energetic resource for the industry.
Guide. IDEA thanks and gratefully acknowledges the Without her contributions and stewardship, the IDEA
leadership and unparalleled commitment demonstrated Middle East Chapter would not be where it is today.
by Dany Safi and Tabreed, global leaders in the district
cooling industry. Finally, the IDEA membership community is comprised of
dedicated, committed and talented individuals who have
Monica Westerlund, executive editor of District Energy made countless contributions to the success and growth
magazine, provided timely editing of the guide and of the district energy industry. As we celebrate IDEAs
worked closely with Dick Garrison who designed the centennial and begin our second century, I wish to
final layout of the book. This was a challenging task acknowledge the collective energy of our members in ad-
achieved under a tight timetable. Laxmi Rao provided vancingthe best practicesof our chosenfield of endeavor.
management and stewardship throughout the project,
and the printing and binding of the book was ably Robert P. Thornton
managed by Len Phillips. IDEA staff Dina Gadon and President, International District Energy Association
Tanya Kozel make regular contributions to the IDEA Westborough, Massachusetts, USA
community and therefore directly and indirectly
contributed to this effort. The sum of our IDEA parts is September 2008
a much larger whole.
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Contents
Preface iii
Acknowledgements iv
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Purpose 1
1.2 Overview and Structure of the Guide 2
3. Business Development 9
3.1 District Cooling as a Utility Business 9
3.1.1 Engineering design 9
3.1.2 Organizational design 9
3.2 Marketing and Communications 9
3.2.1 Positioning 9
3.2.2 Customer value proposition 10
Value proposition summary 10
Building chiller system efficiency 10
Structuring the cost comparison 10
Communicating with prospective customers 11
3.3 Risk Management 11
3.3.1 Nature of district cooling company 11
3.3.2 Capital-intensiveness 11
3.3.3 Will visions be realized? 11
3.3.4 District cooling company risks 12
Stranded capital 12
Temporary chillers 12
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Construction risks 12
Underground congestion 12
Community relations 12
General construction issues 12
Revenue generation risks 12
Inadequate chilled-water delivery 12
Delays in connecting buildings 13
Metering 13
Reduced building occupancy 13
3.4 Rate Structures 13
3.4.1 Capacity, consumption and connection rates 13
Capacity rates 13
Consumption rates 13
Connection charges 13
Regional rate examples 13
3.4.2 Rate structure recommendations 14
Capacity rates 14
Connection charges 14
Initial contract demand 14
Rate design to encourage optimal building design and operation 15
3.5 Performance Metrics 15
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7. Chilled-Water Plants 66
7.1 Chilled-Water Production Technologies 66
7.1.1 Compression chillers 66
Reciprocating 66
Rotary 66
Centrifugal 66
Centrifugal-chiller capacity control 66
Inlet guide vanes 66
Variable-speed drive (VSD) 66
Hot-gas bypass 67
Meeting low loads 67
7.1.2 Natural gas chillers 67
7.1.3 Absorption chillers 68
Pros and cons 68
Efficiency 69
Capacity derate 69
Capital costs 69
Equipment manufacturers 69
Operating costs 70
7.1.4 Engine-driven chillers 70
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Appendix
A - Abbreviations and Definitions A-1
B - Conversion Factors B-1
C - Arc Flash C-1
Tables
Table 2-1 Combined-cycle power plant operation cost factors
Table 2-2 Conversion of fuel prices in US$ per barrel oil equivalent (BOE) to US$ per MMBtu
Table 3-1 Summary of customer value
Table 5-1 Typical coil (and delta T) performance as entering-water temperature varies
Table 5-2 Sample heat exchanger differences with coldersupply-watertemperature and common building-side
conditions
Table 5-3 Tonnage capacity per heat exchanger
Table 5-4 Recommended maximum chloride content (ppm)
Table 5-5 Control-valve applications and control points
Table 6-1 Impact of delta T on 990 mm (36") pipe capacity
Table 6-2 Impact of delta T on capacity of 1000 hp pump set
Table 7-1 Summary of packaged chiller types and capacities (ARI conditions)
Table 7-2 Impact of delta T in operation on chilled-waterstorage capacity
Table 7-3 Inputs to series-counterflow example
Table 7-4 Performance results for series-counterflow example
Table 7-5 Example dimensions and weights of motor types
Table 7-6 Corrosion resistance and performance of condenser tube material options
Table 7-7 Refrigerant phaseout schedule (Montreal Protocol, Copenhagen Amendment, MOP-19 adjustment)
Table 7-8 Inputs to low condenser flow example
Table 7-9 Performance results for low condenser flow example (3 gpm/ton vs. 2.3 gpm/ton)
Table 7-10 Recommended monthly tests
Table 7-11 Corrosion-coupon standards
Table 7-12 Performance characteristics of sand filters vs. cyclone separators
Table 8-1 PLC vs. DCS - pros and cons
Table 8-2 Level 0 best practice specifications
Table 8-3 Energy meter best practice specifications
Table 8-4 Keyto instrument tagging symbols
Table 8-5 Function identifier key
Table 8-6 Level 0 vs. Level 1 field instrumentation - selection criteria
Table 8-7 Level 4 componentry best practicetips
Table 8-8 DClCS network categories
Table 9-1 Example detailed outline of Owner's Requirements Documents (ORDs) for engineer/procure/construct
(EPC) procurement
Figures
Figure 2-1 Peak power demand reductions with district cooling
Figure 2-2 World oil prices during the past 10 years
Figure 2-3. Oil prices in US$ per MMBtu
Figure 2-4 Projected impact of oil price on price of delivered liquefied natural gas
Figure 2-5 Long-run marginal costs of delivered electricity from new combined-cycle plantat a range of fuel prices
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Figure 2-6 Example of time-of-day power rates compared with power demand, per New England Hourly
Electricity Price Index
Figure 2-7 Annual electric energy consumption savings with district cooling
Figure 3-1 Examples of Middle East district cooling rates
Figure 4-1 Design dry-bulb and mean-coincidentwet-bulb temperatures for selected Middle East cities (ASHRAE
0.4% design point)
Figure 4-2 Design wet-bulb and mean-coincidentdry-bulb temperatures for selected Middle East cities (ASHRAE
0.4% design point)
Figure 4-3 Example peak-day load profilesfor various building types
Figure 4-4 Illustrative peak-day load profile for district cooling servinq mixed building types
Figure 4-5 Illustrative district cooling annual load-duration curve
Figure 4-6 Effect of increased delta T on LMTD of cooling coils
Figure 4-7 Paths for potential utility integration
Figure 5-1 Expected coil performance over the design flow range for typical coil
Figure 5-2 Decoupled direct ETS connection
Figure 5-3 Simplified direct ETS connection
Figure 5-4 Indirect ETS connection (with combined HEX control valves)
Figure 5-5 Indirect ETS configuration (with dedicated HEX control valves)
Figure 5-6 Plate-and-frame heat exchanger installation
Figure 5-7 Plate-and-frame heat exchanger (courtesy Alfa Laval)
Figure 5-8 HEX surface area vs. "approach"
Figure 5-9 Importance of critical customer design
Figure 5-10 Pressure-dependent "globe" valve
Figure 5-11 Common control-valve characteristics
Figure 5-12 Pressure-independent control valve (courtesy Flow Control Industries)
Figure 5-13 Submetering system via fixed wireless
Figure 5-14 Submetering system with an RF handheld terminal
Figure 6-1 Impact of delta T on hydraulic profile
Figure 6-2 Variable primary flow
Figure 6-3 Traditional primary-secondary system
Figure 6-4 All variable primary-secondary system
Figure 6-5 Distributed primary-secondary system
Figure 6-6 Thermal storage tank used for maintaining static pressure in system
Figure 6-7 Weld-end ball valve
Figure 6-8 Weld-end butterfly valve
Figure 6-9 Direct-buried valve with mechanical actuation
Figure 6-10 Direct-buried valve with hydraulicactuator
Figure 6-11 Sluice plate hot tap
Figure 6-12 Example of estimated average ground temperatures at various depths
Figure 6-13 Distribution system supply-water temperature rise for example system at part load
Figure 7-1 Single-effect absorption cycle (courtesy York/Johnson Controls)
Figure 7-2 Engine-based CHP with electric and absorption chillers (courtesy York/Johnson Controls)
Figure 7-3 Turbine-based CHP with electric and steam-turbine-drive chillers
Figure 7-4 Load-leveling potential with thermal energy storage
Figure 7-5 Lift in single and series-counterflowchillers
Figure 7-6 Enclosure premiums above open drip-proof
Figure 7-7 Inverter-duty motorcost premium
Figure 7-8 Motor efficiency
Figure 7-9 Refrigerant environmental impact comparison
Figure 7-10 Counterflow cooling tower
Figure 7-11 Crossflow cooling tower
Figure 7-12 Chiller and tower kW/ton vs. ECWT
Figure 7-13 Rate of power change for chillers and cooling towers
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1. Introduction
1.1. Purpose Chapter 3 - Business Development presents key topics
on the business side of district cooling, including the
The purpose of the International District Energy fundamental importance of approaching district
Association's District Cooling Best Practice Guide is to cooling as a utility business. This viewpoint has
facilitate the design of district cooling businesses and implications for designing all aspects - technology,
systems that are reliable, efficient and profitable. The business and operating structure - of the district
guide is focused on a key district cooling growth cooling company. Other critical business considerations,
market - the Middle East - that has some specific including marketing and communications, risk
challenges due to climate, the nature of the loads and management and rate structures are also covered.
the pace of development.
Chapter 4 - Design Process and Key Issues covers
The guide is not a set of standards, nor isit an encyclopedia essential pre-design tasks with enormous cost and risk
covering every detail of district cooling systems or a implications, suchas load estimationand the fundamental
detailed design and specification guide. Rather, it is design parameters that have significant technical and
intended to share insights into key design issues and cost implications for all elements of a district cooling
"lessons learned" from the recent development and system, such as design supply and return temperatures.
operation of district cooling systems, particularly in the It also suggests approaches to master planning complex
Middle East. district cooling systems and the critical and often-difficult
topic of obtaining permits to develop the district cooling
It is important to emphasize that "best practices" will system. The challengesand opportunities of integrating
vary depending on a wide variety of case-specific district cooling system planning and design with other
conditions, including infrastructure are discussed. This chapter closes with an
.seasonal and daily load characteristics; emphasis on the importance of designingwith long-term
.type of cooling load and any special reliability operation and maintenance in mind, consistent with
requirements(e.g., hospitals, computer servers, etc.); the philosophy that successful district cooling systems
• size of plant site and anyconditions or constraints must be approached as a utility business.
relating to the site (height restriction, air emissions,
noise sensitivities of neighbors, etc.); Chapter 5 focuses on building cooling system design
.availability and prices of electricity, water and and energy transfer stations or ETS (interface
natural gas; between the distribution system and the building).
• local codes and regulations;
• underground conditions affecting pipe installation; Chapters 6 and 7 address district cooling distribution
• organizational resources; and systems and plants.
.financial criteria and strategic goals of the district
cooling company. Although these discussions may appear to be presented
out of order, this structure was deliberately chosen for
The intention of the District CoolingBestPractice Guide several reasons. First, satisfaction of comfort require-
is to address the advantages and disadvantages of ments is the ultimate business and technical purpose
design options, discuss the circumstances under which of district cooling systems, so success is not possible
without good design on this end. Second, the
a given option may be the best approach and suggest
approaches to determining the optimal approach once
economic performance of district cooling systems is
dependent on sound performance of building systems,
key factors affecting a specific case are known.
particularly delta T (temperature difference between
supply and return). The economic implications of delta
The International District Energy Association envisions
T are large and pervasive.
this guide will be updated periodically as technologies
and the district cooling industry evolve.
Chapter 8 - Controls, Instrumentation and Metering
ties the ETS, distribution and plant systems together.
1.2. Overview and Structure
of the Guide The guide concludes in Chapters 9 and 10 with
discussions of options for project procurement, deliv-
The next chapter, Chapter 2 - Why District Cooling?, is ery and commissioning.
a review of the rationale for district cooling, including
its benefits for customers, governments and the A summary of abbreviations and definitions and a list of
environment. It is useful to review the drivers behind conversion factors are provided as appendices. A vari-
the establishment of district cooling systems so that ety of units are used in this document, consistent with
discussion of business and technology best practices practices in the Middle East.
relate to the key reasons such systems are developed.
DISTRICTCOOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
e2008 InremaliooalDi5ln'd Energyk:5ociarioo. Ai!nghl5 reserved.
2.1.1 Comfort
Comfort is the ultimate purpose of air conditioning.
District cooling systems can help keep people more 2.1.5 Cost-effectiveness
comfortable because industrial-grade equipment is
used to provide a consistent and high-quality source of Fundamental cost advantages
cooling. In addition, specialist attention is focused on
optimal operation and maintenance of cooling systems District cooling has numerous fundamental cost
- providing better temperature and humidity control advantages:
than packaged cooling equipment and, therefore, a
healthier indoor environment Buildings are quieter Load diversity
because there isno heavyequipment generating vibration Not all buildings have their peak demand at the same
and noise, making tenants happier and allowing them time. This "load diversity" means that when cooling
to be more productive. loads are combined in the district cooling system, more
buildings can be reliably served at lower cost
2.1.2 Convenience
District cooling is a far more convenient way to cool a Optimized operations
building than the conventional approach to air condi- With district cooling, equipment can be operated at the
tioning because cooling is always available in the most efficient levels, whereas with building cooling
pipeline, thus avoidingthe needto start and stop building equipment, the units operate for most hours each year
cooling units. Fromthe building manager'sstandpoint, at less-than-optimallevels.
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30
25
V
20
V
~ /'
~
~ 15
/'
Fuel for power generation may be natural gas or oil
depending on available resources. Although a state-
owned power utility may buy fuel very cheaply from a
•
~
~
0.
10
/'
/'
::> ,/
state-owned company, it is worthwhile to reflect on the /'
./
opportunity cost of using that fuel to produce power to 5
./
run inefficient chillers. Certainly, oil could instead be
/
1/
sold at the increasingly high international price. (See 0
Figure 2-2.) Figure 2-3 illustrates the conversion of oil
prices from u.S. dollars per barrel to u.S. dollars per
~ ~ l),~ '!>~ Il? ':P r§> '\~ * c§>.sP . . ~ ~ ¢~ .:P ,&
US$ per barrel ofoil
million Btu. The same data is shown in tabular form in
Table 2-2. Figure2-3. Oil prices in US$ per MMBtu.
..'"
••
c,
::>
60
I,P
IJ J
'J.{
70
80
90
12.07
13.79
15.52
40 100 17.24
,.I' r¥
fi ~ 18.97
'" v\
110
20 IY 120 20.69
rw- 130 22.41
0 140 24.14
..,
eo
% %
0>
~ '"
0
~ '"
~
~
'I
~ "' '"in ....'I
~
0
eo
0 150 25.86
, ,j! , , , ,0> , , , , 0> in
Table 2-2. Conversion of fuel prices in US$ per barrel oil
« « « -c « « « « -c ,j! equivalent (BGE) to US$ per MMBtu.
Figure 2-2. World oil prices during the past 10 years.
Long-term infrastructure choices made by Middle Eastern
governments should be made based on the recognition
that, although power generation fuel can be "priced"
internally at a low level, the value of that energy will be
significantly higher. In other words, there will be an
increasing "opportunity cost" associated with using
If natural gas is the power generation fuel, it also has available naturalgasfor power generation insteadof using
an international market value to an increasing extent. it for higher value uses or exporting it as LNG.
Natural gas demand is growing worldwide, driven by
rapidly growing energy requirements in China, India Natural gas or LNG pricesare frequently tied to oil prices.
and other developing nations, continued growth in Figure 2-4 shows the projected impact of changes in oil
industrialized countries and declining domestic reserves prices on the price of delivered LNG, based on extrapo-
in the u.s. The natural gas market is becoming a lation from analysis of historical price data.'
competitive, market-driven sector with a trend toward
liquefaction and export. These trends mean that the As illustrated in Figure 2-2, oil pricesjumped substantially
market price for natural gas will trend upward as it between early2007 and mid-2008. As this report goes to
becomesan increasingly tradable commodity asliquefied print, world oil priceshave pulled back from the highs set
natural gas (LNG) in international markets. in July 2008. However, in the mid-term (2010-2015), the
5
DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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$30
Figure 2-5. Long-run marginalcosts of delivered electricity
~
:; from new combined-cycle plant at a rangeof fuel prices.
:; $25 - -High factor of 60% was assumed. Capital costs were amortized
..
~
~
Co
$20
, " ....... -Average
assuminga weighted average cost of capitalof 8.7% over
a 20-year term, based on 70/30 debt/equity ratio, 6.0%
• $15 , ",
• • • Low debt interest rate and 15.0% return on equity.
6
DISTRICTCOOLING BESTPRACTICE GUIDE
C2008 InremaUonal Dismcr Energy A55fxiab'on. Allnghl5 re~.
c
0.25
~
Air-cooled District District District District
The bottom line is thatthere are sound economic reasons buildll\{i cooling cooling cooling cooling (50%
to structure power rates to better reflect actual costs, and systems (electric) (electricwilh (100%gas- gas-fired with
that doing so will increase the value of district cooling TESI fired) TES)
generally andTES in particular.
Figure2-7. Annual electric energy consumption savings
with districtcooling.
$0.70
""
... saee A substantial portion of energysavings results from the
fact that almost all district cooling systems use water
... ~.~
to cool the chiller condensers, an inherently more efficient
~
, . $0.40
~
:t
,
process than air cooling. District cooling systems are
increasingly being designed so that no water isrequired
, . ~.~
'01'
from the municipal water system. Instead, these
systems employ a variety of technologies, such as
~o
$D.l0
• using seawaterto cool the condensers directly(the
water actually runs through the chillers),
...
0 $D.oo
• using seawater for cooling tower makeup,
,,~ ~ /'
•
..... ~;f'
il"'
.conditioning water by reverse osmosis desalination
"
for use in cooling towers and
Figure 2-6. Example of time-of-day power rates compared .using treated sewage effluent (TSE) for cooling
with power demand, per New England Hourly Electricity
tower makeup.
Price Index.
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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and the specific rules of the "cap-and-trade" programs. International agreements phased out the production of
A number of corporations are using "shadow prices" CFCs as of January 1996 and have scheduled the
(an assumption of C02 emissions cost for the purpose phaseoutof hydrochlorofluorocarbon(HCFC) refrigerants.
of comparing options) of at least US$g/metric ton. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and ammonia, which are
Prices inthe European Union emissions trading system, also used as refrigerants, are not restricted by interna-
still in the beginning stages of implementation, averaged tional protocols.
US$25/metric ton of C02 equivalent in 2006, spiked
to almost US$40 in early 2006, then tumbled to US$12 District cooling can be a key strategy for accomplishing
later in 2006. Some studies conclude that an emissions an economical and environmentally wise phaseout of
value of US$l OO/metric ton will be required to bring harmful refrigerants. Through their better staffing and
greenhouse gas emissions down to a safe level.2 operational practices for monitoring and control,
district cooling systems are better able to control
emissions of whatever refrigerant is used.
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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3. Business Development
3.1 District Cooling as a 3.1.2 Organizational design
Utility Business A good engineering design does notensure success unless
the organization is designed and is operated to achieve
It is critically important to emphasize that the design, customer satisfaction. A basic issue is the degree to which
development andoperation of asuccessful district cooling the corporate culture of the district cooling company is
system must be approached as a long-term utility truly customer-focused. Success will require a different
service business. If it is approached primarily as a culture than might have existed within a company that
contractinq job, with a focus on lowest first costs and traditionally simply construded facilities orsold a commodity.
without sufficient consideration of life-cycle costs and
customer satisfaction, the actual return on investment
for the district cooling company will fall short of
expectations. Best practices therefore involve not only
good engineering design, but also good organizational
design. Note also that, relative to engineering, business
and organizational design, it is imperative that district
cooling utilities work with customers (technically and All staff should consider customer satisfaction part of
contractually) to optimize their designs and operations their job description. This orientation should extend
for compatibility with district cooling service. beyond the marketing team to everyone in the district
cooling company, particularly those who have direct
contact with customers, such as accounting people,
meter technicians, etc. Ongoing training is recom-
mended to ensure that all staff view themselves asbeing
in the customer satisfaction business - and that they
send the message to the customer that theyare eager to
understand and solve customer problems. Strong lead-
ership, expert assistance andstaffdevelopment can bekey
3.1,1 Engineering design elements in strengthening the corporate culture.
A focus on district cooling asa long-term utility service
affectsthe design process and design criteria in a number The responsiveness of the district cooling company to
of ways. For example: customer needs or problems is critical to the company's
• Thefoundation of the design should bethe customer success. The prospective customer must be confident
requirements, and the design process should then that the company will do what it takes to ensure the
proceed "upstream" to the pipingand plantsystems, delivery of cooling to the building. Then, once that
ratherthan the other way around. The entire design, customer is connected to the system, the company
including controls, should focuson ensuring achieve- must justify the customer's confidence by providing
mentof the ultimate goal: consistent, reliable comfort excellent service. Increasingly, districtcooling companies
in customer buildings. are also offering customer service past the building
• Building the plantand distribution systems isonly the boundary - helping the customer implement and
first step, and operational costs and reliability operate improvements to the building system so that
ultimately become critical considerations. Operation cooling that is reliably delivered to the building and is
and maintenance (O&M) issues should beconsidered also efficiently distributed within the building. Opti-
from the beginning of the design process, and O&M mization of the building HVAC system can improve
staff should be involved in the design process. both delta T and occupantcomfort.
• Design options mustbeevaluated based on life-cycle
costs and high reliability. 3.2 Marketing and Communications
• Focus on long-term reliability affects design relative
to equipment redundancy. ease of maintenance and Successful district cooling business development
speed of response in the event of equipment failure. requires focused and effective communication with
potentialcustomers and other keystakeholders, such as
the government. It isessential to appropriately position
district cooling service and clearly communicate the
value proposition to customers, to government and to
society asa whole.
3.2.1 Positioning
These engineering design considerations are addressed in Successful marketingof district coolingservice requires
upcoming chapters on design of building connections, educating prospective customers regarding the full
piping systems, plants and controls. value of the technology. An essential first step is to
9
DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008 IntemaUonal Di5rrid Energy Assodation Allrights teSM'ed.
is important in choosing the amortization factor to To further reinforce the real estate analogy, it is helpful
makeit consistent with the developer's actual weighted to communicate using real estate terms, including expres-
average cost of capitallyVACC) andwith a termconsistent sion of costs in terms of cost persquare meter orsquare
with the realistic lifeof the building chiller equipment. The foot of building space.
WACC can be calculated as follows:
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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008 In!emati(lnal [)jjrrictEnergy Association. Allrights reserved.
is accepting so that, in the event the building is not fully data on underground service locations is lacking, safety
sold out the district cooling company isnot then holding margins should be incorporated into the construction
"stranded" investments that can't be paid in the budget. In addition to congestion, underground soil
absence of building occupants. conditions can present surprises for the pipe installer.
Excessive sand will require additional and unplanned
support, while rocks could slow the installation process.
Soil samples in advance of the installation help to
mitigate surprises.
Community relations
Construction of the district cooling distribution system
often results in disruptions that can pose public relations
3,3,4 District cooling company risks risks. The inconvenience of restricted traffic and real or
imagined harm to downtown businesses can lead to
Stranded capital negative feelings among the public, downtown
businesses and the city government. Going the extra mile
Despite the lack of certainty regarding realization of to proactively address potential concerns will pay many
long-term real estate development plans, district cooling dividends. Best practices include these proactive steps:
companies are expectedto design and installinfrastructure oComrnunicate early and often with the potentially
to meet both the short- and long-term requirements. affected parties (building and business managers,
Avoiding district cooling revenue shortfalls if the master city government and the general public).
developer's buildout dreams are not realized requires oInclude affected parties in planning to the
careful attention to ensuring that contracts with master extent possible.
developers and customers mitigate the district cooling oBe accessible, responsible and accountable.
company's risks that infrastructure capital will be • Be aware of upcoming street repairs and closures.
stranded by a delay in buildout or a reduction in the
development's ultimate size.One way to accomplishthis General construction issues
isto ensurethat fixed-capacitychargesare consistentwith As with any other facility construction project, there are
actualdistrictcooling investmentcosts asthe system isbuilt risks associated with unforeseen conditions, accidents
out, rather than the long-term capacity costs per ton ap- or contractor performance, which can lead to higher
plied to the relatively low-ton load in the near term. costs, delayed completion or quality control problems.
Addressing these risks is fundamentally no different
Temporarychillers than other facility construction-related risks. Forexample,
best practices include
All toofrequently, some customers require cooling service .using reputable contractors and vendors under
before a permanent district cooling plant can be built. strong contracts;
Temporary chillers are expensive to operate, particularly o implementing a thorough procedure of pre-operational
if, as is often the case, there is no power available so equipment and system checks, integrated with the
that power generation with engines must also be construction process;
provided to run the temporary chillers. If completion of • being sure to identify who is responsible for risk issues
the permanent plant and related distribution piping is as well as delaysand addressing unforeseen events;
delayed, the district cooling company must operate this oestablishing a reliable and effective communications
expensive capacity for a longer period. This possibility plan and documentation system; and
highlights the importance of being conservative in oaddressing passivationof piping systems that transport
projecting the time required to complete the permanent the district cooling water, up to and including heat
facilities and eliminating, or at least limiting, the district exchangers.
cooling company's liability to absorb high operating
costs for temporary chiller plants. Following best practices is especially criticalfor distribution
system construction because this is a more specialized area
and the cost of rectifying problems is high.
Construction risks
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DISTRICT COOliNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
e2008 Inteman'OfIilI Dlstn'd Energy Assooatiol]. Alltights 1E5er.ed.
inside customer buildings isthe keyto this. Froma business rates (sometimes called energy rates). Connection
standpoint, it is critical to provide customers with water chargesmay also apply, depending on the application and
cold enough on the building side of the energy transfer economic requirements of the utility and its customer.
station (ETS) to provide all of the required cooling.
The district cooling company may own part or all of the
ETS equipment The ETS is the contractual energy transfer
point and physical boundary between the provider and
customer's equipment.
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008 IntematiOllilI osma EnergyAssoddrion. All rights reserved.
One of the biggest challenges in the district cooling Early consideration should be given to metricsthat define
industry is encouraging building design choices and the successful development and operationof a new district
operational practicesthat will help optimize total system cooling system. Such performance metrics must be
performance. Good rate-structure design can help the established and systems put in place to measure the
customer make the best choices with the greatest total key parameters.
cost optimization benefit.
Examples of performance metrics might include the
To this end, it may be worthwhile considering some following:
variations in capacity, consumption and connection
rates based on the compatibility of the building system Customer service
design and operation with optimal district cooling service • number of customer outage hours
parameters. The district cooling company incursadditional • number of customer complaint calls
costs for extra infrastructure, operating and energy
costsif the building system isn't designed and operated System operations
to be optimally compatible. It is important to manage .total variable operating cost (US$/ton-hr)
these elements witha contract thatprovides aneconomic .peak electrical demand (kW/ton)
incentive for the building owner to do the right thing .average electric energy efficiency (kWh/delivered
ton-hr)
for his or her building and the district cooling utility.
.water consumption (l/ton-hr or gal/ton-hr)
Some district cooling utilities address poor delta T per- .system delta T performance at peak (temperature
formance through the consumption charge. For exam- difference between supply and return)
ple, there may be an "excess flow" penalty charge
based on the extent of the difference between actual Financial performance
deita T and the target delta 1. However, such mecha- .capital cost to engineer, procure and construct
nismsgenerally don't address the full economic impact (US$/ton)
of low delta T, which affects not only variable costs but • internal rate of return on total invested capital
(%)
also fixed costs, particularly capital costs.
• return on equity (%)
Another incentive mechanism is revising customer
contract capacity after an initial period of operation Environment
(e.g., two years), based on actual metered peak eestimated emissions impact (C02 emission
demand. This allows contracts to be brought in line reduction/ton-hr)
with actual (instead of estimated) demand. It also .estimated demand reduction on the electrical grid
supplies an incentive for buildings to operate the building (kW/ton)
system in ways that reduce peak demand on the district
cooling system, thereby freeing up capacity for the
system to serve other customers. Incorporating a
contract capacity reset mayor may not be advisablefor
a given district cooling business, depending on the
maturity of the system, the prospects for growth and
technical constraints on growing the customer base.
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DISTRICT COQUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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DISTRICTCOOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
e2OO8 In!M1ational DistTict Energy Assrxiab'on. Allrights reserved.
per the 2005 ASHRAf Handbook - Fundamentals. for green buildings in the Gulf Cooperation (au neil,
Design dry-bulb temperatures range from 35 (to 47 C the peak cooling demand in new buildings is expected
(95 F to 117 F), with mean coincident wet-bulb to decrease, with values reaching 45 sq m/ton (484 sq
temperatures ranging from 18 ( to 25 c (64 Fto 77 F). ftlton) or more expected in the near future.
Figure 4-2 summarizes the 0.4% wet-bulb and mean- The ultimate level of system load diversity (coincident
coincident dry-bulb temperatures. Design wet-bulb district cooling system peak demand compared to the
temperatures range from 21 c to 31 ( (70 F to 87 F), sum of individual peak demands) depends on the mix
with mean-coincident dry-bulb temperatures ranging of building types, building operating practices and the
from 28 (to 40 ((83 F to 104 F). system's maturity. A district cooling system at the early
stages, with relatively few buildings served and/or
50
relatively little diversity in building types, will have a very
45 small system load diversity. On the other hand, a large
~40+-JI=.~
Eo 35 +-
system serving many types of buildings may have a
e 30 +-111-.- diversityof 0.85 or lower (coincident peakdistrict cooling
~ 25 system load isbelow 85% of the sum of individualannual
_20 building peak demands).
; 15
c 10
, 4.1.2 Peak-day hourly load profile
o The peak-day load profile should be modeled based on
building use, occupancy schedule, weather, HVA( system
characteristics and other case-specific variables. Load
ll!IMesn-coirlCidenl wet bulb
profiles vary significantly with building use. Examples
Figure 4-1. Design dry-bulb and mean-coincident wet-bulb of profiles from the Middle East are shown in Figure
temperatures for selected Middle East cities (ASHRAE 4-3. While offices, hotels and residential buildings tend
0.4% design point). to peak in the late afternoon, retail buildings typically
peak in the evening.
loads have their peak at the same time. This occurs '#. 60% Office
within a building, between buildings and between ••
'C
50%
building usage types (e.g., offices compared to 0•
..J
40% - Retail
residential). In addition, particularly with recreational
30%
investment properties, diversity factors must also
20%
account for variations in occupancy.
10%
Actual peak demands for district cooling customers in 0%
the Middle Eastrange from 20 to 52 square meters per 0 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 16 20 22 24
ton (sq m/ton) (215 to 560 sq ft/ton), with a represen- Hours
tative value of 35 sq m/ton (377 sq ftfton) for systems
serving a mix of customer types. With the recent new Figure 4-3. Example peak-day load profiles for various
regulations regarding building efficiency and the drive building types.
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DISTRICT COOLING BESTPRACTICE GUIDE
C2008lntemaliooal DiWid Energyk5odalion. All n'ghrs. reserved,
down fresh-air intake at night. Decreasing fresh-air can be used. The annual load profile also enables
intake at night would cut down dehumidification calculation of the total annual energy, and thus the
requirements and load. annual equivalent full-load hours (EFLH) for the system,
which is critical for rate structure development and
Figure 4-4 shows an illustrative district cooling system revenue projections.
peak-day load profile for a sample mix of buildings
(40% office, 16% retail, 27% residential and 17% EFLH is the ratio of annual cooling energy to the peak
hotel). In this example, average peak-day load is 78% demand and can be calculated with the following
of the hourly peak, providing a potential opportunity equation:
for thermal energy storage to be used as part of the
district cooling system.
EFLH = Annual Cooling Energy Consumption (ton-hr)
__---,_-"--c-,-"'-'-_-,--'-,_.,:-_-'.
Peak Hourly Consumption (tons)
110%
For Middle East countries,the full-load hours are normally
in the range of 3000 to 4600. In the case graphed in
100% Figure 4-5, there are 3978 EFLH.
,/
V
90%
'C
rn
.Q
f 100%
90%
~
"c. V -,
~
=0 70% "- <,
'5 70% ~
~
<;
••
;.- 60%
'if!. .........
I\.. J ~
~
50%
-,
-
60% •a
••
c
40%
30%
r---- -..
-..
50% "
~
20%
10%
40% 0%
0 2 4 6 8 1012141618202224
Time of day
• #' ,f I ,.f ~ l # .J<* ,,,,,0 ••* ,l
Hours peryearwith load at orbelow Bgiven level
Peak-day ••• Average
- - load profile daily load
Figure 4-5. Illustrative district cooling annualload-dura-
Figure 4-4. 11Iustrative peak-day load profile for district tion curve.
cooling serving mixed building types.
4.2 Design Temperatures and Delta T
4,1.3 Annual cooling load profile
Estimating annual cooling energy is essential for proper 4.2.1 Delta T is a key parameter
evaluation of plant alternativesand revenue projections. Delta T is a key parameter in the design and operation
Modeling of hourly loads throughout the year enables of district cooling systems and is an excellent measure
the development of an annual load duration curve. See of total system performance at any load condition. It is
the example annual load duration curve for a mixed- the difference between supply and return temperatures
use district cooling system in the Middle Eastshown in measured across the chillers, plant, distribution, energy
Figure 4-5. transfer stations and customer buildings. Flow is inversely
proportional to delta T. With high delta T, less flow,
The load-duration curve is useful for evaluating plant pump energyand equipmentcapacity arerequired to satisfy
options because it provides information on how many cooling requirements.
operating hours a given element in the dispatch order
District cooling customers expect to receive efficient,
reliable and cost-effective cooling. While it is very
important to achieve high delta T in the distribution
system and in the plant(s), it should not come at the
expense of customer comfort or control. High delta T
(and high chilled-water return temperature) should be
achieved, but not directly controlled.
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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
Energy Association. Allrightsreserved,
C2008lntema~onal District
With a comprehensive strategy to design and operate Noneof theseoptionsisideal for energy, capacity or control.
the systemto achievehigh delta T at all load conditions,
it is possible to reduce unnecessarycapital, operating
and energy costs and significantly improve the
performance and economics for both a district cooling
company and its customers.
19
DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C2008lnremational Dismc! EnergyAssociation, All tightt~.
produce the same refrigeration effect. The added Thermal storage generally designed for peak shaving
power may be offset by a reduction in pumping power or load leveling can substantially offset part of the
achieved with higher delta T. chiller capacity in the plants and contribute to
reduction of peak electric load.
Evaporator freezeup
4.2.3 Limitations on higher chilled-water
return temperature
The other limitation to how low the chilled-water tem-
perature can go is its freezing point. If chilled water is
Dehumidification and coil performances
going to freeze, it will start to do so at its lowest
temperature location: somewhere inside the evaporator
Higher delta T or "low-flow" designs provide required
tubes. The effects are catastrophic, damaging the evap-
cooling capacity by usingless water at coldertemperatures.
orator. Evaporator tubes may corrode and thin, adding
How does reduced water flow affect the performance
to the problem.
of the cooling coil? An understanding of thermody-
namics and the heat-transferequation, Q = U x A x LMTD,
For safety reasons, the minimum design chilled-water
tells us that less water flow through the coil tubes
temperature is usually determined to be around 3 (
reducesheat-transfer coefficient U (waterside resistance
(5 Fto 6 F) above its freezing point. Minimum velocities
to heat transfer increases). But as Figure 4-6 illustrates,
are set to prevent a sudden drop in heat transfer
the log-mean temperature difference (LMTD) increases
because of laminar flow. Enhanced chiller tubes or
because the entering-water temperature is colder.
turbulators may be selected to help strip away laminar
boundary layer flow. Where even lower chilled-water
temperatures are desired, an anti-freeze agent may be <,
added to the chilled-water media to prevent freezing. r.....
"
~ ~h
23'F
A supply-to-return-water bypass may be added to
ensure minimum flow. 57'F L '1"'"
... AT
e 40'F
'WI en gal/minJ
The majority of thermal storage systems in the Middle = EAT· LWT w, = £AT - EWT
Eastare based on chilled-water storage technology. As 1O'FoTwaterside, 2S'FoT alrslde: 17"FoT waterside, 2S'FoT airs Ide:
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
e2008 Inremational Di5trta Energy Association. All righrs reserved.
Heat exchanger approach temperature 4. Develop a preliminary pipe routing that connects
targeted load and appears feasible from an initial
With indirect ETS connections, the heat exchanger's review of underground space availability and coor-
design has an impact on the chilled-water temperature dination with plans for other utilities and roadways.
on the customer or building side of the heat exchanger.
There is a limit to how low the approach temperature 5. Locate feasible potential plant sites that will utilize
(the difference of temperature between both sides of a space well, are adjacent to the load concentration
heat exchanger) can be driven, after which its cost and and have reasonable access to power supply and
size become determining factors. Typically this limit of sources of condenser cooling water.
temperature differential is around 1.1 ( (2 F) between
the between the entering-primary and leaving-secondary 6. Perform pressure-drop calculations or computer
connections. modeling to locate trouble spots and refine the
distribution design and plant locations as needed.
4,2.4 Best practice recommendation
It is critically important to give customers and their
consulting engineers standards for building-side design.
It is also important to verify that they commission and
balance the building-side system and verify that the
target delta T is achieved. Allocating time and resources
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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008lnlemationa/ DIstrict Energy Assodanon, Allrigh!5 re5efVed.
7. Perform a business case analysisof design options. when, development will occur, so the master plan must
be based on assumptions regarding the pace, type and
Consideration of condenser cooling options is critical location of development. This is the plague of district
for district cooling plant siting in the Middle East. In energy system development: Inevitably, a building
addition to considering adequate supply of power for intended to be served by district cooling requires service
a district cooling plant, evaluating condenser cooling before the district cooling loop was planned to be
alternatives should be done at an early stage. Depending extended to that area. In these cases, a temporary
on the condenser cooling option, the plant sitemayrequire chiller plant can be installed, the building can be
• pipeline access corridor to the sea, dropped from district cooling plans, or (if the building
• pipeline access corridor to sewage treatment is big enough) it can be built with its own chiller plant
facilities or treated sewage effluent lines, which can later be used for the district cooling system
• access to municipal water supplies and/or as backup or peaking capacity.
• plant site area for wastewater treatment facilities.
4,4 Permitting (Way Leaves)
It is very important for the district cooling provider to
work with the master developer to identify a strategic Permitting requirements vary significantly depending
plant location(s) for reasonable piping distribution on the location and will likely include interaction with
installation (sizes and pumping energy) and not be municipal and national agencies relative to plant facilities,
forced into placing an unreasonably sizedplant in a bad chilled-water distribution pipes, condenser cooling
corner of the development. Unfortunately, sometimes water supply and discharge piping. Here are some
district cooling companies are pushed to site a huge important related recommendations:
single plant at an extreme end of a large development • Start early to work with permitting authorities.
and pump chilled water long distances through giant • Communicate to these groups the benefits of
pipes, when two smaller, more reasonably sized plants district cooling relative to power demand reduction,
in more strategic locations would have been a much air-conditioning quality and reliability, and air
better solution. The developers deem their property so pollution and carbon dioxide emission reductions.
valuable that they don't want to allocate any space in • Establish and maintain essential close coordination
prime locations for cooling plants and, unfortunately, with roadway and other utility infrastructure
the district cooling companies do not (or think they construction.
cannot) exercise any influence in these decisions. • Proactively address potential concerns about
disruptions caused by plant and distribution system
Planning is critical to minimizing economic risks associated construction - communicate early and often.
with decisions made at the design stage, including
• cost inefficiencies and/orconstraints on expansion
due to lack of a long-range plan;
• installation of more plant capacity than required;
• reduced distribution system capacity due to
inaccurate estimation of the temperature difference
between supply and return; 4.5 Integration of District Cooling
• inability to connect desirable customers due to With Other Utility Infrastructure
routing or sizing of pipes;
• losing opportunities to purchase real estate for 4.5.1 Growth and infrastructure stresses
optimal location of plant facilities;
The Middle East is a dynamically growing area, creating
• inability to usethe lowest-cost production facilities stresses on utility infrastructure including cooling,
for base-load service due to routing or sizing of
power, potable water, wastewater treatment and roads.
pipes; and
District cooling has become a key strategy for reducing
• high pumping costs, poorperformance incustomer
power demands as massive development takes place
heat exchangers and poor utilization of capital
inthe region. However, district cooling systems require
assets due to hydraulic imbalances caused by poor
water for optimal energy efficiency, thus creating
distribution design.
stresses on water supply. Potential water sources
include treated sewage effluent (TSE), brackish ground
It is important to note that the initial master plan is only
water, untreated seawater and partially or fully
a guideline for decision-making, not a blueprint,
desalinated seawater.
because appropriate decisions about buildout of the
district cooling system must necessarily be made in
reaction to the actual timing and location of building
development.
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02008 Inlemauonal Disffiet Energy A55ociab'on. Ail rights reserved.
Water has always been a fundamental issue in the Chapter 2. District cooling frees up power capacity to
region, even withoutconsidering airconditioning; what meet other electricity requirements of new developments.
has changed is the scale of the challenge. Some Another potential synergy between district cooling and
countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Qatar, use power generation isthe useof gasturbine inlet air cooling,
nonrenewable groundwater resources inlarge quantities, which increases power generation when the ambient
causing depletion of these valuable resources and, in air temperature is high (which is when power demand
some cases, deterioration in water quality. Seawater is high).
desalination is a critical element in meeting growing
water needs throughout the Middle East. At the same Although district cooling's power sector benefits are
time, substantial investment will be made inwastewater desired by governments in the Middle East, the need
treatment facilities to serve new developments. for utility synergy in obtaining the water that maximizes
district cooling energy savings is less well understood.
There are great potential economic and environmental
benefits from integrating planning for energy and Heat rejection
water utilities, not only from the production side, but
also relative to coordination of design and construction District cooling plants typically use cooling towers to
of necessary pipelines. cool the chillers' condensers. Towers require "makeup"
waterbecause some water is lost through evaporation,
4.5.2 Paths for utility integration drift or "blowdown" (in which some water is periodi-
Therearea varietyof paths for potential utility integration, cally removed to maintain water quality in the towers).
as shown in Figure 4-7. Not all paths would be used in Makeup water does not have to be drinking-water
a given system. Tosimplify, however,this figure combines quality. In fact, seawater can be used in cooling towers,
the multiple pathways. but this requires much more expensive equipment and
higher maintenance costs. Other low-quality waters can
There is now widespread recognition of district cooling's be used, including TSE, brackish ground water and
ability to cut power demand and energy, thus reducing partially desalinated water. As the quality of the
government investment in powerinfrastructure as well makeup water decreases, the capital and maintenance
as annual powerutility operating costs, as discussed in costs of the cooling towers increase.
Sewage
Treatment
Plant
Common
Seawater
Intake
;;;
•
I
Electricity
Electricity
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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRAcrlCE GUIDE
02008 intematiooal Di5tlictEoorgylWodiition. All nghtsreserved.
added to the water, but the same volume of water can Natural gas
be returned to the sea or used for other purposes.
Natural gas is frequently the ultimate energy source for
Desalination district cooling. Most often it fuels power plants that
provide the electricity to drive district cooling plants.
Desalination is energy-intensive. Multi-stage flash (MSF) Sometimes it is used directly in district cooling plants
plants are the most commonly used, accounting for the to fuel gas engines that generate electricity for electric
majority of global capacity. The use of reverse osmosis chillers, as Tabreed has been doing in some of its plants
(RO) plants is growing due to technological advances for more than five years. Natural gas can also be used
and energy cost increases. MSF requires heatand some to produce the shaft power to drive chillers directly.
electricity, while RO generally requires only electricity
(although some heat can optimize the process). Natural gas transmission and distribution networks are
growing in the Middle East. As this occurs, the gas
Power and desalination plants are often combined in a distribution networks can be planned with the potential
cogeneration process (combined heat and power) in for district cooling in mind. District cooling plants that
which the waste heat from power generation is used use natural gas can relieve pressure on government
for MSF desalination. Cogeneration can also be investment in power plant, transmission and distribution
employed in RO plants by using exhaust steam to infrastructure.
pre-heat feedwater or to run a steam turbine to power
the pressure pumps required in the RO process. Natural gas-driven cooling technologies are discussed in
Chapter 7.
The amount of energy for MSF is fixed for a given
volume of water, but the energy for RO depends on
how salty the water is to start with. For this reason, it
is much more attractive to desalinate brackish (i.e.,
slightly salty) water or treated sewage effluent than it
is to desalinate seawater. Typical salinity values, in parts
per million (ppm):
• Seawater 35,000-45,000
• Brackish ground water 2,000-8,000 The challenge of utility integration
• Treated sewage effluent (TSE) 2,500
• Product water from MSF desalination 25-50
Integrating utility planning in the Middle East can
reduce government capital and operating costs,
Salinity of product water from RO can vary significantly
increase energy efficiency and reduce harmful emissions.
depending on the salinityof the feedstockand the specific
Utility integration is a challenge, however, because
type of RO process employed. In general. the cost of
typically different government entities are responsible
RO decreases as the minimum acceptable product-
for permitting and regulating district cooling systems,
water salinity increases. If RO desalination is being used
power utilities, potable waterand wastewater treatment.
to produce district cooling tower makeup water, the
Not only are different federal ministries involved, but
trade-offs must be optimized: Lower quality makeup
municipal governments are usually also involved.
water means higher district cooling plant and operating
costs, but lower RO plant and operating costs.
Consequently, although district cooling systems could
provide multiple infrastructure benefits and, in turn,
One possibility iscombining district cooling with a hybrid
could be optimized through integrated utility planning,
MSFIRO desalination-powerprocess, in which a seawater
district cooling companies frequently encounterchallenges
RO plant is combined with either a new or existing MSF
in obtaining permits and achieving optimal integration
plant. The MSF plant draws waste steam from a power
with powerand water utilities.
plant and uses the energy in the steam to pre-heat
seawater, which is then distilled in the MSF unit. The
Tremendous economic and environmental benefits
RO unit uses electricity from the power plant and
would result if governmentscreatedeffectivemechanisms
operates during periods of reduced power demand,
for integrating utility planning across federal ministries
thus optimizing the overall efficiency.
and municipal governments. This will not be easy and
will require strong, visionary leadership at the highest
Thisapproach can reduce capitalcostswhile providingfor
levels. But it will be well worth the effort because it will
a variety of blendsof MSF and RO product watersto meet
greatly enhance a country's stature as an attractive
a range of requirements, from potable water to irrigation
place for business investment.
water to optimized district cooling makeup water.
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008 International Diwl(;tEnergyAssociation. Aildght:i re>erWd.
/../
-:
N'
~.......
,--,
required when supply-water temperature remains low.
Delta T (and chilled-water return temperature) rise when
less chilled-water flow is required to satisfy the load.
,.
0 40% ,
/./,- minimum expected performance
30%
20% ~~.,
~ .. ,' 5.1.2 Bypasses and three-way valves
It is essential to eliminate bypasses and three-way
,," "
10% " (diverting) valves that bypass supply water into the return
0% water to control cooling coiltemperature. These systems
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% operate with virtually constant flow, which isdetrimental
% Design Flow to the system delta T. Even a two-way control valve can
Figure 5-1. Expected col! performance over the deslqn act like a bypass if it does not fully close, or if wears and
flow range for typical coil. leaks internally. When an air handler or terminal unit
27
DISTRICT COOLINGBEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C2008lnremational District Energy Association. Allnghtt reserved.
Poor valve sizing is one of the most common problems Morethan one differential pressure sensor in the building
leading to poor deltaT performance. Most control valves may be required for pump speed control. By locating
in the industry are selected by linesize, ruleof thumb (for these sensors at the hydraulically most remote point(s),
lowpressure drop), or by an "authority" calculation that the pump control system canensure that there isalways
ignores the location of the valve relative to pumps. This enough differential pressure to satisfy the load conditions.
maybe partially dueto the difficulty, uncertainty and cost If the control point istoo close to the pumps, it is difficult
of modeling the hydraulics, especially in a growing to set the appropriate differential pressure for all load
system. Manual balancing valves attempt to compensate conditions and may overpressure orstarve portions of the
for this by reducing excess differential pressure at each system. If the control point is at the physically, but not
coil, but cannotadjustto growth or changes in the load hydraulically, most remote point(s), it may not enable the
profile. Flowlimiters (automatic balancing valves) clipflow system to provide enough differential pressure to deliver
at 100% over a range of differential pressures, doing chilled-water flow where it is required. Unless the intent
little to prevent low deltaT or loss of comfort control. isto curtail the flow or load, pumps should not be used
to controlthe return-watertemperature or delta 1. asthis
With conventional pressure-dependent control valves, may lead to issues with coil capacity, fan energy and
proper sizing requires knowledge of the differential comfort control. If necessary, the differential-pressure
28
DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008 Intema~onal Di5t1ict EnergyA550daliOfl. All right> reserved.
setpoint may be reset at part-load conditions to further Chilled-water supply temperature on the building
reduce pump speed and energy consumption; however, side of the ETS is at or below the design entering
reset should never compromise thesystem's ability to satisfy water temperature for cooling coils - While it is
the air-temperature and humidity control requirements. possible to raise the chilled-water supply temperature at
part-load conditions and still serve the load, it isn't
5,1,5 Water treatment and necessarily a greatenergy-efficiency strategyeven with a
heat-transfer effectiveness reduction in chiller-compressor lift (work). See section
Proper chemical watertreatmentin the building system is 5.6.1 for more details about supply-water temperature
essential. Cooling coil heat-transfer effectiveness is reset.
reduced by waterside fouling (i.e., slime, scale or corrosion
on the inside of the coil tubes) and airside fouling (i.e.,
dirt buildup). Any reduction in coileffectiveness decreases
coil capacity and increases the flow rateof water required
to deliver the desired leaving-water temperature, thus
reducing delta T. With direct-eonnected customers, water
treatment should bemanaged bythe district cooling utility
or itswater treatment supplier. It isgood practice to have
an inline cartridge filter that is mounted in sidestream Distribution return-water temperature on the district
configuration in each building, especially with side of the ETS is at or above chilled-water plant
direct connections. design - Plant energy efficiency and available capacity
depend on high chilled-water return temperature.
5.1.6 Additional economic opportunities However, directly controlling the return-water temperature
When the district cooling system andthe building systems or delta T with pumps or control valves is not recom-
are considered as an integrated whole. manyopportunities mended in normal practice as it may compromise the
arise to reduce system first cost while improving differential pressure or building supply-water temperature
economics for boththe utilityand itscustomers. If chilled- required to deliver adequate cooling. Ultimately, high
water rate structures are established that drive the delta T is achieved with proper cooling coil and control
customer to make good economic decisions that also valve selection, piping and pumping design and supply-
benefitthe utility, thena frameworkisin place to capture water temperature control.
savingsand improve operations.
Supply-temperature rise between the chilled-water
As an example, when building systems are properly plant and ETS is reasonable - Modesttemperature rise
designed and-controlled, it ispossible to relyon highdelta is expected in districtcooling system supplypipes. It can
T performance. This enables the building and district be higher at low loadwhen the surface area of the pipe
cooling system designers to reduce excess safety margins is large relative to the flow rate. Depending on the
that can increase the capital, energy and operatingcosts climate, depth, geology and pipe design, chilled-water
of the system. temperature mayeither rise or fall in the return pipes. If
the supply-water temperature rise istoo high, it can indi-
As another example, if lowertemperature chilled water is catea problem with pipeinsulation integrity, poor control
produced using ice, low-temperature fluid, or series or return water blending at the central plant through a
chillers, it canreduce the customer's coil,pump, pipefan, primary-secondary decoupler or non-operating chiller.
duct and heat exchanger size in addition to the Ultimately, the district cooling provider must deliver the
distribution pipe size. This enhances the district cooling supply-water temperature promised to customers and
benefit for the customer by reducing building first costs. account foranyheatrise inthe plant's design andoperation.
It also can decrease building pump and fan energy
consumption. For the districtcooling utility, higherdelta T
reduces the distribution pipesize andcost. Peak loads and
electrical infrastructure requirements maybe reduced.
29
~~~~~~~~~
connect chilled-water tariffs to delta T performance. system and causes a serious leak, this could cause the
entire system to shut down if the system makeup supply
Maximum flow rate and load do not exceed cannot rapidly refill the system. Since the customer's
contract capacity - Both the maximum flow and load system consists of many components, the offending
should be monitored and managed because they may source could be any cooling coil or other equipment in a
not always be coincident. Flow with low delta T at hidden location.
part-load conditions could be more than with high delta
T at peak-load conditions. Some customers may shut off Furthercomplicating the design for direct connections are
their cooling at night and let the temperature in the water such devices aspressure-reducing valves in the supply line
rise. If it rises too high there can be a high demand for and pressure-sustaining valves inthe return line. The need
cooling as the system starts. This can be managed with for such devices depends on the size and design of the
controls, a flow limiter at the ETS, or a small bypass at the district cooling system,elevation differences and types of
end of the loop in the building that doesn't permit the customersand building systems.
water temperature to rise too high. Another strategy in
lieu of night setback is to cycle the air handlers at night.
Sincethe water deliveredfrom the plant is also circulated 1. The utility and customer may be the sameowner or
in the customer's internal building system, all involved havea strong working relationship and contract. The
must know and understand the risks and consequences customer and utility both know and understand the
if something unexpected happens in the system. For risks and consequences if and when unexpected
example, failure inone customer's system can cause the problems arise in the system.
entire system to shut down, thus interrupting cooling to
all the other customers. For reliable operation, it is 2. Building height and static head for the customer's
important that the building owner be vigilant in detecting building is not a concern for the utility and will not
leaks and ensuring no contamination occurs to the lead to higher pressure-rated pipe and equipment
circulating water. Also, in direct connections, water in the plant and distribution or issues with open
treatment is provided at the central plant, thus the storage or expansion tanks at atmospheric
treatment program is outside the customers' control. pressure. Components are capable of managing
(possibly with pressure-reducing valves) the full
When designing a direct-connect system, care must be spectrum of pressures induced by the tallest water
taken to protect the safety of the customer installation column and the shutoff pressure of the distribution
and the reliability of the district cooling system. The pumps. All system expansion compensation is
district cooling owner must weigh the benefits of accommodated at the district cooling plant and the
economy against the risk for a serious failure. If one compression tank has adequate capacity for the
customer fails to properly maintain and operate its direct-connection water volume.
30
DISTRlcr COOUNG BESTPRAcrlCE GUIDE
102008 International District Enefgy k500il~on, Allrighl5 reserved.
3. The distribution fluids in the plant and customer's exchanger on both the chilled-water supply and return
building arethe same and can mix. Waterqualityor sides at peak design conditions.
contaminants in the customer's building can be
addressed and won't adversely affect the plant or
other customers. Watertreatmentwill be managed
bythe districtcooling utilityor itstreatment supplier.
31
-_._-----------------
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DISTRICTCOOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008 Inlem,,/ion<!1 DistJid: EnergyA55DCianOl1. Ail righl5 reserved.
140%
§: \
!• 120%
~
! 100%
\
,•
DistrittCHWR
Building CHWR
Building CHWS
~
~
••
•••
80%
60%
", '-
-,
Oistri~tCHWS •
!
•"
40%
.... "'",
20%
0%
r-- ...r-- ....
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
HEX Temperature Loss('C)
---"
SUF'f'ORT
To reduce district cooling distribution and indirect ETS
cost. the approach could be increased and chillers, ice
SUPPORT/if
FOOT Heat Exchanger (HEX) HEX1 HEX2
(ooling Load 1000tons
Inlet Temperature ( (F) 4.4 (40) 2.2 (36)
FRAME PLATE Outlet Temperature ( (F) 3.3 (56) 3.3 (56)
Figure 5-7. Plate-and-frame heat exchanger (courtesy Flow Rate Ips (gpm) 94.0(1489.6) 75.1 (1190.7)
Alta Laval). Pressure Drop kPa (psi) 60.1 (8.71) 40.9 (5.93)
Heat exchanger selection should be broadly integrated Footprintsq It (sq m) 2.62 (28.2) 2.16 (23.3)
with the total district coolingsystem design. Thechoices Relative Cost Index 1.00 .690
madein the system can have a verysignificant impacton
Table 5-2. Sample heat exchanger differences with colder
the capital, energy and operating costs for a district supply-water temperature and common bulldinq-side
cooling utility and its customers. conditions.
33
DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C!2008Intemational District Energy A55ocI'ation. All rights reserved.
storage or low-temperature fluid thermal storage could The allowable pressure drop across the heat
be added to lower the supply-water temperature to 36 F exchanger (including pressure drop inports, connections,
(2.2 C) (as shown in Table 5-2). A 20 F (11 C) delta T and across the plates) is one of the critical parameters to
system design reduces the districtflow-rate requirements be considered during selection. The higher the pressure
by 20%. Pipe and fitting size, system pressure and pump drop, the smaller and less expensive the heat exchanger
power requirements all decline aswell aspeak powerand will be. Forthe customer at the hydraulically most remote
electrical system requirements. Building equipment location(s) it is critical to minimize the pressure drop
remains the same. Producing colder supply temperature because that customer will setthe pumping requirements
for thermal storage may increase the chiller energy for the entiresystem. Minimizing the pressure drop at the
consumption; however, it may be offset by the energy critical customer will decrease pump requirements and
saved with coldercondenser water temperature (at night annual pump energycost. Figure 5-9 illustrates how the
in dryer climates) and a decrease in pump energy pump head requirement for the whole system depends
consumption (with higherdelta T). on the design of this critical customer.
34
DISTRICT COQUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
e2008lnfemillionill District EnergyAssociation. Allnghtsreserved.
customers, it might be necessary to use multiple units i.e.• slime, scale. During commissioning, blockage of the
such that when the largest unit is out of service, the heat exchangers isa verypresent danger. It isessential to
remaining capacity issufficient to meetthe critical load. connect heatexchangers afterproper flushing procedures
are followed. A y-strainer with a maximum mesh size
Theredundancy requirements are typically established on 75% of the channel depth must be used upstream to
an individual customer basis. Generally, the redundancy both circuits duringstartup. It mayneed to be smaller to
requirements are lowerfor a building served from district protect the control valve(s) on the district cooling
cooling compared to individual on-site chiller operation provider's side.
since a heat exchanger has no moving parts and is not
likelyto "breakdown" likea chiller might. Water quality - The material of construction of the heat
exchanger plates ismainly dictated bythe level of chlorides
present in the water passing through them. Table 5-4
Tonnage Tonnage per heat exchanger illustrates recommended limits.
Demand 2-manifolded 3-manifolded 4-manifolded
1000 600 400 300 T=20°C (68°F) T=80°C (176°F)
2000 1200 800 600 pH level AISI304 AISI316 AISI304 AISI316
3000 1800 1200 900 5 20 400 4 30
4000 2400 1600 1200 7 120 1150 32 120
5000 3000 2000 1500 9 500 10000 140 600
6000 - 2400 1800 Table 5-4. Recommended maximum chloride content (ppm).
7000 - 2800 2100
Utilities issue thechloride limits to building-side consultants
Table 5-3. Tonnage capacity per heat exchanger. and usually actively monitor or oversee that water
treatment on the building side oncethe heatexchangers
For example, on a typical energytransfer station in the are in operation.
Middle East, the design would employ one of the
scenarios (with 20% redundancy) shown in Table 5-3. The Partial load analysis - Many district cooling providers
building yearly load profile usually defines the number of ask for a partial loadanalysis for heatexchangers to be is-
heat exchangers manifolded in an ETS. sued by the manufacturer. This informationisrequired to
assess how the heatexchangers will perform at part loads
5.4.4 HEX performance efficiency as well as changing delta T and log-mean temperature
In an indirect ETS configuration, the heatexchanger is a differences (LMTDs).
critical element in the efficient energy transfer from the
district cooling provider to a customer. Having nomoving
parts, the risk of a major mechanical failure of the heat
exchangeris very low, but this does not eliminate the
need to manage the performance efficiency. Efficiency
and reliability depend on system cleanliness, flow rates
andtemperatures. Performance monitoring coupled with
predictive maintenance practices help ensure efficient
energy transfer andsystem reliability.
5.5 Control-Valve Considerations
HEX monitoring - With most heat exchanger connec- A greatdeal of emphasis should be placed on selection of
tionsit isvery important to collect temperatures and pres- control valves and control strategy for both the district
suredrops for both inlets and outletsas wellasthe water and customer to ensure both the district and building
flow rate. systems are operating properly.
Other connections - It is also good practice to have In customerbuildings, demand for flow to cooling coils
connections to enable cleaning in place built into the heat is driven by air-flow, temperature and humidity require-
exchanger piping as this is usually the first line of action ments. Cooling coil control valves typicallymanage the
when heat exchanger performance deteriorates. chilled-waterflow through a circuit to maintaina given
air-temperature setpoint whether it is in the duct or at
5.4.5 Other HEX considerations the zone.
Strainers - Since the heat exchanger is essentially an
interface device between the district cooling provider and In an indirect or decoupled direct connection, ETS control
the building, proper water treatment on both sides is valves are typically used to control the chilled-water supply
essential. Heat-transfer effectiveness isreduced byfouling, temperature on the building side of the interface.
35
DISTRICTCOOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008 International Di5trktEnergy A55ociation. AI!dghlS ff!5ervro.
36
DISTRlcr COOLINGBEST PRAcrlCEGUIDE
02008 International DiStrict Energy AmxiationAllrighl5 re!£fWd.
tionaI (pressure-dependent) control valves will only use a independent control valve, the only way to change the
portionof theirstroke if oversized, poorlybalanced or in a flow ratethrough the cooling coil or heatexchanger isto
system suffering with low delta T. With poor control or actively rotate the stem in response to a load change.
rising supply-water temperature, the delta T performance Real-time system pressure fluctuations have no effect on
suffers andfar more flow will be required to serve the load. the flow at any loadcondition.
"if'
15 50% I--+-----..f--,
a:
5,5.3 Control-valve sizing
One of the mostcommon problems in the HVAC industry
isrule-of-thumb control-valve sizing. Whencontrol valves
are selected bythe same pressure drop as the coilserved,
one line size smaller than the pipe or low pressure drop,
it does not account for the differential pressure in the
50% 100% location wherethe valve isapplied in the system. Selecting
Valve opening valves for "control authority" to matchthe pressure drop
Figure 5-11. Common control-valve characteristics. through the othercomponents in the circuit has the same
effect if the hydraulic gradient is not considered. In fact,
Pressure-independent control poor control-valve sizing and selection is one the main
contributors to low deltaT problems.
Figure 5-12 is a schematic of a pressure-independent
control valve. With this type of valve, the internal piston Selection of pressure-dependent controlvalves at the ETS
and spring operate to maintain a low but constant andat coolingcoils requires knowledgeof the maximum
differential pressure across the control surface so that differential pressure expected in operation at the location
sizing does not depend on location and differential where it is applied. A building or coil control valve close
pressure in the system. In operation, the size of the to the pumps will always have higherdifferential pressure
passage between the piston and the valve outlet varies than those further out in the distribution.
as the pressure varies to keep the differential pressure
across the control surface constant. With a pressure- This differential pressure varies at different elevations and
locations relative to pumps and the plant. It will change
~~,9A~J;~,q.~,~,~~f.r. as the system grows or the load changes. It will rise up
® SPRINGS anddown with the deltaT performance achieved at each
PISTON
----
FLOW
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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C2008lntemational District Energy Association. Allrightsreserved.
If pressure-dependent valves are used, they must be Industrial-grade control valves and actuators are preferred
properly sized with an accurate differential pressure to and should be selected for high rangeability (100:1
deliver acceptable performance. To enhance rangeability minimum) to enable them to control well at low loads
(controllability at low flow),sometimes pressure-dependent andflows. Components should be high qualityand built
valves are installed in a 113,213 arrangement to splitthe to last taking into consideration the flows, pressures,
low and high flows. Proper sizing requires accurate temperatures, chemicals anddebris expected inthe system.
hydraulic modeling as well as a good understanding of
the loads, anticipated growth and delta T performance
at each building. Rule-of-thumb valve sizing is not 5.6 ETS and Building
acceptable, asit will contribute to low delta 1 Control Strategies
A pressure-independent control valve issized bythe flow 5.6.1 Supply-water temperature and reset
rate alone. The designer doesn't need to accurately When chilled-water supply temperature reset or free
estimate the maximum differential pressure to properly cooling is planned at the central chilled-water plant(s),
size the valve in the hydraulic gradient. In general this it isimportant to not losecontrol of the chilled-wateror
enables it to be selected more accurately to use its full supply-air temperature required to satisfy the load and
available stroke. minimize energy consumption. District cooling contracts
should specify the maximum distribution supply-water
5.5.4 Actuator sizing and selection temperature provided to the ETS by the district cooling
Actuators and control valves should be selected together company. In addition, with indirect or decoupled direct
to ensure that they will operate properly as a system. connections, the supply-water temperature on the
There are numerous choices to be made regarding building side of the ETS should also be specified in the
torque (or force), power input, control signal, fail posi- customer control guidelines and properlycontrolled.
tion, feedback, manualoverride, strokespeed, etc., that
are beyond the scope of this guide. Two-position actu- Reset can have broad comfort, energy and economic
ators are acceptable with valves used for staging or iso- implications and must be considered on a system (not
lation, but generally not for control if high delta T component) level. Chilled-water reset is discussed in the
performance is sought. Modulating control-valve actu- chilled-water plant design and control section of this
atorsthat canaccept a proportional-plus-integral control guide. Keep in mind that it makes no sense to reset the
signal are recommended to improve adjustment, accu- chilled-water supply temperature at the plant to reduce
racyand response. chiller-compressor lift and energyconsumption if it leads
to a loss of comfort control or a net increase in the total
energy consumption for the districtcooling company and
itscustomers. Reset mayalso not be suitable in the plant
if it adversely affects even one critical building on the
distribution system.
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C2008lnlemariOllilI DJ5tJiet fnegy Assodari'on. All righ~ re5efVed.
supply, (3) overflow of running chillers and (4) loss of required) should control the supply-water temperature
thermal energy storage capacity. In addition, reset can on the building side of the interface. Delta T or return
reduce latent cooling capacity, humidity control and water temperature control with ETS control valve may
district cooling company revenue. Customer pump and lead to capacity, energy, and comfort issues and is not
fan energy consumption may riseasthe supply water and recommended except as a temporary measure to
supply air temperature rises. More water and air flow is curtail the load or flow with a problem customer.
required to satisfy the load.
Delta T and pump head are interrelated. In the decoupled
Capability for chilled-water reset at the ETS is not direct connection shown earlier in Figure 5-2, low delta
discouraged, but it is imperative that the district cooling T at the coils forces the pump to generate more head to
company and building owner fully understand the circulate the flow. This creates high suction pressure at
implications of reset throughout the entire system the pump that draws more return water into the supply.
before implementation. As a result, the ETS control valve in the return line opens
up to maintain the supply-water temperature in the loop
5.6.2 Supply-air temperature and reset at setpoint. The low delta T problem in the buildings
at cooling coils transfers right through the ETS to the district side.
In North America, many chilled-water systems in buildings
are designed with electric or hydronic reheat at individual The same pump control strategy applies in an indirect
zones. When a large air handler provides cool air to connection with heat exchanger separation as shown
serve many zones, the reheat coil manages the space earlier in Figure 5-4 and Figure 5-5. Given the physics
temperature at minimum air-flow requirements. This is of heat transfer, the chilled-water return temperature to
intended to prevent overcooling in some of the spaces. the district will always be a little lower than the chilled-
Thisapproachoften wastesa lot of energyin simultaneous water return temperature to the building. This means it
heating and cooling, even though the occupant of the is vital to achieve good return-water temperature
space remains comfortable. performance in the building to achieve high delta T in
the district.
Fan-powered variable-air-volume (VAV) boxes are an
alternative to reheat also used to prevent overcooling in In a simple direct connection, there mayor may not be
individual zones. This approach recirculates the return a need for a building pump, depending on the location
air and blends it with the supply air from the larger air and height of the building relative to the district cooling
handler. When the supply-air temperature is too cold, it plant(s). If a pump is used, it can be installed with a
requires additional energy to operate the smaller fans parallel bypass and check valve so that it is only run at
at the zones. high load if the differential pressure at the hydraulically
most remote point(s) in the building falls below setpoint.
A solution to eliminate overcooling and reduce customer
building energy consumption is to reset the cooling coil
supply-air temperature upward at minimum air flow. As
soon as oneof the primary VAV boxes reaches minimum
air flow, the supply-air temperature is ratcheted up a
notch. This process minimizes overcooling and, with
proper control, will reduce the demand and increase
delta T performance at low load. 5.6.4 Capacity control after night setback
Flow limiters (or automatic balancing valves) are
5.6.3 Building pump and ETS designed to limit the maximum flow rate through a heat
control-valve control exchanger, piping branch or cooling coil. A flow limiter is
Building pumps (if required) should be controlled by not a control valve and will not prevent low delta T
either the district cooling provider or the building issues. It is meant to prevent excess flowinone area from
customer to maintain a differential pressure at the leading to lack of flow in another. These devices typically
hydraulically most remote point(s) in the system. This have an insert chosen for a fixed maximum flow rate.
ensures that all circuits have enough chilled water to
satisfy load conditions. Reset strategies may be applied When a customer chooses to shut off its cooling at
to reduce the differential pressure setpoint at part-load night, the water temperature in the building can rise
provided the air-temperature and humidity requirements and create a high instantaneous demand for flow as the
are met in all zones. To prevent comfort and control system is started in the morning. In district cooling
issues in customer buildings, pumps should not be run systems, flow limiters have been usedat heat exchangers
in normal operation to maintain minimum flow, delta T, to limit the flow rate to a maximum flow based on
supply-air temperature or return-water temperature for contracted tons and design delta T. A problem with this
the building or individual loads. ETS control valves (if approach arises at peak load when design delta T is not
39
DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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achieved. Limiting the flow leadsto an uncontrolled rise fine dust, which is present in the water.
in supply-water temperature in the building.
5.7 Metering and Submetering
Another concern if customers shut off their cooling
equipment (including pumps) is that the zero-flow 5.7,1Introduction 1
conditions in the building may cause system hunting The energy meter registersthe quantity of energy trans-
problems and can also lead to a large district-side flow ferred from the user's building system to the district
(leak flow) sincethe control valve(s) will open up to meet cooling system. Cooling energy is the product of mass
setpoint. To prevent this from happening, a pump flow, temperature difference, the specific heat of the
status input should be provided to the ETS control water and time. It is difficult to measure mass flow in
system 50 that the control valves remain fully closed an enclosed pipe system, 50 volume flow is measured.
when the building pumps are not running. The result is corrected for the density and specific heat
capacity olthe water, which depends on its temperature.
An alternative to prevent high demand after night The effect of pressure is 50 small that it can be ignored.
setback is for the customer to manage the flow and An energy meter consists of a flow meter, a pair of
temperature control within the building to minimize the temperature sensors and an energy calculator that
instantaneous load. This can be done with a normally integrates the flow, temperature data and correction
closed bypassvalve «1 % of design flow) at the end of factors. It is desirablethat the energy meter be supplied
the line that is controlled to keep the loop temperature as a complete unit and factory calibrated with stated
from rising too high. Another strategy to limit high accuracy performance ratings in compliance with
demand from night setback is to schedulethe startup of accepted metering standards.
air-handling equipment from unoccupied to occupied
mode and operate with outside-air dampers closed until 5.7.2 Meter types
indoor-air setpoints are recovered from night setback The meter is the district cooling systems' "cash register."
conditions. Do not use cheap, inaccurate meters that may leave
doubt in the mind of the customer that it is being fairly
5.6.5 Staging multiple heat exchangers charged for chilled-water service from the district cooling
With multiple heat exchangers, it is important to properly provider.
manage the flow. In an application with multiple heat
exchangers, isolation valves on both the district and The following are brief descriptionsof the most common
building side of each heat exchanger should be kept flow meters suitable for district cooling use. Meters can
open unless heat exchanger maintenance is being be divided into two major groups: dynamic meters,
performed. It is generally not necessary to provide valve which register flow with the aid of moving parts; and
actuators on the building side to automatically stage static meters, which have no moving parts.
heat exchangers unless there is a desire to maintain a
minimum flow. If water is flowing through a both heat Dynamic meters
exchangers on the district side and only one heat
exchanger on the building side, there will be district There are two types of dynamic meters used in district
supply dumping directly into the return, and poor delta T cooling: impeller and turbine meters.
performance. Conversely, if there is water flow through
a single heat exchanger on the district side and both Impeller meters measureflow with the aid of straight-
heat exchangers on the building side, it will be chal- bladed impellers. There are two types of impeller meters:
lenging to achieve the supply-water temperature nec- multi-jet and single-jet.
essary for good control.
Multi-jet impeller meters are very sensitive to impurities
In general, an indirect ETS should be operated with such as sand and sharp metal particles, but are not
variable flow through all heat exchangers, even at low sensitive to flow disturbances. This type of meter is best
load, to take advantage of the lower pressure drop and suited to medium-sized buildings, but not for small
smaller approach. When parallel heat exchangers are buildings because it does not function well at small loads.
installed, approach temperatures may be reduced below
design in operation given the added surface area. Plate In single-jet impeller meters, the flow runs through a
heat exchangers, unlike shell-and-tube heat exchang- single nozzle directed tangentially to the impeller blades.
ers, will almost always have turbulent flow conditions, Single-jet meters have properties similar to those of
even at 10% to 15% of full-rated flow. If the flow is multi-jet meters, but they are more suitable for small
less than 10% to 15%, excess plate heat exchangers buildings because a very weak flow is enough to start
can be shut down to maintain higher flow and cleanli- the meter.
ness across operational units. Proper "seasonal" shut-
down procedures include draining to avoid settling of In a turbine meter, the fluid in the pipe flows through
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DISTRICT COOtiNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C2008 IntemalionalDistriet Ene'!lYA5soc'alion. JlJI fight!; re>erVed.
turbine blades, causing them to rotate. A turbine meter to 2% depending on the intermediate to low-flow
records only the cumulative volume of chilled water conditions. The pressure drop is very low; for a DN 40
supplied and does not take into account the difference (1-1/2") flow meter it is about 0.07 bar (1 psi) at 3.8 lis
in temperature (delta T) between supply and return. The (60 gpm).
meter's accuracydepends on the flow profile before the
meter, so strong flow disturbances must be avoided. Recent experience indicates that ultrasonic meters are
Generally, accuracy for turbine meters is in the range of also accurate and cost-effective for large flows.
+1- 1.5% to 3% depending on intermediate to low-flow
conditions. The average pressure loss for a DN 40 5.7.3 Designing for meter
(1-1/2") flow meter a13.81/s (60 gpm) is approximately installation and maintenance
0.55 bar (8 psi) - significantly higher than for a static The flow meter could be installed in either the primary
flow meter. supply or return pipe. In some instances, it may be
beneficial to install the meter upstream of the heat
Theweaknesses of this meter are its high startup threshold exchanger and control valves to minimize the possible
and rapid wearing of bearings at high loads and in dirty formation of bubbles in the flow stream, which could
water. Turbine meters are suitable for high flows, but affect the meter accuracy. In most cases, for dynamic
are not suitable for small buildings. meters to ensure uniform flow and accurate flow
measurements, there should be a length of straight pipe
ten times the pipe diameter before the flow meter and
Static flow meters
a length of straight pipe five times the pipe diameter
after the flow meter. This requirement is typically
There are two types of static flow meters that are used
reduced to half the distance for static meters installed
in district cooling applications: magnetic induction (MID)
with reduced pipe-size diameter. The district cooling
and ultrasonic.
utility and meter manufacturer should be consulted for
The MID meter (or mag meter) is based on induction specific instructions.
of voltage in a conductor moving in a magnetic field.
Flow meters should not be installed in the low point of
The conductor in this case is water. The recommended
the piping system where dirt accumulates. Similarly, they
conductivity is '" 5~S/cm. Generally, district cooling
wateris conductive enough for MID metering. However, should not be installed in the piping at the high point of
it is essential that this be confirmed in each specific case. the system, which would cause air to accumulate in the
Furthermore, the magnetite content of the water should meter. To reduce wear on the bearings of a dynamic
also be checked to verify that the recommended value meter, it is important to fit the meter so that its impeller
of 0.1 ppm (maximum) is not exceeded. shaft is vertical. For magnetic meters, the pipes have to
be grounded. Signal cables should be well protected
The water flows through a pipe made of non-magnetic from external disturbances.
material with an exactly known cross-sectional area.
Electrodes connected to powerful electromagnets sense Temperature sensors should always be installed against
the flow. The voltage induced in the water is measured the flow, with the tip of the probe approximately in the
and amplified and the information is converted by the center of the pipe. In addition, a properly sized
heat calculator. measurement housing for the sensor and the water
thermometer should be installed in the primary piping.
Experiencewith MID meters in district cooling has been Pipe increasers or a measurement housing will not be
good. Although their initial cost is higher than dynamic needed when sensor wells can be installed in pipe
meters, consideration should be given to their reduced elbows or when pipe diameters exceed 1OOmm (4
maintenance and increased accuracy. The mag meter inches). In smaller pipes, wells for heat meter sensors
has excellent accuracy, low pressure drops and good can obstruct the flow. The sensors' surroundings should
rangeability, as well as low maintenance. These qualities always be heat-insulated; otherwise, heat loss/gain from
usually justify the higher cost for mag meters compared the sensors distorts the measurement. The sensors'
to most dynamic type meters. wires should be of exactly the same length (e.g.,
matched pair) unless four-wire metering is used.
Ultrasonic metering is based on changes in the
propagation of ultrasonic waves caused by the velocity An MID meter should be fitted so that it is as easy as
of the flow. These changes are registered by measuring possible to clean the pipe and electrodes. Dirt on the
thetime between the transmission and reception of ultra- electrodes creates an extra resistance that causes errors
sonic signals over anexactly known distance orbymeasur- inthe voltage measurement.
ing changes in the frequency of reflected ultrasonic waves.
MID meters are not very sensitive to flow disturbances.
The ultrasonic meter accuracy is in the range of +/- 1% Manufacturers state that a disturbance-free section of
41
DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C2OO8 Inrema~onal District Energy Azodalion.Alln"gllti reserved.
pipe five times its diameter before the sensor is enough, reduced by 20% in multi-residential buildings with
and they recommend that a pipe section two times its submetering.
diameter should be free from disturbances after the
sensor. However, any meter is more accurate if the The implementation, however, is very capital cost
disturbance-free sections of pipe are longer than the expensive and is seldom cost-efficient for the building
recommended minimums. owner. For the district cooling owner it is important to
make sure to include this cost as an installation or
Meters are generally supplied and installed under the demand charge.
supervision of the district cooling company. The district
may also supply a temporary spool piece, the same size Primary energy metering will normally be performed
as the meter, for installation in lieu of a meter until the according to local regulations or international standards,
system is clean and ready for operation or if the meter however submetering for allocate purposes are not
is removed for recalibration. Meter selection and sizing included and does normally not have to follow any reg-
should be verified by the district cooling company ulations.
and/or its engineer based on the information supplied
by the ETS design engineer. For proper meter selection, Submetering can be employed in following ways:
it is essential that the district cooling company under-
stand the building system operations under maximum 1. Measure the thermal energy used for each
and minimum flowconditions. customer.
5.7.4 Standards 2. Measure the total thermal energy used for the
CSA C900 is a Canadian standard for thermal energy subsystem and consumed water volume for each
meters, but it is not commonly used throughout North customer.
America. There are international standards in place like
3. Measure of room temperature in each apartment.
the OIML-R75and the European Standard EN 1434 that
may be used as references. CSA C900 is adopted from
Measurement of room temperature is the least expensive,
EN 1434 with Canadian deviations.
but also the most inaccurate. This method will not show
accurate energy use when, for example, airing a room,
5.7.5 Other equipment and it is not recommended.
Pressure gauges, thermometers and shutoff valves
should be installed to enable proper monitoring, Submetering the water volume consumed is a cost-
balancing and equipment isolation for maintenance. effective solution for subsystems with similar cooling
usage, such as only residential customers etc. The
A strainer with a mesh of 1.2 mm (3/64 inch) or smaller solution provides not only an accurate measurement,
must be installed to adequately protect the critical butalso a mechanism to reward conservation or penalize
components (i.e., heat exchanger, flow meter and wastefulness.
control valves). To determine when the strainer should
be cleaned, a pressure gauge should be connected to For more complex subsystems where the usage is a mix
both sidesof the strainer.The pressure drop through the of different cooling usages, the thermal energy needs
strainer must be considered in the system design. to be metered. Thiswill then be done in the samemanner
as primary metering (the metering unit comprisesa flow
5.7.6 Submetering meter and two temperature sensors together with an
Submetering of individual townhouses, condominiums energy calculator).
or apartment units in multi-residential buildings is
seldom practiced in district cooling systems. Normally Experience shows that subsystems are often a mix of
the district cooling owner charges the building or different cooling usages and the incremental savings of
subsystem owner and then it is up to the owner to using simple water meters versus energy meters is
allocate the costs based on floor area or some other relatively small.
metric.
Meter reading
However, sometimes the customer requires individual
submetering to provide an incentive for a resident to The other issue to be decidedwith respect to submetering
conserve energy. In fact the European Union promotes individual townhomes or multi-residential apartments is
individual metering of all utilities becauseit gives people how the data should be accessed, i.e., either by local
the opportunity to be responsible for their utility usage readings taken inside the units or by remote readings
and costs. For district heating systems this has been taken from the outside. For either meter type, the data
successfullyimplemented in many countries in Europe. could be accessed in the following ways:
Studies show that the energy consumption has been
42
DISTRICTCOOLING BESTPRACTICE GUIDE
02008 International Diwid Energy As.5ooalion. Allrighrs fe:;ervro.
1. Reading inside an apartmentltownhome unit. Data Submetering system via fixedwireless consists of energy
exchange occurs at the location of the energy meter equipped with radio frequency (RF) transmitter,
meter, and in the mostbasic system, this would be concentrators/collectors, TCP~P and computersoftware.
done using a handheld device or a laptop See Figure 5-13.
computer interfacing either through the optical
head or via a plug-in. Based on cost analysis, the Individual energy meters are fitted with radiofrequency
capital-cost saving with local reading is not consid- modules. Each transmitter collects the meter's data
ered to be worth the additionalongoing labor and periodically and converts the measurement into a
administrative cost. This approach also requires digital signal transmission. This data is transmitted via
entry into the unit, which the resident could radio frequency to a central RF concentratorequipped
consider intrusive. with an external antenna. The concentratorcollects the
datafrom individual RF module, decodes the transmission
2. Remote reading via fixed or drive-by wireless network. and stores the meter reads for billing. The concentrator
Underthisoption, datawould be transmitted via a can handleup to approximately 650 energymeters and
radio signal from an output device included in the can be placed indoorsor outdoors. Computer software
meter to a central receiver or a handheld receiver is used to upload the data via the TCP/IP to a central
outside the residential unit.This method iscommonly computer and each submeter can be identified for
used in Europe and in North America. However, a billing purposes by i15 uniqueaddress.
radio frequency license maybe required. This wireless
approach isproven technology and isless expensive. Wireless communication between an RF module and an
RF concentrator takes place within a dedicated
3. Remote reading via the telephone network. frequency band without thereby disturbing other RF
receivers. For this dedicated, uncluttered frequency
strength, license would typically be required through
4. Remote reading via Internet connection through
appropriate local agencies.
the building fiber optic system. If this system will
be in place, then each energy meter can be fitted
Alternatively, at slightlyhighercost, meters supplied with
with a TCP~P moduleand transmiti15 datathrough
RF modules canalso be read by a person driving by along
TCP/IP (an internetcommunication link)to be read
a preset route with an RF handheld terminal, see Figure
by a central computer. Further, the Internet
5-14. When reading isperformed, the handheld terminal
connection must be within the room where the
is placed in a docking station and data istransferred to a
meter is located. One advantage of this system is
central computer. Computer software is used to export
that the energy meters can directly communicate
this data to a billing or analytical purposes.
over the building Internet line and a dedicated
communication system is not required. However,
this system would be dependent on the qualityand
reliability of the building's Internetconnection.
COMPUTER
-1&' SILUNG
terminal.
c.e~Ji~~~fl;;;~
The following are conclusions about submetering
options:
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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C2008lnrema~Onal DisrndEnergy A550ciarion. Ali nghlSreserved.
44
DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C!2008lntemilb'onal DiWictEnergy A5x>diltion Allright> reoerved.
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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
e2OO8 International Di5rrid Energy Awxiati'on. Allnght5 re:;erved.
80
One of the big advantages of district cooling is the
opportunity to take advantage of load diversity, as _ plant supply loss 5.6 Cdelta T
70
... • 6.7 Cdelta T
discussed in section 4.1.1. If customers connected to \. _ supply piping loss
- - 8.3CdeltaT
.-. - ..
------
the distribution system are expected to have significant 60
load diversity, then the designer should work to use ¥
.§. 50 '
coincident peak loads in the hydraulic model to size
distribution mains, while ensuring that branch lines and 'll "'-
'-----___ • - • -• -•- •- ••~
-• - I
~ 40
service lines to customers are sized to accommodate -~~L
non-coincident peak loads.
,! . __ ::::-r-
6.1.3 Startup and growth
..
:: 30
!
20
-, ~~~~~~~-------T
The initial hydraulic gradient in a distribution system "<, ~eturn piping loss
pump pressure head
differential
pressur~
will change dramatically as more customers are 10
plant return loss
customer
connected and as the system changes and grows.
Distribution system hydraulic modeling for design
o
Distance from the Source
purposes must take this into consideration, particularly
Figure 6-1. Impact of delta T on hydraulic profile.
since the hydraulic model is used in the sizing and
selection of control valves at customer buildings, sizing are responsible for delta T performance in operation. If
and selection of distribution pumps and defining the delta T performance is overestimated, it can result
system pressure limits. Future implementation of thermal in an undersized piping network, pumps without
storage, colder supply-water temperatures or additional enough capacity or stranded production assets. If the
plants may also come into consideration and should be delta T performance is underestimated, it can lead to an
assessed as part of the long-term distribution system oversized system with larger pumps, pipes and other
strategy. System planning also should consider that in equipment, at a significant impact to first cost.
the early years of a developing district cooling system,
before the distribution system is fully utilized, heat gain If the district cooling utility is not prepared to take the
as a percentage of plant chilled-water sendout will steps required to achieve high delta T, then this must be
generally be higher, and chilled-water supply-temperature factored into chilled-water system hydraulic modeling
rise will be higher. Heat gain and temperature rise are and distribution system design. For example, many district
discussed further in section 6.4.4. coolingsystems consist of a mix of both new developments
and existing buildings, and the existing buildings
frequently require a substantial retrofitting project to
improve their building-side cooling systems to get a
high delta T performance from the building. If the district
cooling utility is not prepared to ensurethat these retrofits
6.1.4 Piping layout happen, then the district cooling system designer must
Thedistribution piping layout can be drivenby a number of make a realistic, and likely lower than desired, estimate of
external factors including access, obstacles, elevations the delta Ts that can be achieved from the existing
and geology. For district cooling distribution systems buildingsthat areexpectedto be connectedto the system.
that will run in public streets or spaces, it is critical that Forsystems that will consistprimarily of new development,
the owner or the owner's representatives engage the but also include a small number of existing buildings, it
municipality as early as possible in the district cooling
system development process. This will give the owner
the best opportunity to obtain a desirable utility corridor
for distribution piping and minimize piping burial depth,
which can provide substantial capital cost savings. Once
the preliminary layout is defined, the hydraulic model
can be used to size and select pipe and also can be used
to consider alternative piping layouts, and pumping may be possible to achieve a satisfactorily high overall
schemes and potential future system changes. system delta T without substantial retrofit of existing
buildings. However, this may require the district cooling
6.1.5 Delta T utility to be more aggressive in ensuring that new
The hydraulic profile in a system that achieves high delta developments are designed and operated to produce
T is dramatically different from a model for a system that a very high delta T to offset poor delta T performance
doesn't, as illustrated in Figure 6-1. from the existing buildings. The key is that the district
cooling utility must consciously prepare its delta T strategy
Cooling coils within customer HVAC systems and control before customer contracts are signed, and before final
valves within customer HVAC systems and utility ETS design of the districtcooling plant and distribution systems.
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DISTRICTCOOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C2008 Intema~'onal DistrictfrmrgyA550dation. All ngh!Sreserved.
6.1.6 Pipe sizing delivered at a 2.87 mps (9.4 fps) velocity limit in a 900
Ideally, pipe sizing should be determined via life-cycle mm (36") steel pipe with different levels of delta T
cost analysis, to find an optimal economic balance performance. Increased delta T has a significant impact
between first costs of distribution system capital and on cooling delivery capacity.
operating cost over the life of the system.
Delta T Approx. Capacity
Designers should be cautious about using simple C F (tons)
velocity rulesof thumb to sizedistrict cooling distribution
piping, especially for larger pipe sizes. When using 6.7 12 14,200
hydraulic modeling software to size piping, initial sizing 7.8 14 16,600
can be done using a constant pressure gradient (pressure 8.9 16 19,000
drop per unit length) for the piping network and then 10.0 18 21,400
manual adjustmentsmade from there. Forexample, if the 20 23,800
11.1
critical path for the distribution network is known and is
12.2 22 26,200
not expected to change over time, then selective upsizing
of smaller-diameter (and therefore less expensive) piping 13.3 24 28,500
toward the end of the critical path can be prudent. Table 6-1. Impactof delta T on 900 mm (36") pipe capacity.
Velocities in larger piping can be quite high and still
have a reasonable pressure gradient, but the designer Table 6-2 illustrates the tons of capacity of a 1000
must evaluate water hammer risk and take care that horsepower (hp) pump set pumping through 1524 m
velocities are within the manufacturer's recommended (5000 ft) of 900 mm (36") supply and return piping
limits.for the pipe type selected. (fitting pressure losses not considered) with different
levels of delta T performance.
Special consideration should be given to fitting losses
for distribution systems with large-diameter piping and Delta T Approx. Capacity
installations in densely populated areas to ensure that C F (tons)
the magnitude of pressure loss due to fittings has been
6.7 12 22,400
accurately represented in the hydraulic model. For small
7.8 14 26,100
diameter chilled-water pipe [e.g., less than 250 mm
(10")] runs without too many elbows, fitting losses may 8.9 16 29,900
add less than 5% to piping pressure loss, while large- 10.0 18 33,600
diameter pipe [e.g., 600 mm (24") and up] runs 11.1 20 37,400
requiring a significant number of fittings to avoid other 12.2 22 41,100
buried utilities could have fitting losses that add more
13.3 24 44,800
than 50% to straight-pipe pressure loss.
Table 6-2. Impact of deltaT on capacity of 1,000 hp pump set.
To minimize unnecessary design conservatism and cost,
it is critical that the district cooling utility work with the
customers through their contracts to ensure that the
load and flow demands are realistic and that the delta T
performance that is expected will be achieved.
Lastly, when making distribution system pipe size
selection, the designer should be mindful of commercial
availability of pipe sizesin the project region. Odd sizes
that are not commonly available in the marketplace
and/or are not available cost-effectively should be
avoided. For some odd sizes, steel mills may be able to
provide piping if ordered in quantity, but fittings will
There are numerous design tradeoffs that may be
not be readily available. Since it is common that
considered to reduce distribution pipe sizing and, therefore,
unanticipated fittings are required for piping projects
the first costs and/or operating costs of the
during construction, this could cause significant
distribution system. These choices should be looked at
construction delays.
as investments to improve project life-cycle economics
and enablefuture growth. Some examples are asfollows:
• lowering the distribution supply temperature 6.2 Pumping Schemes
• achieving higher delta T across customer cooling coils
• adding a remote plant or thermal energy storage In the industry, there has been a lot of debate about
pumping and piping schemes used in hydronic system
Table 6-1 illustrates the tons of cooling that can be design. In general, variable primary flow is the growing
47
DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
e2008lnrem,,~'on"l Di~ EnergyAs5ociation. Allrightsteservro.
trend and is considered to have modest energy and with accurate and reliable controls as well as metering
first-cost savings advantages, a smaller footprint and and indication. Operators must be trained to run equip-
someadded control complexity. Primary-secondary system ment properly within appropriate limits.
design is considered reliable, conservative and easy to
operate. This section will highlight some of the main _...- , . . . - . . . . . , - - - -....- - - - - I C H W S
L.......IT€::D-,..L---_------!CHWR
VIS ~umps
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
Cl200lJ Inremab'onal Di5lrid Energy A550darion. Ailright5 reserwd,
The ARTI study excerpt above notes that variable The chiller manufacturer needsto provide the minimum
primary configuration offers greater energy savings to flow requirements for chillers used in variable primary
plants with fewer chillers. It is important to stress the flow applications. Depending on the manufacturer,
significanceof this in the context of large district cooling chiller type and the tube design, this can range from as
system design. Since typical district cooling plants, low as 25% to 60% design flow. Absorption chillers
particularlythose in the Middle East, have a largenumber typicallyhave less tolerancefor variable flow than modern
of chillers in parallel, operating cost savings, on a centrifugal chillers. Chillers used in variable primary
percentage basis,will generally be very small compared flow applications must be designed for rapid response
to individual building cooling plants that may only have to changing flows with microprocessor controls. An
two chillers in parallel. accurate means of sensing flow and load is also
required. Industrial grade magnetic flow meters and
temperature sensors are recommended.
49
· . -- ----- - - _ .
Pump selection takes into account the pressure loss 2. Modest variations in the chilled-water supply
through the chiller evaporator as well as the piping temperature are acceptable - There may be a
network. Typicallythe pumps are installed upstream of temporary rise in supply-water temperature
chillers but can be installed downstream if necessary to leaving the plant as additional chillers are
reduce operating pressure in the chiller evaporator as sequenced in. This is because return flow is
long as suction head at the pump intake is well- circulated through the additional chiller to protect
managed. Flow is introduced through a chiller before it it before it is started. Returnwater blends with the
starts and maintained until it stops. Pumps are leaving water from other chillers.
manifolded, so that they are not dedicated to chillers
and can be staged to operate for the best operational 3. Flow andtemperature measurement equipment is
efficiency. Pump speed should be controlled with accurate - There is less margin for error in a
variable-frequency drives to maintain a minimum variable primaryflow system soflow and temperature
differential pressure at the hydraulically most remote equipment must be regularly calibrated and
points(s) in the system. maintained. Flow meters must accurately measure
low flows to be an effective control input.
50
DISTRICTCOOLING BESTPRACTICE GUIDE
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therefore, is intended to be in the direction from supply It is possible to convert existing primary-secondary
to return as additional chillers are sequenced in and out systems to variable primary flow. In fact, if delta T
of operation. Temperature in the bypass can be used to performance can be improved prior to the conversion,
indicate the flow direction, and a capacity shortfall, to then existing secondarypumps may be suitable without
trigger the start of another chiller. replacement provided consideration is given to pressure
management at the pump suction and to the minimum
An all-variable-speed primary-secondary system as evaporator flow bypass location.
shown in Figure 6-4 is similar to a traditional primary-
secondary system except that the primary pumps are 6,2.3 Distributed pumping
collected together so that any pump can serve any Distributed pumping is a scheme where chilled water is
chiller. In this configuration, chiller flow generally pumped through the district cooling distribution
remains constant butthere is more opportunity to over- piping system via pumps located at individual customer
flow the chillers as necessary. buildings, rather than at a central cooling plant. The
pressure profile for this type of system is opposite that
If delta T islow, it permits variable-speed drives to control of the pressure profile for a system with centralized
primary pumps so that there is always more flow distribution pumping; pressure in the return piping is
circulating in the primary loop than in the secondary higher than the pressure in the supply piping and the
loop. This prevents the secondary pumps from drawing pumps generating the highest head are the ones that
return chilled water into the supply and degrading the are most hydraulically distant from the central plant.
temperature provided to connected customers. It also Generally, this scheme is employed as a primary-
can be controlled to allow extra flow through the chiller secondary distributed pumping arrangement, where
so it can generate more than its design capacity when pumps in the central cooling plant handle in-plant head
entering-condenser-watertemperature is less than design. requirements, with a decoupler hydraulically separating
the plant from the distribution system.
r-r--"'T....([:::)f'-....- - - - - - / C H W S
l -......T-€J>-1.....----o------jCHWR
Themainadvantage of a distributed pumping arrangement
is significantly lower distribution pumping energy.
VIS pumps
Centralized distribution pumps must produce the head
Figure6-4. All variable primary-secondary system. required to serve the most hydraulically distant
customer for the full system flow, with excess head
When to use primary-secondary pumping consumed by customer control valves. With distributed
pumping, on the other hand, distribution pumps at
It may be advisable to use a primary-secondary pumping each customer premises produce the distribution head
scheme when the following apply: and flow requiredto serve only that customer, so there is
no energy wasting consumption of excess head.
1. Chillerscan't handle variable flow - Chillers are used
that can handle only minor flow variations. This The main disadvantage of a distributed pumping
could be the case with absorption chillers. arrangement is lack of flexibility. For a distributed
pumping system to be practical and effective, the
2. Chillers can't handle the pressure - It is a large designer must have a clear picture of what the
system and the pumps are installed upstream of the distribution system will look like over time, so that the
chillers. High supply pressure now or in the future distributed distribution pumps installed at a customer's
will exceed chiller capabilities. building can be properly sized. For most district cooling
systems that build out over time and where the ulti-
3. Loads and flows don't vary - The system has steady mate customer base for the district cooling system is
process loadsor full thermal energy storage. Variable not known in the design phase, a distributed pumping
flow doesn't offer an added energy advantage. system is generally not practical. However, for systems
with well-defined system extents and a low level of
4. Owner values familiarity - The facility owners, uncertainly regarding future loads, it would be prudent
operators, engineers and contractors are far more for designers to considera distributed pumping scheme.
comfortable with primary-secondaryand understand Figure 6-5 illustrates an arrangement where the
the long-term energy and cost implications. customers are directly connected to the system and the
51
DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008 InlemariOJ1al Disrricr Energy AW:Xia~'on. Allrightsre~.
CHWS
improvement opportunities should generally be
investigated first.
f i ~
In most cases, the optimal design for a booster pumping
~@ @
J CHWR
station in the distribution system consists of booster
pumps installed on both the supply and return lines,
Figure 6-5. Distributed primary-secondary system. with identical sizing. The symmetry of boosting pressure
on both supply and return mitigates water hammer
It is also possible to have a "hybrid" system that effects in the event of booster pump trips. Also. this
combines central distribution pumping at the district arrangement typically maximizes the amount of pressure
cooling plant with distributed pumping at hydraulically boost that can be achieved at the booster pump station
distant customer buildings. However, designers should within the design pressure constraints of the system.
be very cautious about attempting to implement such Since booster pumps in the distribution system will be
a system. In addition to the challenges discussed above operating in series with distribution pumps at the
for a "pure" distributed pumping system, a hybrid central plant. the control strategy must be carefully
system introduces the added complexity of having considered so that the arrangement does not result in
centralized distribution pumps at the plant operating unexpected operating conditions or system instability.
in series with distributed pumps at customer buildings.
Unless this type of distribution system is very carefully 6.3 Pump and Pressure Control
designed and managed, with a robust controls system
and experienced operators, this can result in
6.3.1 Distribution pumps
unexpected operational conditions and an unstable
Horizontal or vertical split-case pumps are typically
distribution system.
selected for chilled-water distribution pumps in district
cooling systems, due to their high efficiency, ease of
6.2.4 Booster pumps
maintenanceand cost-effective availabilityin large sizes.
Forvery large distribution systems, or for interconnection
Although inline vertical pumps can reduce plant floor
of multiple subsystems, it can make sense to have
space requirements, among plant operations and main-
booster pumps at a strategic point in the distribution
tenance personnel. selection of inline vertical pumps is
system. Generally, it is impractical to incorporate
generally discouraged, with some of the cited reasons
booster pumps into a looped network; booster pumps
as follows:
are used where a single pair of supply and return pipes
• Bearings are unevenly loaded.
feeds into a given area. Booster pumps allow for
• Greasing iscritical. but difficult do with verticalpumps.
chilled-water transmission further away from a central
• Removing the casing is difficult and can be unsafe.
plant, as an alternative to increasing distribution pipe size.
• Vibration measurement is more difficult.
• Resonance problems are worse.
Booster pump stations can be expensive, especially if a
dedicated facility must be constructed to house the
Distribution pumps should be selected based on quality.
booster pumps and associated equipment, and
reliability and a life-cyclecost analysis that includes first
life-cycle costs should be evaluated carefully. A booster
cost and operating cost at a minimum. Whenever
pump station may be the lower capital cost alternative
versus increased piping cost, but will have increased
pumping energy costs that must be considered aswell.
Very often, it makes more sense to have separate
district cooling systems than to try to interconnect service
areas that have significant distance between them.
52
DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008 Intemabonal District Energy AsWOabon Allrightsreserwd.
possible, any difference in maintenance costs between variable-speed pumps be included in a bank of pumps
different pump selections should be considered in the before adding constant-speed pumps. This way, if one
life-cycle cost analysis as well. of the variable-speed pumps is out of service then the
bank of pumps can still be operated with variable-flow
6.3.2 Variable-frequency drives capability.
For a bank of distribution pumps operating in parallel
on a common header, the energy savings benefit from 6.3.3 Differential pressure control
the useof variable-frequency drives (VFDs) for variable- Variable-speed distribution pumps should be controlled
volume operation is highest for the first pump brought to maintain the minimum required differential pressure
online and successively lower for each additional pump (DP) at the most hydraulically remote customer in the
brought online. Depending on the quantity of pumps in distribution system. The minimum required differential
the pump bank, the energy savingsfrom variable-speed pressure at a customer is the differential pressure
operation of the last pump engaged can be very small. required to maintain valve authority, and therefore
However, for banks of distribution pumps with controllabilityacross the circuit. Fordistrictcoolingsystems
low-voltage motors, installing VFDs on all the pumps is with indirect connections or hydraulically decoupled
best practice in most cases nowadays due to fact that direct connections, this valve (or valves) is located at the
low-voltage VFDs and soft starters have similar costs. customer ETS. For district cooling systems without
Installing VFDs for all pumps in a bank of pumps also decoupled connections at customers, this valve (or
allows run hours to be balanced equally among all the valves) is located at the most hydraulically remote cooling
pumps, and can simplify controls and operation. coil within the customer building.
VFDs for medium-voltage motors are very expensive The amount of pressure drop required to maintain valve
and large. Therefore, in cases where pumps with authority across the critical control valve in the
medium-voltage motors must be used due to plant distribution system will vary according to the amount of
design constraints, or regulations imposed by local flow through (and therefore pressure drop across) the
electrical utilities, it is worthwhile for the designer to critical. circuit. The minimum pressure drop required at
evaluate life-cycle costs to determine the economically times of lower flow, such as part-load times, will be
optimal number of VFDs for pumps in the distribution lower than the minimum pressure drop required at
system bank. This can be especially pertinent to peak flow. Therefore, it is good practice to reset the
variable-flow primary systems, where chiller-loop minimum DPat the critical customer to reduce pumping
pressure drop is added to the distribution-system energy. One common way that this is achieved is to
pressure drop, which may push pumps from low reset theminimum DP based on outside air temperature,
voltage to medium voltage. or simply developing a reset schedule based on
seasonality. More complicated schemes have also been
Regardless of the optimal economic breakpoint, if used, such as resetting the minimum DPbased on valve
variable- and constant-speed pumps are mixed, best position at the critical customer, but such schemes are
practice is to have at least three pumps with VFDs only recommended with an advanced control system
before mixing with constant-speed pumps. A single and experienced system integrators.
variable-speed pump must not be operated with one
or more constant-speed pumps, since this could result
in a situation where bringing on the constant-speed
pump causes the variable-speed pump to back all the
way up on its curve (deadheading), and thus operate at
an unsafe condition.
6.3.4 Pump dispatch
Control of variable-speed distribution pumps is
Two variable-speed pumps can be safely operated with
achieved by increasing or decreasing pump speed to
one or more constant-speed pumps as long asthe control
maintain the minimum DP requirement at the critical
system is (1) sophisticated enough to interlock the VFDs
customer in the system. District cooling plants generally
such that the variable pumps both operate at the same
have several distribution pumps, and some plants may
speed at all times and (2) capable of ensuring that
operate by simply bringing on-line another pump once
when only one of the two variable-speed pumps is in
the running pump or pumps cannot maintain the
service, it is operated only with its speed fixed at 100%.
minimum DP requirement at full speed. This is not an
It is recommended, however, that a minimum of three
optimal way to dispatch a bank of variable-speed
pumps and will typically result in significant energy
waste, dueto pumps operating at inefficient points on
their pump curves. Instead, best practice is for
distribution pumps to be dispatched to minimize power
consumption based on system flow andheadrequirements.
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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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One way this can be achieved is for the designer to distribution pump trips at plants due to power failure.
develop a dispatch schedule for the pumps that seeks Figure6-6 shows an example of a thermal storage tank
to optimize pump efficiency.The first step in developing that is also used formaintaining system pressure. However,
a pump dispatch schedule is to estimate the overall if the thermal storage tank cannot be constructed tall
distribution system curve (plot of flow versus head) for enough to cover static pressure requirements of the
the plant to be dispatched. Using flow and head figures system, then the strong pressure holding of the open
from the system curve and the pump curve (or curves) tank could compound surge effects due to pump trips,
for the distribution pumps, the designer can determine and special equipment such as surge tanks and fast-
closing valves may have to be designed into the system.
6.3.5 System pressure control and Figure 6-6. Thermal storagetank used for maintaining
thermal storage static pressure in system.
A very good arrangement for system pressure control
can be an "open" thermal storage tank (i.e., one that improve system hydraulics dramatically and could allow
is effectively open to the atmosphere), acting as an the designer to reduce distribution pipe sizing in the
accumulator for the system. However, this means of system, or reduce pumping power requirements, or a
pressure control is only optimal if the tank can be combination of the two. Another benefit that open
located at a hydraulically appropriate location in the storage tanks offer is the ability to accommodate large
system and with the right height. If a thermal storage system fillings quickly, while maintaining system
tank can be constructed with a height that is tall pressure requirements.
enough for the thermal storage tank to meet the static
pressure requirements of the highest point in the If an open thermal storage tank cannot be used for
system, then the strong pressure holding of the tank pressure control, then the best arrangement is usually
can protect the system from surge effects in the case of to maintain system pressure requirements via makeup
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C2D08lntemi11i0fli11 Di5trid Energy A550cii1tion. Allnght5 re>erVed.
water pumps feeding water into closed expansion solution for steel piping is a pre-insulated piping
tanks in the system. The pumps add water to increase system. Pre-insulated piping is available from a number
system pressure and a control valve is opened to relieve of vendors and, when properly installed, the use of
system pressure. It is generally good practice to have a pre-insulated piping from reputable vendors can result
small pair of pumps for pressure control and a larger in a contiguous, watertight piping system. Another
pair for rapid supply of water to the system for service substantial benefit to pre-insulated piping systems is
line extensions, refilling lines that have been drained the fact that they are available with integrated leak-
formaintenance and other such operational requirements. detection sensor wires. This type of leak-detection
system, which can significantly enhance system
reliability, is discussed in section 6.4.5. Piping and fit-
6.4 Distribution System
tings are pre-insulated with rigid polyurethane foam
Materials and Components insulation and have a high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
or fiberglass jacketing.
6.4.1 Pipe materials
Welded steel. high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and
Characteristics of the foam insulation are discussed in
ductile iron are the most common piping materials used
section 6.4.4. EitherHDPE or fiberglass jacketsare suitable
in district cooling distribution systemsworldwide. Glass-
for pre-insulated chilled-water piping, but HDPE is usually
reinforced plastic (GRP) is also relatively common in
a better jacketing choice because it is more cost-effective
some markets. Strength, toughness, installation ease,
in most cases and fiberglass jacketing may be prone to
thermal expansion/contraction, availability with
stress cracking due to soil loading if piping is not
pre-insulation, corrosion resistance and contractor
installed properly. As an added layer of protection, the
familiarity are some of the main characteristics of pipe
steel carrier piping may be epoxy-coated prior to
materials that must be considered in addition to cost.
application of insulation and jacketing. This also
protects the carrier pipe from developing surface rust in
Stress analysis may be a necessary step in the chilled-water
high-humidity regions, such as those in the Middle East.
piping system design,depending on pipe material, climate
and piping configuration. System pressures, operating and
Field jointing kits are provided with pre-insulated piping
ambient temperatures, flow velocity, dynamic effects
systems to insulate and jacket the pipe in the field at
(surge), soil corrosivity and reliability requirements should
welded carrier-pipe joints. It is generally recommended
all be taken into consideration in materialselection and pip-
ing system design. Special attention should be paid to joints
and joining processes to ensurereliable chilled-water serv-
ice and avoid-future problems.
Welded-steel pipe
Welded steel is the most common piping material used that field joint kits be of the type that allows for an air
in large chilled-water distribution systems. Steel is the test of the joint jacket integrity before filling with
strongest and most forgiving material under most insulation, which provides assurance that all joints in the
conditions. distribution are watertight. However, joint kits of the type
that do not havean air test, but havea double heat-shrink
sleeveare also suitable, under the following conditions:
• Joint kit shrink sleeves/wraps are made of cross-
linked PE (PEX).
• Sensor wire leak-detection system is installed and
put into operation.
Although welded steel is generally more expensive to • Piping is not installed below the water table.
install than some of the other chilled-water piping
options, its strength, ruggedness, water tightness and Field joints should resist axial movement once they are
higher velocity allowance can justify the higher initial bonded to the pipe jacket. Otherwise, if the bonding
investment and also significantly reduce maintenance force is not great enough, the joint sleeve could shift
costs over the life of the system. With adequate relative to the pipe during thermal expansion/contraction
protection from corrosion, such as watertight jacketing and create and opening for groundwater to penetrate.
of a pre-insulated piping system, it can last indefinitely Resistance of field joints to axial movement may be
when properly designed, installed and operated. Steel reviewed for compliance with relevant industry stan-
piping is readily available throughout the world and in dards, such as EN 489.
a wide range of sizes, ratings and specifications.
As discussed in section 6.4.2, in addition to the pre-
Whenever insulation is required, the recommended insulated piping itself, pre-insulated isolation valves
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C2008lnremaUonal District EnergyAssociaUon. Allrightsreserved.
with weld-end pipe stubs are also available, which protection of the pre-insulated piping system.
allows isolation valves to be direct buried with the same
watertight jacketing as the piping system. All-welded, standard-weight steel piping is highly
resistant to damage from hydraulic shocks and water
External corrosion can occur in steel piping systems hammer due to its very high maximum allowable pressure
from ground water and soil chemicals if a proper rating at chilled-water temperatures and its resistance
corrosion protection solution is not implemented. As to buckling. However, due to the rigidity of steel as a
discussed above, properly installed pre-insulated piping material, the magnitude of surge pressure created due
system can preclude the need for anyadditional corrosion to a given velocity change will be higher for steel piping
protection. For piping systems that do not require in- than for plastic piping such asHOPE or, to a lesser extent,GRP.
sulation, piping can be coated forcorrosion protection.
HOPE pipe
Primarycoating options are fusion-bonded epoxy, fiber-
glass and polyurethane. Steel pipes can also be High-density polyethylene (HOPE) is a plastic piping
manufactured with an outer polyethylene jacket. It is material that has been gaining popularity in district
highly recommended that, in addition to external cooling distribution-piping systems worldwide. It is
coatings, cathodic protection be considered in areas considerably tougher than other plastic piping systems.
where chlorides or sulfates are present in the soil, or It's strong and handles well in the field. It's flexible and
where there are exposed metal surfaces. If a cathodic easy to install, especially when crossing water,
protection system is employed, it must be monitored micro-tunneling or managing numerous bends andoff-
and maintained; this ongoing operating cost should be sets in crowded street conditions.
considered in any economic evaluation of corrosion
protection alternatives. Generally, cathodic protection is The best means of joining HOPE pipe segments for
not required with pre-insulated piping, even below the chilled-water pressure pipe applications is via the
water table, as long as all the external jacket joints are butt-fusion thermal welding process that, when properly
watertight. Internally, steel pipe is not significantly cor- executed, creates a joint as reliable and strong as the
roded by clean, treated chilled water. pipe itself for all pipe sizes. Electo-fusion couplings can
also be used to join HOPE pipe segments, but should
Since steel pipes expand and contract with significant only be used for smaller sizes where the joint created
temperature gradients, stress analysis is generally will be as strong as the pipe itself. Joints also can be
recommended for chilled-water systems in areas that flanged when fusion is impractical or at the interface
experience very high ambient temperatures, such as the with a piping system of a different material. The
Middle East, especially for systems that will be installed distribution system designer should carefully consider
in the summer or have long, straight runs of piping. the local conditions and should only select HOPE if
Most chilled-water systems with frequent directional trained and experienced personnel will be available
changes will not develop stresses that exceed code who are familiar with its installation. For these con-
limitations. However, if a system has long, straight runs tractors, HOPE is relatively flexible and easy to install
of piping, then high stresses may be developed at and can prove more economical than welded steel
directional changes, especially at branch take-offs near piping in manysituations, especially for smallerpipe sizes.
the ends of such runs. This should be analyzed to
determine if anchors or special branch take-off
configurations are required to maintain stresses below
code requirements or if foam pads should be installed
at directional changes to accommodate pipe movement
and relieve stresses.
HOPE is virtually immune to internal and external
If a pre-insulated piping system is used, it is important corrosion but may be susceptible to embrittlement and
to ensure thatthecarrier piping, insulation and jacking loss of stress resistance with strong oxidizing chemicals.
are all permanently bonded to each other. The bonding It is electrically non-conductive and immune to stray
strength should be strong enough to ensure the current attack. Though HOPE is a poor heat conductor,
system moves together as a single unit and may be the piping itself does not have very significant insulation
reviewed for compliance with industry standards, such value. For example, the insulating value of a nominal
as EN 253. If the carrier piping is not bonded to the 600 mm (24") dimension ratio (OR) 17 pipe with 50
insulation and is able to move within the insulation or mm (2") of polyurethane insulation is 24 times that of
jacketing with thermal expansion/contraction, then the pipe by itself. Therefore, for a piping application
insulation at elbows could be damaged. In the worst where insulating isappropriatefor other piping materials,
case, the jacketing could be torn, allowing ground such as steel, it is unlikely that selection of HOPE as the
water into theinsulation and compromising thecorrosion piping material will allow insulation to be avoided.
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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However, HDPE piping is available pre-insulated with water, such as a river or channel. with chilled-water
polyurethane insulation and an outer jacketing as distribution piping. Corrosion isn't an issue, and the
required for local thermal conditions. That said, the smooth surface of HDPE piping discourages algae,
economics of HDPE pipe versus steel pipe are more barnacle or limpet growth when in contact with fresh-
attractive for HPDE when insulation is not required, water and seawater. Pipes are quite flexible and can be
since uninsulated HDPE does not require pipe coatings produced in very long lengths or fused together on land
or cathodic protection, even when buried inaggressive and floated out into the body of water for deployment.
soil conditions. The pipe bed will often be dredged and a minor cover
applied to the pipes. If the bottom is muddy or soft it
In smallersizes, pre-insulatedHDPE pipe isavailable in the can be enough just to sink the pipes to the bottom and
Gulf region in coils of up to 200m of pipe. This can they will soon be covered by mud. If larger boats or
significantly reduce the number of field joints required, ships are crossing the pipe route it may be prudent to
making installation more cost-effective. Piping of this type cover the pipes with macadam, gabions or something
is ideal for small chilled-water service linesto customers. similar. The location of the pipe crossing should be
distinctly displayedand identified on local marine charts.
HDPE pipe wall thickness is designated by a dimension
ratio (DR) number, which is the ratio of the pipe'soutside Care is required when pressure testing HDPE, and
diameter to the pipe's wall thickness. The pressure rating manufacturer's instructions should be followed closely.
of HDPE pipe is dictated by a combination of the DR, HDPE pipe exhibits a relatively rapid radial deformation
safety factor and material class (PE 80 or PE 100). rate initially, followed by a slower and more constant
Thicker walls relative to steel reduce the carrying deformation rate over time. As the pipe expands the
capacity for a given nominal pipe size and velocity, but pressure decreases and more water must be pumped
a lower friction coefficient reduces the pressure drop. into the pipeline to maintain pressure. Also, when
With large pipe sizes, such as those over 400 mm to pressure testing HDPE piping, the relationship between
600 mm (16-24"); higher design pressures; and systems temperature and pressure rating must be considered
requiring a large number of fittings, HDPE can become and the test pressure adjusted accordingly. This can be
prohibitively expensive. In addition, large pipe requires especially important to consider in hot climates like the
large fusing equipment that can make jointing in Gulf region and for sections of piping that are exposed
trenches difficult or impractical. In these situations, it to direct sunlight.
may be sensible to have a hybrid system with both
HDPE piping and steel piping, joined with flanged steel- Ductile-iron pipe
to-HDPE couplings.
Ductile-iron pipe and fittings are generally more
Thermal expansion coefficients are significantly larger expensive than steel piping, but the overall installation
for HDPE than metal pipe and other types of plastic cost is often less than welded steel due to ease and
pipe, so expansion and contraction must be considered speed of installation. The interior of ductile-iron piping
during installation. Smaller-diameter pipes can usually is typically mortar-lined, which provides a smooth,
be buried in a "snaked" arrangement to provide corrosion-resistant interior to the pipe. This mortar
adequate allowance for thermal movement. For larger lining, however, is subject to erosion at higher fluid
piping where this is not practical, careful consideration velocities, so ductile-iron pipe is subject to velocity
must be given to contraction issues, which can be min- limitations. The traditional push-joint (bell-and-spigot)
imized with anchors, especially at building, chamber designfor ductile-iron pipe is more susceptible to leakage
and manhole walls. Pipe installed on the surface or in due to construction practices, misalignment, thermal
unprotected trenches mayrequire extensive anchorage expansion/contraction and pressure surges. The push-
to ensure the movement is controlled when exposed to joint installation is also an unrestrained jointing, which
the sun. requires thrust blocks to restrain the piping at directional
changes. Ductile-iron pipe is also available with a
Due to the fact that HDPE material can undergo defor- lugged mechanical pipe joint design that is more
mation slowly over a considerable period of time, rugged and leak-tight than push jointing. The lugged
flanged HDPE connections may requiretightening during ductile piping installation is also more expensive than
the initial months following installation to preventleakage. push joints, but is a restrained system that does not
Forthis reason, whenever practical, flanged HDPE joints require thrust blocks.
should be installed so they are accessible by maintenance
personnel. If flanged HDPE joints cannot be made A common misconception is that ductile-iron pipe is
accessible, then it is recommended that flanges with a inherently corrosion-resistant. Ductile-iron pipe can
higher pressure classthan the pipe be installed. have a very long useful life when installed without
corrosion protection in non-corrosive or very mildly
HDPE is an excellent material for crossing a body of corrosive environments. However, without proper
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008 International DistriCl Energy Association. All rightsreservrod.
corrosion protection, ductile-iron piping installed in which may be unacceptable to some system owners
corrosive soil is susceptible to pitting corrosion and from a reliability perspective. Also, if the GRP piping is
microbiologically enhanced corrosion as well (e.g., joined using laminated joints (layup joints), this type of
sulfate reducing bacteria), which can result in an jointing requires controlled conditions and skilled
unacceptable useful life and/or reliability. personnel.
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DISTRICT COOUNG BESTPRACTICE GUIDE
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Consider different material if customers should have isolation valves, with the optimal
o flexibility to increase system design pressure in the location for these valves typically being just inside the
future is desired, customer building wall. If distribution system
o piping network requires a large number of fittings development or expansion is to be phased, isolation
and valvesat the connection point between the phases may
o the region has low labor costs. be prudent.
As a baseline, a distribution system should have isolation Use of direct-buried isolation valves in an underground
valves at all major branch points. Service lines to chilled-water piping system allows for the elimination
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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008 In!emarional District Energy A55ocia~'on. Alln'ghtl' fe5efVed.
One disadvantage to pre-insulated, weld-end ball valves Direct-buried valves can be installed with mechanical
for direct burial is that they get very large and expensive actuation via a shaft extended to the surface directly
in the large pipe sizes. Weld-end, metal-seated butterfly above the valve stem/gearbox. This is the most typical
valves can be also be pre-insulated and direct-buried and cost-effective solution for actuation of direct-
and are a more economical alternative to ball valvesfor buried valves. Figure 6-9 shows a partial installation of
large pipes [e.g., more than 600 mm (24")]. However, this type.
with metal-seated butterfly valves, shutoff may not be
as tight, and there is a risk of debris collection at the Another solution that is available is a hydraulic actuation
seat impeding shutoff. Figure 6-8 shows a weld-end, system. This system can be used when it is a priority to
metal-seated butterfly valve before pre-insulation. get the access point to the valve actuator out of the
street. With this system, hosesfrom hydraulic actuators
Another disadvantage to direct-burying valves, of on the valves can be run to a pit or cabinet located off
course, is that if there is a problem with the valve, the of the street so that operators do not need to disrupt
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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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Cost considerations
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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
e2008lnremationalDistrict Energy Am>da~'on. Alln'ghrs reserved.
Whenever possible, the life-cycle cost of the isolation supply insulationkitsfor branches that can be installed over
valve installation should be considered, including the welded type of hot tap, such that a contiguous water-
maintenance and replacement costs for valves and tight pipe jacket can be maintained at the hot tap branch.
chambers.
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DISlRlCT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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2. Prepare heat-gain calculationsfor each pipe material customers. When usingthe heat-gain analysis to evaluate
to determine if annual energy and peak capacity the acceptability of supply temperature rise, the
loss economically justify insulation. designer should consider
• contractual customer supply-temperature require-
3. Use heat-gain analysis to evaluate supply-water ments,
temperature rise against customer supply-temper- • the supply temperature required to maintain
ature requirements throughout the year. customer comfort and
• impact of increased supply temperature to utility
Estimated ground temperatures at various bury depths ton-hour sales.
and times throughout the year can be calculated using
mean annual ground temperature and surface temperature In addition, the designer should consider that the optimal
amplitude figures. Figure 6-12 is an example of results operation of some of the technologies used in district
of these calculations. cooling systems, such asdeep water cooling and thermal
storage, may be sensitive to degradation in supply
When considering whether insulation is economically temperatures.
justified, the designer should consider both the energy
cost of thermal losses throughout the year and the It is useful to highlight the fact that temperature rise is
capital cost of lost capacity at peak times. If considering generally less significant in larger piping due to smaller
a steel distribution piping system, only the marginal surface area relative to pipe volume and higher veloci-
life-cycle cost of pre-insulated piping over the cost of ties. Conversely, temperature rise can bequite extreme in
coated piping and/or cathode protection should be smaller-sized piping - particularly at part-load operation.
considered, . since properly installed pre-insulated Therefore, even if economics don't justify insulation,
piping system from reputable vendors precludes the often times it is still necessary to insulate smaller supply
need for other means of corrosion protection. lines. Figure 6-13 shows an example of calculated supply
temperature rise along the chilled-water piping path
Even if insulation is not economically justified on the from a cooling plant to a customer interconnection, at
basis of thermal losses, insulation may be required on part-load service and illustratesthe dramatic difference in
certain pipes to limit supply-temperature rise to temperature risefor smaller pipe versus larger pipes.
40 Pre-insulated piping
38 --l__L insulation considerations
36
The insulating material for all
34 pre-insulated piping for
buried chilled-water applica-
s... 32
tions is polyurethane foam,
! 30 but the properties of the
~ 28 polyurethane foam can vary
•
0. 26 __ ~ u _
significantly. The polyol and
E
J! 24 ---:_-!---!1' :/ isocyanate components of
the insulation are fairly stan-
dard among manufacturers
22
and do not have a significant
20
impact on the foam's insulat-
18 Ad. ing properties.
16
,
c;
, • ,> ,, -, c, > ,e However, the choice of blow-
c•
~ 0
~
••
Ii ~
0
" u, ~ < ~ -s
" ~ 0 z -s
ing agent (the gas that fills
Month ofYear
the foam's hollow cells)has a
--x--- Surface -.- 0.6 mBury Depth direct effect on insulating
-x---1.5 mBu De lh ......e---3.0mBu Delh
value and aging of the pipe.
Figure 6-12. Example of estimated average ground temperatures at various depths. HCFC-141b has the best
63
DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008 Intemaliooill Di5!rict Energy Awxiilli'on. Allrights reserved.
5~ 0.90 f-
pipes
/ process used to produce the
pre-insulated pipe can also
*- Insulation on pipes /
.E 0.80 less than 450mm impact the quality of the pip-
e
~ 0.70
--+ Pipes less than 450mm
/ ing. Insulation that is spray-
applied is preferable to
~ 0.60
/ injected, as it has more uni-
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
&1ergy A5locIation. All ngh~ le5erved
e2008l1tema~OnaJ lliInct
on the pipe well in advanceof the carrier pipe corroding Listening rods or aquaphones are used to listen for leak
to the point of potential failure. sounds at any accessible contact points with the pipe,
such as in valve chambers, or within customer ETS
rooms. Acoustic leak instruments can listen to flow
noise through sensors coupled to a pipe magnetically or
mechanically. Leak noise is transmitted through the
pipeline either as a pressure wave through the water
or conducted through the wall of the pipe itself, and
can be transmitted over long distances. Pipe leaks also
In the early years of their development these types of induce vibration in the soil that is transmitted to the
leak-detection systems, initially used on district heating surface which can then be identified using a ground
systems, gained a bad reputation for false positive microphone, but only within close proximity to the leak.
alarms on chilled-water systems. These bugs were
worked out and today the systems are used success- Typically a leak is initially identified using a listening rod
fully in chilled-water systems, provided they are prop- or aquaphone at an accessible, but remote, contact
erly installed and maintained. This type of system point and then pinpointed using a ground microphone.
should only be considered if the district cooling owner Use of manual listening devices is straightforward, but
is committed to closely monitoring the distribution the effectiveness of this method is highly dependent on
system contractor's work to ensure that the leak-de- the user's level of experience. Leak noise correlators are
tection system is implemented and documented prop- sophisticated portable devices with microprocessors
erly. Accurate record keeping iscriticalto operation of the that can automatically detect a leak and access its lo-
leak-detection system, and it is in the owner's interestto cation. Acoustic data loggers can be used in conjunc-
make sure the installation is properly documented before tion with leak noise correlators to remotely record leak
the piping is buried and inaccessible. Due to the special- noise data as it occurs.
ized nature of these systems, whenever possible, con-
tractors with experienceinstalling them should be used. Metallic pipes transmit leak noise over long distances
very effectively, so it may be possible to locate leaks
with only leak noise correlation at a remote contact
point, without the use of ground microphones. Non-
metallic pipes do not transmit water-leak noise as well
as metallic pipes and will generally require more ground
microphone readings in between pipe contact points.
For district cooling systems installing new distribution Software-based leak detection
systems utilizing pre-insulated steel piping, installing a
sensor-wire leak-detection system is recommended, due If the physical leak-detection systems described above
to its accuracy and its capability to giveearlywaming when cannot be used, one other possible solution for leak
the pipe jacket has been breached. detection is a software-based solution. Real-time
hydraulic modeling software linked with a district cooling
Acoustic leak detection utility's SCADA system can compare actual SCADA data
to model results in real time to determine the approximate
This method of leak detection is done with acoustic location of a leak in the system. However, this technology
leak-detection sounding equipment. This acoustic is still being refined and at this time can only detect
equipment includes listening devices such listening leaks of substantial magnitude, and the accuracy of the
rods, aquaphones (or sonoscopes) and geophones (or leak detection will be highly dependent on the accuracy
ground microphones). Acoustic equipment also of flow and pressure measurements from the utility's
includes leak noise correlators. SCADA system.
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DISTRICT COOLING BESTPRACTICE GUIDE
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1. Chilled-Water Plants
This chapter provides an overview of the key topics engines, combustion turbines, steam turbines or a
related to design of large district cooling plants operating combination of technologies, as discussed below.
in a Middle Eastern climate:
.chilled-water production technologies Like centrifugal pumps, an impeller provides the force
.thermal energy storage (TES) to compress the refrigerant vapor. Centrifugal chillers
• plant configuration can use single-stage or multiple-stage compressors.
• major chiller components With multiple-stage compressors the efficiency can be
• refrigerants improved through the use of inter-stage economizers.
• heat rejection Compressors can be either open or hermetic.
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DISTRICf COOLING BEST PRACfICE GUIDE
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provide the lift to move the refrigerant from the requirement remains the same while the load is
evaporator to the condenser. The lift required decreased; thus, efficiency is poor when hot-gas bypass
determines just how slow the impeller can be rotated. is used for capacity control.
Lift is the pressure difference between evaporator and
condenser, and since the refrigerant is operating at the Meeting low loads
saturation point, the lift is directly related to the corre-
sponding temperature difference. When the impeller It is not uncommon that a large plant is envisioned, but
speed has been reduced as much as it can, further in the early years must supply only a fraction of the
capacityreductionsare made usingthe inlet guide vanes. ultimate load. The question then is how to meet low
loads, particularly in these early years of operation.
Variable-speed drives on chillers can dramatically
improve part-load efficiency, but this is primarily Some people believe that a pony chiller (small chiller)
because ECWTs are typically lower than design ECWTat should be incorporated into the design for this purpose.
part-load operation. VSDs on chillers are not especially However, in general, there usually are few systems that
helpful to efficiency for part-loaded units operating at havea small enough load initiallyfor this to be considered;
design ECWT. VSDs on chillers also do not appreciably inthese cases, theloads exist only fora few seasons.
improve how much chillers can be unloaded.
With current technology and controls, chillers can be
SinceVSD chillers allow for more efficient operation of operated down to loads in the range of 15% to 20%
chillers at lower ECWT than chillers without VSDs, it of full load. Also, variable geometry diffusers (VGD) can
can be very advantageous to include VSDs on some significantly reduce compressor noise at low-load
chillers in a large central plant, even though individual operation. With optional hot-gas bypass, a chiller can
chillers in large central plants are rarely operated at be operated down to 10% load or even all the way
lightly loaded conditions. Low-voltage VSDs are very down to 0% load depending on bypass valve size.
economical and can also be unit-mounted on smaller However, as noted above, when hot-gas bypass is used,
chillers. Medium-voltage and high-voltage VSDs are the chiller efficiency is poor. With hot-gas bypass the
very expensive, cannot be unit mounted, and take up chiller will operate with lower efficiency, but with
considerablespace. Also, some system operators report consistent loading. In contrast, with on/off cycling there
that medium-voltage VSDs are not as reliable as is more wear and tear onthechiller. Given theimportance
low-voltage VSDs. of efficiency and the fact that with district cooling
chillers need not be cycled frequently, specifying chillers
If space is available for VSDs, then the cost of the VSDs with hot-gas bypass is usually not required or
must be weighed against chiller energy savings on a recommended.
life-cycle cost basis. It is important to stress that a
life-cycle cost exercise is required to determine the For district cooling systems that have such small loads
quantity of VFDs that are appropriate for a given appli- in the off-peak season that one chiller cannot operate
cation, especially for medium- or high-voltage chiller at a low enough loading (generally systems in their
applications. For the more cost-effective low-voltage early years that are under-subscribed), a common strat-
chillers, there may be an economic payback to putting egy is to operate the chillers at a higher load by
VSDs on most of the chillers in a district cooling plant, "subcooling" the chilled-water distribution loop and
and it could even make sense to put VSDs on all chillers then shutting the chiller down and using the thermal
to be able to balance run times. For medium- and high- inertia in the distribution system to meet the load.
voltage chillers, however, it may only make economic Using this strategy a chiller would typically be operated
sense to put VSDs on one or two chillers; additional for an hour and then shut it off for three hours. It is
VSDs must be carefully evaluated. important that if this strategy is used, the district cooling
provider should beconscious of customers' requirements
regarding supply temperature and supply-temperature
variations. It also would be advisable to inform the
customer about this operating scheme - or potential
operating scheme - preferably through contractual
terms with the customer.
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DlSTRla CaaUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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eengine-driven chillers using reciprocating gas or is drawn to the absorbersection by the low pressure
diesel engines or gas turbines; and resulting from absorption of the refrigerant into the
• direct-fired natural gas absorption chillers absorbent. Cooling water removes the heat re-
(double-effect). leased when the refrigerant vapor returns to the liq-
uid state in the absorption process. The diluted
Technologies for indirectly producing cooling with solution is circulated back to the generator.
natural gas include • Solution heat exchanger - The heat exchanger
.engine power generators feeding electric chillers; transfers heat from the relatively warm concentrated
egas turbine power generators feeding electric solution being returned from the generator to the
chillers; absorber and the dilute solution being transferred
.boilers with steam turbine chillers; and back to the generator. Transferring heat between
.boilers with steam absorption chillers, including the solutions reduces the amount of heat that
single-effect and double-effect. has to be added in the generator and reduces
the amount of heat that hasto be rejected from the
In addition, there are integrated technology systems absorber.
that combine multiple types of drives and chiller
technologies. These approaches can optimize cost-
effectiveness, increase energy-efficiency, promote
operational flexibility and enhance the ability to deal
with uncertain future costs of natural gas and electricity.
Forexample, engine-driven chillers could provide base-
load chilled-water capacity, with peaking provided by
electric centrifugal units. In addition, waste heat from
engine-driven or turbine-driven chillers could be
recovered to drive absorption chillers.
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.higher heat rejection (cooling tower load) than cen- double-effect. absorption chiller selected for design
trifugal chillers, conditions of.4.4 ( (40 f) CHWST and 35 C (95 F)
.larger space requirements (about 40% largerfoot- ECWT, the loss in capacity is abouf40% compared with
print than electric chillers of the same capacity) and nominal ARI conditions of 6.1,C (44 F) CHWST and
.extremely high installed cost per ton of cooling ca- 29.4 C (85 F)ECWT. For example: to meet a cooling load
pacity. of 1000 tons at theseconditions. the absorption chiller
must be sized for 1667 nominal tons, 67% higher than
In addition, absorption chillers require an extremely the design cooling load. ',.-
low-cost heat source to be potentially economically viable.
Sinceabsorption units are not well-suited for low supply-
temperature production and undergo a substantial
derate to do so, it may make sense to develop a plant
configuration where absorption chillers are installed in
series with centrifugal chillers, which are better suited
for producing low supply temperatures. In this config-
uration, chilled-water return water would be partially
cooled by absorption units first and then cooled down
to design supply temperature by centrifugal chillers.
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a wide variety of manufacturers. One manufacturer on the type of fuel used and generally can be made to
makes units as large as 3300 tons (at ARI conditions). comply with local regulations. Exhaust after-treatment
options are available to further reduce the stack
Operating costs emissions if required.
Operating costs are primarily related to the cost of Keytechnical considerations for an engine-driven chiller:
generating heat used to drive the absorption cycle. In
addition, higher operating costs are incurred due to the • Ventilation air is required to provide combustion air
increased electricity, water and water treatment chemical as well as remove the heat radiated by the engine
consumption associated with higher condenser cooling and exhaust stack. It is important to maintain proper
requirements. Maintenance costs depend on howthe ventilation air to the machine room to maintain
unit is loaded and operated but, generally, maintenance combustion, efficient engine operation and to
costs for absorption chillers are similar to those for protect eledronic components and equipment.
electric centrifugal units.
• Fuel supply piping should be designed to provide
the required quantity of fuel at the required
7.1.4 Engine-driven chillers
pressure. Natural gas engines' pressure require-
Engine-driven chillers (WCs) are vapor-compression
ments can vary from 0.5 to 50 psig depending
chiller systems using a reciprocating engine instead of
on engine type and size.
an electric motor to rotate the compressor shaft. They
are typically provided as a packaged system with the
• The exhaust system should be designed to
compressor and engine closelymatched and optimized
remove the products of combustion as well as
to maximize performance. Engine-driven chillers use
reduce engine exhaust noise by installing a muffler
variable-speed engines to maintain high efficiency
or silencer. Manyexhaust heat-recovery systems are
through all operating ranges. The EDC provides the
designed to also act as silencers.
highest fuel-to-cooling efficiency of any chiller (COP =
1.5 to 1.9). Efficiency can be further enhanced by
.Sound attenuation is required for most plants
adding engine heat recovery to drive absorption chillers
and generally consists of baffles, insulation and
or provide domestic hot water.
enclosures.
Important issues such as costs, space, exhaust stack
.Vibration isolation is required to prevent engine
venting, vibration, noise, maintenance and environ-
vibration traveling through piping and floors and to
mental emissions need to be addressed to provide a
prolong the life of the equipment. This is normally
highly efficient and reliable chiller system. Engine-driven
accomplished through the use of spring isolators
chillers are considerably more expensive than electric
mounted to a steel frame.
motor-driven chillers, and they also require more space.
The WC is a combustion system and therefore requires 7.1.5 Combined heat and power (CHPJ
fuel supply, combustion-air supply and exhaust There are also integrated technology systems that
removal. It also requires heat removal from the engine combine multiple typesof drivesand chillertechnologies.
(which can be used to drive absorption chillers or These approaches have the potential to increase
provide heating), vibration control and sound attenuation energy-efficiency, promote operational flexibility and
around the engine and in the stack. If engine heat is enhance the ability to deal with uncertain future costs
recovered and used (for example to drive absorption of natural gas and electric energy. Depending on price
chillers), the rest can be rejected to the chiller cooling factors, they also can improve cost-effectiveness. Of
tower by slightly increasing its size (about 10% com- particular note is the potential for cogeneration or
pared with electric centrifugal chillers). combined heat and power (CHP).
Engine-driven chillers are generally employed where For example, one configuration is a central electrical
there is insufficient electric infrastructure orwhen electric combined heat and power plant consisting of reciprocating
power costs are high compared to natural gas or oil engines with heat recovery driving single-stage
costs. The major costs to operate an WC are made up absorption chillers. The electrical power generated
of fuel and maintenance. Maintenance is significantly would be used to supply large package electric motor-
more expensive and requires more specialized expertise driven centrifugal chillers. The concept of this plant
than for an electric chiller. configuration is shown in Figure 7-2.
Engine-driven chillers consume fuel directly on site to A similar concept using combustion turbine CHP is
generate cooling and thereby create emissions at the illustrated in Figure 7-3.
site. Emissions associated with the engine are dependent
70
DISTRlcrCOOLING BEST PRAcrlCE GUIDE
e2008lntemauonalDistJiet Energy A5sociau'oll. All rightt reS<'rved.
..
Ambient Air
To Electrlc~
Chiller
Figure 7-4 illustratesan example of cooling loads during
a peak day in the Middle East, showing how TES can
shift cooling loads from on-peak to off-peak periods.
Cooling energy can be stored during the night for use
during the peak-load period. In this example, there is a
potential 20% reduction in peak power demand via
utilization of load-leveling thermal storage, when
Steam-Turbine
Drive Chiller compared to operating only chillers to serve the load,
Steam and a similar reduction in the required installed chiller
plant capacity. This is a representative value for Middle
East district cooling systems serving a mixof customer
Figure 7~3. Turbine-based CHP with electric and steam types (office, residential, hotel, retail, etc.).
turbine-drive chillers (courtesy York/Johnson Controls).
100%
7.1.6 Choosing chiller type in the Middle East
90%
r: '/ -,
~ ::;; ::;:;
/\
With relatively low power prices currently prevailing in '0 ./\
the Middle East, electric-driven centrifugal chillers are
•0 80%
very cost-competitive. The high capital costs of
-'
~
•~
70%
1% ~ t::1 rf TES DlsJarge --' :d/ -::0
I~
absorption chillers, particularly with the capacity
derate requiredat regional ambient designtemperatures,
a.
'0 60% I'< ~ I'---... _T'
/
'$.
make them an uneconomical choice. Natural gas 50%
engine-driven or turbine-driven chillers are potentially
competitive depending on natural gas costs, electricity 40%
tariffs and chiller load factor. o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
"Time of Day (hr)
Most promising are hybrid configurations in which the I --Peakdayloadprofile - - Averagedallyload
natural gas-fired chillers are installed for a portion (e.g.,
50%) of the installed plant capacity, with the balance Figure 7-4. Load-leveling potential with thermal energy
being electric-driven centrifugal chillers. In this case, the storage.
natural gas engine-driven chillers would be operated
71
DISTRlcr COOUNG BEST PftAcrlCEGUIDE
Cl2008lntemationa/ DiWkrEnergy AssocialiOl1. Alln'ghrs ~.
7.2.1 Thermal energy storage (TES) types fluid storage provides colder supply, but requireschillers
to operate at lower temperatures. Also, unless the
Chilled-water thermal energy storage low-temperature fluid is also used in the distribution
system, heat exchangers and pumps are required to
Chilled water is the most common and simplest form of isolate the low-temperature fluid system from the
TES, using concrete or steel tanks to store chilled water chilled-water distribution system.
at 39 F to 42 F (3.9 C to 5.6 C) that is generated with
conventional chillers. Under normal conditions a 7.2.2 Thermal energy storage benefits
chilled-water storage tank is always filled with water.
During discharge, cold water is pumped from the bottom Peak-load management
of the tank, while an equal amount of warm return
water is supplied to the top of the tank. Due to the One of the key benefits of TES is a reduction in electrical
different densities for water at different temperatures, demand at peak-load conditions. This is especially
a stable stratification of layers of water can be obtained. important in dense urban areas where the electrical
distribution grid is capacity-constrained. Thermal
Where space is cost-effectively available for chilled- energy storage is charged at night when the electrical
water storage,the economies of scale for this technology load in the grid is reduced. Off-peak charging is
can provide significant economic advantages over ice important to electricity producers whosee variations in
storage. real-time generation costs, even when they sell power
at a flat rate.
Icethermal energy storage
In markets where there are time-of-use rates, peak
Ice generation and storage is a well-developed power "ratchets" or wholesale power purchasing by
technology, and allows storage in a more compact large district cooling providers, there can be large and
space - oftena key issue in urban environments where direct economic benefits to district cooling providers
land is expensive. Ice is blended with chilled water to implementing TES. Although this is typically not the
produce a chilled-water supply temperature typically in case in the Middle East, the economics of power
the range of 1.1 C to 4.4 C (34 F to 40 F). The volume generation will ultimately result in some type of
required for ice storage is 15% to 25% of the volume premium on power during peak-load periods. In addition,
required by chilled-water storage for the same energy by reducing the peak electrical demand, less efficient
storage capacity. Ice storage provides an opportunity electric powerproduction facilities may remain offline,
to reduce the distribution supply temperature, increase thereby reducing fuel use and emissions of air pollution
the delta T, and thereby reduce distribution and ETS and carbon dioxide. For those district cooling providers
system costs. with on-site CHP or power generation, implementing
TES provides a large economic benefit by reducing the
District cooling with ice storage can also reduce capital amount of installed generation required.
and operating costs in customer buildings. Colder
chilled-water supply makes it possible to supply colder Energy efficiency
air to satisfy the cooling load. Colder air requires less air
flow, smaller fans and reduced duct space in customer There are numerous opportunities to improve on-site
buildings. Colder air could also cause condensation on energy efficiency with TES. Chillers (and their auxiliaries)
ductwork, so it must be done with caution, especially may beoperated in a narrow output range to maximize
for existing buildings that were not initially designed their efficiency. Nighttime operation, depending on the
for colder supply air. When implementing ice storage, climate, can rely upon cooler condenser-water temper-
the economic advantages must be weighed against the atures to reduce chiller lift and minimize the kW/ton of
higher capital and operating costs for ice-making chilled-water production.
equipment relative to water chillers alone.
With ice and low-temperature fluid storage, chilled-
Low-temperature fluid thermal energy storage water supply temperatures can be reduced, enabling
higher distribution system delta T and less pump
Low-temperature fluid storage uses additives in chilled energy consumption. When colder supply water is
water to enable storage at temperatures in the -1.1 C provided to buildings, it can enable colder air production
to 2.2 C (30 Fto 36 F) range. Like chilled-water storage, to reduce airvolumes and fanenergy consumption as well.
low-temperature fluid TES is sensible cooling and does
not undergo a phasechange. However, low-temperature Capital avoidance
fluid TES, with its lower supply temperature and larger
Delta T, requires a somewhat smaller tank volume than TES should be considered early in the design processto
doeschilled-water TES. Likeicestorage, low-temperature minimize capital investment. Thermal energy storage
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02008 Il1tefmO'onal Di,1;rict El1ergy Assaooo'on.Alll1gh~ reSf'l'lled
used for load-leveling can reduce the necessary TES tank in operation with a six-hour discharge rate and
installed chiller plant capacity and also provide for an 8.9 C (16 F) design delta T. Thermal energy storage
redundancy requirements. A remote and unmanned capacity is reduced with low delta T performance and
"satellite" chilled-water storage facility may be installed enhanced with high delta T.
in a growing system to serve more load without
increasing the size of buried pipes or distribution pumps Siting
at the main chiller plant. Chilled-water storage can also
double as fire protection and could even serve as a All large-scale district cooling TES technologies require
water reservoir for cooling tower makeup. Ice or a tank. Volume requirements are higher for chilled-
low-temperature fluid can be used to lower the supply- water and low-temperature fluid storage than for ice
water temperature and raise the delta T, enabling the storage, but the footprint can be minimized with a tall
use of smaller pipes and pumps. tank if it is feasible relative to the site (See Figure 6-6 in
Chapter 6 for an example of a tall chilled-water TES
Operational flexibility tank). A large delta T will also reduce the TES tank
footprint for a given tank height. Tanks are made of
Another significant TES benefit is increased operational concrete and steel and can be above ground, below
flexibility. Thermal energy storage helps facilitate chiller ground or partially buried. Round tanks are generally
maintenance, even during high-load conditions. most cost-effectivefor chilled-water and low-temperature
Storage plus emergency pump power enables service fluid TES. Ice TES tanks can be round as well, but are
even after an electrical power outage. A TES tank could often rectangular when space is at a premium, since
also be used to provide fire protection water and this allows coil density to be maximized. Ice storage
emergency condenser water or chilled-water makeup. requires a physical location that is relatively near the ice
production chillers. In contrast, chilled-water storage
7.2.3 Thermal energy storage challenges tanks may be located at a remote location in the
distribution system, far away from chillers.
Sizing
Forthe large-scale TES usedin districtcooling applications,
It is generally not practical or cost-effective to size a TES tanks are almost always atmospheric tanks (versus
district cooling system for full TES. Full storage enables pressurized). Therefore, it is very important to give careful
the system to deliver the peak load with the storage consideration to tank height and the location of the
capacity alone. Partial energy storage usesthe storage tank hydraulically in the system. If an atmospheric TES
capacity to supplement chiller operation. Since there tank must be located at a geographic low point in the
are typically very few hours at peak load during the system and/or cannot be constructed tall enough to
year, even a partial storage system may be operated as meet the system'sstatic head requirements (dependent
full storage for much of the time. on customer ETS or building elevation), then pressure-
reducing valves may be required on the tank return.
The capacity of both chilled-water and low-temperature These pressure-reducing valves waste energy, and this
fluid systems is directly proportional to the delta T arrangement can also make thesystem more vulnerable
performance. As an example, Table 7-2 illustrates the to water hammer. Ideally, the TES tank would be
capacity of a 10,221 cu m (2,700,000 gal) chilled-water located at a geographic high point in the system or
constructed tall enough that the system's static pressure
requirements are met without the need for pressure-
Delta T in Energy Load Capacity reducing valves. However, the designer should be
Operation Capacity, Capacity, vs. Design cautious that TES tank height and location does not
ton-hr tons result in a significantly higher static pressure than the
deg C deg F (6 hours) system requires, othervvise distribution pump head may
56 10 18,750 3,125 63% be unacceptably limited, or a higher pressure class
required for the distribution system.
6.7 12 22,500 3,750 75%
7.8 14 26,250 4,375 88% The static pressure issues discussed in the previous
8.9 16 30,000 S,OOO 100% paragraph are avoided if the TES tank is isolated from
10.0 18 33,750 5,625 113% the chilled-water distribution system via heat exchangers,
11.1 20 37,500 6,250 125% but this solution results in increased capital cost for
12.2 22 41,250 6,875 138% exchangers and additional pumps, increased pumping
energy and increased supply chilled-water temperature
13.3 24 45,000 7,500 150%
due to approach acrossthe heat exchangers. However,
Table 7·2. Impact of delta T in operation on chilled-water this solution can be attractive for low-temperature fluid
storage capacity. TES, since it precludes having to use low-temperature
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02008 InremariOOilI Disrricr Energy Association. Ailrights noservro.
fluid throughout the distribution system. It is useful to evaporator and condenser-water circuits running in
note that the chemical investment required to enable opposite directions (counterflow). This configuration
low-temperature operation is partially offset by the reduces the lift between the evaporator and condenser,
supplemental benefit of chemical treatment provided thereby reducing the amount of work done by the
by the low-temperature fluid. chiller compressors, as illustrated in Figure 7-5. A
series-counterflow arrangement enhances chiller
Timing performance and can improve overall chiller plant
efficiency. However, it is important to note that the
To capture the greatest benefit from an investment in energy savings from increased chiller efficiency is
TES, it is imperative to assess the benefits and costs typically partially offset by the increased pumping
early in the design effort. Low-temperature supply power required.
water or a hydraulically strategic TES tank location can
reduce distribution pipe size requirements. However, Condenser
~
once the chilled-water piping is procured or the
footprint is allotted for the plant, it may be too late to
take advantage of all of the significant capital and/or Compressor
operating cost savingsthat are possible with TES. Also, Lift
~------'----
whenever possible, the cost-benefit of TES should be
evaluated before customer contracts are signed and
new customer buildings are designed to take full Evaporator
advantage of the benefits of low-temperature supply
water to customer buildings. Single Chiller
Redu-ct;Cio-n+---~
Lift
chance to implement TES tanks with optimal dimensions
and at optimal locations. Lift
Evaporato"'r- " - - ' - - -
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02008 /11 tern,; rionalDf5triet fna-gy Assodalion. All right>reserved.
10 chillers at 2000 tons each 5 chillers at 4000 tons per pair Open drip-proof (ODP) enclosures are the
2-pass evaporator 1-pass evaporator standard motor enclosure suitable for most
13.3 C (56 F)entering 13.3 C (56 F) entering industrial applications. Cooling air enters
4.4 C (40 F) leaving 4.4 C (40 F) leaving through louvered openings, passes over the
Flow: 189 lis (3000 gpm) Flow: 379 lis (6000 gpm) rotor and stator, and exitsthrough the open-
Pressure drop: 3.45 m (11.6 ft) Pressure drop: 4.14 m (13.6 ft) ings in the sides of the frame. This open
2-pass condenser 1-pass condenser enclosure design should not be selected for
33.9 C (93 F) entering 33.9 C (93 F) entering outdoor installations, or wash-down areas.
39.2 C (102.6 F) leaving 39.2 C (102.5 F) leaving These motors will typically meet an 85 DBA
sound-level requirement. All heat from the
Flow: 379 Ilw (6000 gpm) Flow: 757 Ilw (12,000 gpm)
motor is rejected into the room or
Pressure drop: 6.25 m (20.5 ft) Pressure drop: 7.32 m (24.0 ft)
surrounding area.
Table 7.3. Inputs to series-counterflow example.
Weather-protected type II
(WP-II) is an open enclosure
designed for use in adverse
Savings (cost) 15-yr present value at 10.5% outdoor conditions. The air
kWh/yr at US$.03/kWh at US$.04/kWh at US$.05/kWh intake is in the top half of the
motor to minimize entrance
Chiller 1,267,058 $281,052 $374.736 $468,420
of ground level dirt or rain.
Condenser -476,721 ($105,744) ($140,992) ($176,239) The air passage includes
Evaporator -172,984 ($38,370) ($51,160) ($63,951) abrupt 90-degree changes in
Net Savings 617,354 US$136,938 US$182,584 US$228,230 direction plus an area of
reduced velocity to allow solid
Table 7-4. Performance results for series-counterflow example. particles or moisture to drop
out before the ventilating air
summarized in Table 7-4 and show that the power contacts active parts of the motor. Virtually all particu-
consumed by the series-counterflow chillers (compres- lates except for super-fine dust are eliminated. WPII
sors) is substantially less than the parallel chillers, but the motors are typically 2-3 DBA quieter than ODP motors,
additional pumping power required due to higher and all heat from the motor is rejected into the room
pressure drop across the condenser-water and chilled- or surrounding area.
water circuits is a significant offset to the savings in
chiller power. Totallyenclosed water-to-air-cooled (TEWAC) enclosures
isolate all critical motor components from the
It is common to consider a series-counterflow pair of surroundings. They can be used indoors or outdoors and
chillers to be one production unit, rather than two in clean or dirty environments.TEWAC enclosures include
separate production units. It is often sensible to omit a water-cooled heat exchanger mounted in the top
bypasses around each of the chillers in the series- portion of the motor to cool the recirculated ventilating
counterflow pair. Bypasses add cost and require more air. Motor heat is conducted away by circulating water
space, and failure modes where flow could not still be and not by discharged air. TEWAC motors will require
pumped through the chiller tubes - even if the chiller is some heatexchanger maintenance to maintain optimum
not operating - are uncommon. Also, regular performance, and the heat exchanger must be
maintenance that does not allow flow though the constructed to resist ambient conditions that could cause
chillers, such as tube cleanings and overhauls, can be corrosion. Heat from the motor is' rejected into the
scheduled for off-peak times when both chillers in the cooling water rather than to the room.
pair can be taken out of service. Thus, bypasses are
generally not justified for chiller plants that have many Totally enclosed air-to-air-cooled (TEAAC) enclosuresare
series-counterflow chiller pairs in parallel, such as the similar to the TEWAC in that the enclosure also isolates
large tonnage plants that are typical in the Middle East. critical motor components from the surroundings. The
enclosure uses a top-mounted air-to-air heatexchanger
7.4 Major Chiller Components where external airis drawn in by a shaft-mounted fan.
The air is forced through the cooling tubes at high
7.4.1 Motors velocity to promote efficient cooling and cleaning of the
This section addresses options for motor enclosures, tubes, A TEAAC motor tends to be noisier than an ODp,
costs for standard- and inverter-duty motors and motor WPII or TEWAC motor. Typical sound levels are around
efficiency. 90 DBA. Unless the motor heat is ducted outdoors it is
rejected intothe room or surrounding area.
75
DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008lntemariOOilI District Energy A5s0ciariOfl, AllrighlJi re:;ervro.
120% ,,%
~
l100% +--------,rr------1
r~ 50%
~
;§ 80% +-----;o=;_~
ii 40%
C
". +---1 J 30%
~
•
a
E
i
40%
'0%
t----IJ--
1 20
.... 10%
%
5 0%
~
0%
2000hp 700 hp 450 hp 160hp ODP WPII TEWAC TEMe
Motor size (hor"poWflr) Motortyptl
I.wp II .TEWAC STEAAC OTEFC I .2000hp .700hp s4S0hp D150hp
Figure 7-6. Enclosure premiums above open drip-proof. Figure 7-7. Inverter-duty motor cost premium.
Totally enclosed fan-cooled (TEFC) enclosures are often premium rangesfrom about 10% at 2000 hp to more
supplied on smaller motors for compressors where than 40% for 150 hp motors.
isolation of critical motor components from the
surroundings is required. Due to the cooling fan the Motor efficiency
sound levels can be 90 DBA or above unless lower
levels are specified. All heat from the motor is rejected Motor efficiencies typically run from 95.5% to 96% for
into the room or surrounding area. the larger motors to 94.5% to 95% for smaller motors.
Efficiency tends to remain fairly flat to 50% load.
Standard motor enclosure costs Figure 7-8 graphs motor efficiency versus load for the
four sample motor sizes.
The premium for enclosures that provide better
protection of the motor from the ambient conditions 98
ranges rather dramatically as shown in Figure7-6 (note 97
that 150 hp motors are not available in TEWAC and
TEAAC). It should also be noted that the values
graphed represent only the cost premium associated
-96
~
i;' 95
.. . - - . . . .. . .
~
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corrosion-resistant enough
Motor dimensions in feet (L x W x H)
to be suitable for reliable,
Enclosure long-term service as a chiller
2000 hp 700 hp 450 hp 150 hp
Type condenser-tube material
ODP 62"x30"x29" 34"x30"x29" 44"x21 "x22" 39"x21 "x22" when using seawater. Cop-
WPII 64"x30"x54" 56"x30"x54" 48 " x42 "x48" 42"x32"x36" per-nickel 70/30 offers sea-
water corrosion resistance
TEWAC 64"x30"x54" 56"x30"x54" 48"x42 "x48" N/A
that is far superior to 90/10-
TEAAC 64"x30"x54" 56"x30"x54" 48 " x42 "x48" N/A copper-nickel and may be a
TEFC 106"x42"x85" 62"x36"x32" 56"x30"x34" 44"x21 "x22" suitable chiller tube material,
Motor weights in pounds but it is critical to have a cor-
rosion specialist conduct a
ODP 9600 3700 2350 1350 corrosion analysis using sea-
WPII 10,600 4500 3200 1900 water samples from the in-
take area. For some areas,
TEWAC 11,400 4500 3200 N/A
such aspolluted harbors with
TEAAC 11,400 4500 3200 N/A especially aggressive seawa-
TEFC 15,000 10,200 4600 2400 ter, copper-nickel 70/30 may
not be an acceptable selec-
Table 7-5. Example dimensions and weights of motor types. tion. Titanium is the best
tube material for seawater
advantages of high-voltage rnotors are that applications and is virtually immune to corrosion, but it
• soft starters may not be required, is the also the most expensive alternative. Major chiller
estep-down transformers may not be required, manufacturers are still evaluating the super-ferritic
.space for electrical equipment is reduced, stainless steel alloys that are being proposed by tube
etransformation losses are reduced and manufacturers to assess their impact on chiller effi-
e plant efficiency is increased. ciency. These super-ferritic tube materials have a lower
first cost than titanium, but also have a bigger impair-
In circumstances where the electric utility only provides ment to chiller efficiency than titanium as well.
medium-voltage power, it is important to verify restrictions
on ampere draw and to assess the need for soft starters. Table 7-6 showsthe levelof seawater corrosionresistance
and the approximate performance degradation for var-
·7.4.2 Heat exchanger materials and design ious tube material alternatives(and indicatesif efficiency
Today's centrifugal chillers almost always come with reduction figures are for internally enhanced or inter-
enhanced copper tubes for the evaporators and nally smooth-bore tubes). The costs for thesealternative
condensers. However, depending on the water quality, tube materials have been highly volatile over the past
it may be necessary to consider alternate materials and several years based on supply and demand, and have
smooth-bore tubes. This is true for condensers and seen enormous increases sincethe year 2000. Between
especiallytrue when the coolant is seawater from direct 2005 and 2008 quotes for chillers outfitted with tita-
cooling or seawater cooling towers. When seawater is nium condenser tubes and tubesheets compared to
used for condenser cooling, copper tubes are not
appropriate and tube rnaterials that better resist the
Seawater Approximate
corrosive nature of seawater must be selected. The Condenser Reduction
Corrosion
traditional alternatives are titanium or copper-nickel Tube Material in Chiller
Resistance
alloys, and recently special super-ferritic stainless steel Efficiency
alloys are being proposed. All of these alternative tube
Copper (enhanced) N/A 0%
materials are not as efficient in transferring heat as
(Base)
standard copper tubes, which results in less efficient
chiller operation, to varying degrees. CuNi 90/10 (enhanced) Somewhat
Resistant -3%
CuNi 70/30 (enhanced) Resistant -6%
CuNi 70/30 (smooth) Resistant -8%
Super-ferritic SS (enhanced) Highly
Resistant -10%
Titanium (enhanced) Immune -9%
Copper-nickel 90/1 0 has been used in the past for heat Table 7-6. Corrosion-resistance and performance of con-
exchange applications using seawater, but is not denser tube material options.
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choice for small cooling systems (residen- Condenser Flow - 3 gpm/ton Condenser Flow - 2.3 gpm/ton
tial and light commercial) for more than
5 chillers at 4000 tons per pair 5 chillers at 4000 tons per pair
40 years. Currently many major HVAC
manufacturers use R-22 in the majority of 1-pass evaporator 1-pass evaporator
the systems they build. However, use of 13.3 C (56 F) entering 13.3 C (56 F) entering
this refrigerant in new equipment will be 4.4 C (40 F) leaving 4.4 C (40 F) leaving
banned in 2010. R-123 is also an HCFC,
but it faces a longer-term schedule for Flow: 379 lIs (6000 gpm) Flow: 379 Vs (6000 gpm)
phaseout. Pressure drop: 4.14 m (13.6 ft) Pressure drop: 4.14 m (13.6 ft)
t-pass condenser l-pass condenser
Even though HCFCs are considerably
33.9 C (93 F) entering 33.9 C (93 F) entering
safer for the environment (at least 95 per-
cent less damaging to the ozone layer 39.2 C (102.6 F) leaving 40.8 C (105.4 F) leaving
than CFCs), they still have an adverse ef- Flow: 757 lIs (12,000 gpm) Flow: 582 Vs (9231 gpm)
fect on the environment. Pressure drop: 7.32 m (24.0 ft) Pressure drop: 5.09 m (16.7 ft)
HFCs (halofluorocarbons) currently have Table 7·8. Inputs to low condenser flow example.
no phaseout requirements under the
Montreal Protocol. HFCs are targeted for reduction As part of the MOP-19 agreement, developed countries
under the Kyoto Protocol because of their GWP, but (Article 2) will phase out all new equipment using
there are currently no specific phaseout dates for HFCs HCFCs (including HCFC-l23) by 2020 instead of 2030,
under the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol, a treaty the previous deadline. The new agreement also calls for
that came into force on February 16, 2005, was rati- reduction steps of 75% in 2010, 90% in 2015 and
fied by most industrialized countries with the notable allows 0.5% for servicing chillers during the period
exceptions of the United States and Australia. Gulf 2020-2030.
countries such as Qatar and the UAE have ratified the
Kyoto Protocol, but Bahrain is currently not a partici- As of 2008, no specific phaseout dates have been
pant. The Kyoto Protocol specifies reduction targets for established under the Kyoto Protocol for HFC-134a, and
emissions based on a GWP-weighted basket of six spec- it is likely that production will be allowed for another 20
ified gases or groups, which include HFCs. HFCs are a to 30 years. For all HFCs and HCFCs it is likely that the
small fraction of the total emissions, but are the com- refrigerant quantities needed to service both HFC and
ponent that is increasing the fastest. HCFC chillerswill be available for at leastseveral decades
beyond existing or proposed phaseout dates.
Figure 7-9 illustrates the comparative environmental im-
pact of various old refrigerants (CFC -11 and CFC -12) 7.6 Heat Rejection
and the recent replacement refrigerants (HCFC-123 and
HFC-134a) that are now being used. The data indicates This section includes condenser and cooling tower
that HFC-134aand HCFC-123 are more environmentally issues as they specifically relate to large district cooling
friendly refrigerants than R-22. plants in the Middle East:
• overview of condenser cooling options
While there is scientific justification for the current .optimum entering condenser-water temperature
regulatory reprieve for HCFC-123 and HFC-134a (under .cooling tower considerations
the Kyoto Protocol), the political and economic aspects .condenser-water piping arrangement
are hard to predict. The 19th Meeting of the Partiesto
7.6.1 Overview of condenser cooling options
the Montreal Protocol (MOP-19) on substances that
Heatgeneratedfrom the chilled-water production process
deplete the ozone layer concluded with a historic
must be rejected from the chiller condenserto the outside
agreement to accelerate the phaseout date of
environment - to the atmosphere or a river, lake or sea.
manufacturing equipment using hydrochlorofluorocarbons
The proper selection and control of the heat-rejection
(HCFCs) by 10 years.
equipment is a significant
component of district cooling
Savings (cost) lS-yr present value at 10.S%
plant operating costs. Heat-re-
kWh/yr at US$.03/kWh at US$.04/kWh at US$.OS/kWh jection systems in the Middle
Chiller (925,124) ($205,206) ($273,608) ($342,010) Eastare typically basedon one
Condenser 1,535,855 $340,675 $454,234 $567.792 of the following types:
• cooling towers with
Net Savings 610.732 US$13S,469 US$180.626 US$22S.782
potable water for makeup
Table 7-9. Performance results for low condenserflow example (3 gpm/ton V5. 2.3 .cooling towers with
gpm/ton). seawater for makeup
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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temperature
When determining the optimum condenser flow rate, Figure 7 M10.
Counterflow cooling tower.
the impact on the chiller must be weighed against the
impact on the condenser system and cooling tower.
Moist,Warm
Common practice inthe past was to size the condenser Air Out
system based on 3 gpm/ton condenser-water flow,
equivalent to approximately 5.3 C (9.5 F)riseacrossthe Warm Water In
condenser. Current trends are to use a larger con-
denser-water delta T. A larger condenser-water delta T Distribution
increasesthe power required by the chiller, but results Basin
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DISTRICT COQUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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81
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For multi-cell towers, common in large district cooling The function of the equalizer line is to allow flow by
plants, the cells should be connected together with a gravity from one basin to the next to maintain equal
headeron both the supplyand return sides with isolation basin water level. Since the head created by differences
valves to separate the sections. This design approach in water levels between basins is the only motive force
enables future expansion of cooling tower capacity that creates flow through the equalizer line, it is critical
when buildout is phased in to match the system load. that the equalizer line is sized large enough that
To minimize cost, butterfly valves are typically used on pressure drop in the line is minimal. The equalizer line
the cell supply lines. These valves can be used for should be sized to handle 15% of the design flow rate
balancing, although "high-performance" butterfly for each cell,with the pressure lossthrough the equalizer
valves would serve this function better than" standard" piping at this flow rate not exceeding the water level
butterfly valves. The supply valvesshould be fitted with difference between normal operating water level and
electric motor actuators so they can be opened and tower overflow. The recommended approach is to
closed automatically when the cell is operated. install equalizer lines external to the tower. Tofacilitate
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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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maintenance on a cell while the others are in operation, 7.7.1 Water supply
each branch of the equalizer line to a basin should have Water is required for the distribution network (primarily
a manual isolation valve. the initial filling and, infrequently, makeup) and for
condenser cooling. Generally, potable water from
7.6.4 Condenser-water piping arrangement municipal water mains is used inthedistribution network,
In large district cooling plants, pumps can be connected although it is possibleto use softened ground water.
to condensers in two arrangements:. One is to have
one pump for each condenser as shown in Figure 7-14, District cooling systems can use a variety of options for
and the other is to connect the pumps to a header and cooling the chiller condensers, but generally water-
then to the condensers as shown in Figure 7-15. cooled systems using cooling towers are used. A variety
of sources can be used for makeup water for cooling
In both arrangements, as a chiller comes online another towers, including:
pump is started. The advantages of arranging the opotable water,
pumps in a header are that any pump can supply any oground water (may be brackish),
chiller and a backup pump can be provided, usually at otreated sewage effluent (TSE),
less cost than when one pump is dedicated to a specific oseawater used for tower makeup directly and
condenser. The header arrangement is particularly • seawater or brackish water treated using reverse
advantageous when the towers and pumps are located osmosis or other desalination technologies.
remotely from the chillers. Additionally, with a header
system it can be possible to reduce the number of Seawater can also be used in a "once-through"
pumps; for example, one pump could serve two tower arrangement, where seawater is passes directly through
cells. However, each pump would require variable- chiller condensers for heat rejection and cooling towers
speed drives and the condensers would require flow are not used.
control valves to maintain a constant differential
pressure across the condenser. On a practical side, the With water supplies becoming scarcer worldwide,
pumps may become so large that the number of especially in arid areaslike the Middle East, district cooling
suppliers might be so small that bidding may not be operators are obliged to consider all supplies that are
competitive. In addition, the motor efficiency and available. When considering alternative supplies it is
horsepower may not be acceptable. worthwhile to consult with a water services provider
who has working experience of the particular sources
7.7 Water Treatment being considered.
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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mixed-use development that includes office, retail and 4. Pipingand condenser-tube materials must be capable
residential. Since offices generate less wastewater than of withstanding the aggressive nature of seawater. For
residential buildings, for example, if office space is piping, this means using non-ferrous materials such as
developed first, then there could be an imbalance since the glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) and high-density
available TSE is not sufficient for cooling tower makeup. polyethylene (HDPE). For the condensers, this means
using special tube materials (such as titanium,
A second challenge is competition with other usesfor super-ferritic stainless or copper-nickel alloys), specially
TSE, which in the Middle East is primarily irrigation. If clad tube sheetsand internally coated water boxes.
the development plans to use TSE for irrigation then it
is possible that no TSE would be available for cooling 5. Biological activity must be controlled. The sea is a living
towers, or the quantity might be so small that it isn't fluid that changes seasonally and can experience
worth pursuing, or the excess might not be available blooms of algae or sea creatures such as microbial
until the later construction phases. mollusks.Typically, seawater must be chlorinated to kill
the biological growth and to maintain cleanliness in the
In addition, TSE quality is not predictable and can create piping and condensers. The required water treatment
problems in the tower and condenser system. Recent can lead to environmental concerns. The conventional
experience has found that significant levels of algae treatment chemical is sodium hypochlorite (bleach),
grow in TSE storage tanks, which therefore require usually generated from seawater on site. Also, seawter
more frequent cleaning and increased levels of chlori- velocity should be maintained above 1.8 m/s (6 ftls)
nation. Chlorine is aggressive to some metals, including inside the chiller condenser tubes to avoid fouling
stainless steel fasteners used in cooling towers. Also, buildup.
sulfates present in TSE are aggressive toward copper,
which is commonly used in chiller condensers. If the 6. A final concern is control of suspended biological
TSE quality is poor, special tube materials like super-fer- material and silt/sand particles that may result from
ritic stainless or titanium maybe required. turbulent seas or land reclamation activities. The plant
must have intake design, filtration equipment and
With good quality water, i.e., low in dissolved minerals, material selections to accommodate anticipated
cooling towercycles of concentration can beincreased. seawater intake material loads, and land reclamation
Experience with TSE indicatesthat cycles of concentration activities may need to be monitored by the district
must be reduced to about 2.5, which results in more cooling utility to ensure acceptable loading levels are
waterconsumption because more water is blown down. not exceeded.
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.supervise and report on the pre-cleaning process as contaminants, such as sand, dust, soot, insects and
well ascommissioning of all equipment; debris, which are all scrubbed into the condenser water
obe prepared to commit to a minimumof 12visits per at the cooling towers. These contaminants will increase
year, duringwhich the tests listed in Table 7-10should the chemical demandandfoulingfactor, reduce the cool-
be carried out and reported in writing; ing system efficiency, shorten the equipment lifespan and
.formally train site personnel insimple monitoring tests increase energy costs. This is of particular concern inthe
and problem-solving techniques; Middle East. where the level of sand and dust in the air
ocheckrecords produced by site personnel; can be significantly higherthan other locales.
oconducttwice yearly tests for Legionella (it would also
be wise to carry out independent tests on Legionella); There are several mechanical filtrationsystems available to
• carry out corrosion coupon readings with the stan- effectively remove suspended solid contaminants. There
dards shown in Table 7-11; are also two basic approaches to cooling tower water
oconduct depositanalysis as required; and filtration,full-flow filtration andsidestream filtration. With
oimplement quarterly review meetings to highlight full-flow filtration, the filtration equipment is installed in
problems and set timetablefor improvements. the primary flow path, and the entire system flow is
strained continuously. With sidestream filtration, only a
7.8 Balance of Plant portion of the water is pumped continuously from the
cooling tower sump by means of a bypass filtration
Balance of plant means components otherthanthe major system and returned back to the cooling tower sump.
mechanical and electrical equipment. This section Sidestream filtration is not aseffective as full-flow filtra-
addresses the following topics: tion, but full-flow filtration is not cost-effective for the
opiping design for condenser water very high condenser-water flow rates of large district
• sidestream filters cooling systems.
.cooling towerbasin sweepers
.transformer room cooling Sand mediafilters and cyclone separators are commonly
.equipmentaccess used as a sidestream filtration. Sand filtersare the more
• noise and vibration effective filtration method, but require a larger footprint
and consume backwash water during their automatic
backwash cleaning cycle. Cyclone separators are a less
7,8,1 Piping design for condenser water
effective filtration method but have a smaller footprint
The two choices for piping material are welded steel or
and require no backwash. Cyclone separators canalso be
glass-reinforced plastic (GRP). GRP isalso known as fiber-
used as a full-flow filtration.
glass-reinforced plastic (FRP). Although steel is tougher
and morefamiliar to many mechanical contractors, GRP Typically, sidestream sand filtersare sized to continuously
merits consideration because it is lighter and easier to filter the cooling tower basin water inventory at a rate
install and is resistant to corrosion. Ifthe condenser water equivalent to about 3% to 5% of the total circulation
pH ismonitored and controlled in applications using steel flow rate through tower. In contrast, cyclone separators
pipe, corrosion should not be a problem, but using GRP are typically sized to circulate about 10% to 15 % of sys-
offers a corrosion-free solution. tem flow. Both systems can be used with sweeper jets in
the basin to keep the basin floor cleaned and minimize
The supporting requirements for GRP are significantly manual cleanings. However, if the sweeper jet option is
different than for steel. Concentrated loads must be selected, it is important to get expertadvice on its imple-
avoided, thus saddles should be used to spread the mentation and operation at the design stage.
weight from clevis or roller hangers over a greater area;
for larger pipe, the distances between supports should In general, the designer's decision whetherto select sand
be shortened to achieve the same level of support. GRP filters or cyclone separators is based on a variety of
issusceptible to ultraviolet damage and sunlight-induced factors, with primaryconsiderations, including
biological growth, sooutside GRP pipingmustbe painted ospace availability,
or covered. To avoid potential water hammer issues, • cost considerations,
water velocity should be kept below 3 mls (10 IVs) and osizes and characteristics of particles requiring filtra-
the friction coefficients appropriate for pipingandfittings tion and
should be used. Using lower velocities can reduce the • acceptable level of maintenance requirements.
flow imbalances induced by non-symmetrical piping
arrangements. Using lower velocities also results inlower The experience of districtcooling plant operators in the
pressure drops and, in turn, less pumping power. Middle East has suggested that sidestream filters in the
chilled-water system have limited utility after the
7.8.2 Sidestream filters commissioning and initial operating phases. However,
Water treatment programs can control dissolved solids, most experience has been with systems using indirect
but cannot remove suspended solids. Air contains solid customer connections. When customers are directly
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Removal of particles lighter than water Very low efficiency of removal. Light High efficiency in removing Iighterl
(floating particulates) particles will tend to pass right through. floating particulate.
Susceptibility to fouling by oil or grease Presence of oil or grease does not affect Oil and grease will foul media.
performance.
Positive media filtration Does not use centrifugal forces to Silica sand forms 1a-micron pockets
remove particles. that trap particles in the media bed.
Centrifugal forces Uses centrifugal forces to cause particulate None; uses positivemedia filtration.
to spin out of suspension.
Pressure drop across unit Pressure drop across separator isconstant Pressure drop across sand filter will
at specific flow rate. Pressure drop across increase as media bed becomes full of
separator unit will not increase aspurge debris. When differential across vessel
chamber becomes full of debris. Separator reaches 16-psi differential,the pressure
will just pass debris ratherthan removing. switch will initiate backwash.
Full-flow application Best application for cyclone separator as Normally not recommended for sand
pressure dropacross unit isconstant. filter, aspressure drop across vessel
increases asunit becomes dirty.
Drainsize required Minimal quantity purged. In general, size Needs to be sized to accommodate 3
the sanitary drain to equate to the size of minutesof backwash at design flow
the purge valve; for example, 1" for 1", rate. If drain available is not big enough,
consider using holding tank.
Purge or backwash water recovery Bag filter can be plumbed into separator Bag filter can be plumbed into backwash
purge outlet,with outlet of filtertypically outlet. Need to size bagfilter to accom-
plumbed to suction side of the pump. modate size of backwash. Advantage is
Advantage iszero water loss. Disadvantage zero water loss. Disadvantage is regular
isregular bagcleaning. bag cleaning - even highermaintenance.
Frequency of filter media replacement If used, backwash water recovery bags Silica sand usedshould last 5-6 years.
will last6-12 months. Sand may need replacing earlierif oil-
fouled or biologicallyfouled. If used,
backwash water recovery bagswill last
6-12 months.
Required maintenance Lower maintenance due to fewer moving Potentially highermaintenance with sand
parts. If skid packages chosen, pump filter skid. In addition to pump seals,
seals, pump motorsand auto-purge pump motors and media pack needing
valves mayneedreplacement overtime. replacement, the valves, linkage, timers,
valve actuatorand pressure switchmay
need replacement overtime.
Footprint of skid plus flexibility of design Footprints of skid systems with flow rates Sand filter skid packages with flow rates
9.5 Vs (150 9pm)andhigher, the separator of 9.5 Vs (150gpm)andhigher tend to be
tendsto be significantly smaller in size. larger andheavier (due in partto weight
Also, the separator can be configured of filter pack). As an example, a 63.1 lIs
from a vertical profileto a 22-1/2 degree (1000 gpm) sand filter system could be
profilewherethere is height limitation 5-6 times the size of a similarseparator.
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connected to the districtcooling distribution system, side- how chiller motors and compressors will be removed if
stream filters may be useful. Since the district cooling and when that becomes necessary.
company has little or no control over the customers'
piping, contamination from the customers' sides is a It is generally difficult to justify the costs of 3-degree
concern and sidestream filters maybe appropriate. movement bridge cranes. Instead, 2-degree movement
monorails often provide the mostappropriate facilityfor
7,8.3 Cooling tower basin sweepers maintaining and movingheavy loads, provided the space
Although coolingtower basin sweepers have been used is clear to get the component from the operating
successfully in many North American and European position to the floor for subsequent replacement or
installations, experience has shownthey offer little bene- repair. Therefore, it is important to keep the hoisting
fit in the Middle East, wherethe primary "contaminant" pointsabove equipment components clear Lighting isim-
is the extremely fine sand that so often blows through portantfor maintenance, but lights (orcable trays) should
the area. Much of thisfine sand isonlystirred up by basin not be placed in the way of the hoists. Likewise, pipingto
sweepers and requires manual removal from the basin. the chillers also must not encroach into the access
Also, manual labor costs are much lower in the Middle removal areas or prohibit component removal.
East than in North America and Europe, making manual
basin cleaning more cost-effective. During design, it is also importantto anticipate the need
for removing components from the cooling tower.
7.8.4 Transformer room cooling
Although transformers are efficient, theydo give off heat- Lifts (elevators) facilitate movement of thetools, equipment
- as much as 0.8% of thetransformer rating. This heatmust andsupplies required for maintenance andcan be consid-
be dissipated in some fashion. If the transformers are ered an elementin the planthealth andsafety program.
located outdoors, then they are cooled using natural
convection. However, when the transformers are located
7.8.6 Noise and vibration
Since districtcoolingplants are oftensited in densely pop-
inside rooms, the heat must be removed mechanically.
ulated areas of high-value real estate, understanding and
Ventilation cooling and air conditioning are the two
controlling sources of noise and vibration are fundamen-
mechanical options available for cooling transformer rooms.
tal tasks for the districtcooling plant design. Increasingly
common is integration of the district cooling plant with
After the transformer heatgainisdetermined, ventilation other building uses, so controlling noise and vibration is
cooling air flow can be calculated for various levels of critical to maintaining positive public relations with the
temperature rise. Since transformers are derated at higher other "tenants."
ambient temperatures, it is important to understand the
tradeoff between the volumes of air circulated (size of The appropriate strategy depends on the specific plant
air-handling units)and the possible derating of the trans- configuration, proximity to neighbors, site conditions and
formers. Additionally, the large volumes of air that have local codes or ordinances. To set the proper framework
to be moved require large openings, and if noise emis- from which to assess noise and vibration, thedistrict cool-
sion is a potential issue, these openings will require sound ing company should engage an experienced acoustics
attenuation. Additionally, since dry-type transformers are consultant to document background noise levels and to
less efficient with dust on them, it is important to recommend control strategies.
thoroughlyfilter the outside air.
Theacoustics consultant commonly will have datafor the
Air conditioning canbesupplied using chilled waterfrom various noise sources; however, the analysis will be im-
the districtcooling plant. Equipment sizes will be much proved if actual sound dataisavailable for the equipment
smaller compared to the ventilation fans, and it will be proposed for the plant.The potential sources of noise and
easier to mitigate noise problems; however, thetons used vibration include
to cool the transformer rooms will not beavailable to sell .chillercompressors and motors;
.chilled-water pumps & motors;
to district cooling customers, sothe life-cycle cost of using
.condenser-water pumps and motors;
air conditioning will be significantly greater than using
• noise generated from water flowing through piping,
ventilation cooling. especially from cooling towers where towers are
located above other "tenant" spaces;
7.8.5 Equipment access • cooling tower fans;
Designers know to provide clear space to pulland replace .cooling tower water falling through fill materials;
evaporator and condenser tubes, but similar care should .auxiliary mechanical equipment;
be provided for other equipment likepumps, air-handling .control valves;
units. motor control centers, etc. Asexamples, the design • main electrical power transformers; and
engineer should consider how pump cases will be • emergency power generators.
removed from large horizontally split case pumps and
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The acoustics consultant will establish sound level criteria Normally the study would confirm that over-current
and propose strategies for reducing noise to meet the protective devices are capable of interrupting the
criteria. These strategies might include maximum-available fault currents, andsince this depends
ohigh-density wall and floor construction, on the utility impedance values, it is important to start
osound reduction at all wall and floor penetrations, discussions with the electric authority very early in the
osound-rated door and frame assemblies, design process.
esound-attenuated ductwork penetrations,
osound-attenuated piping penetrations, 7.9.2 Protective device coordination study
oacoustically efficient selection of mechanical equip- The main objectives of the protective device coordination
ment and methods of installation study are to prevent injury to personnel. minimize damage to
o mechanical piping and ductwork insulation with system components and limit the extent and duration of
sound transmission barriers and/or service interruption due toequipment failure orhuman error.
• equipment inertia bases. The results of the coordination study will determine settings
for protective devices to trip in the desired sequence during
afaultcondition. This tripping sequence, inturn,isolates the
7.9 Electrical Systems
faultarea from the remaining portions of the powersystem,
thusminimizing plantoutages.
Proper electrical design has always been important in
district cooling plants, and as equipment sizes and
Short-circuit studies determine withstand ratings (thefault
voltages increase, it becomes even more critical that
current level which a device can safely handle for a
design is comprehensive and thorough. Because of the
defined time without failing) for electrical equipment. If
critical nature of electrical design and hazards, the design
rule-of-thumb values are used with the idea that the
engineer rather than the contractor should be responsible
contractor will to perform the final calculations, it is
for electrical design. If the contractor desires to change the
possible the electrical equipment, which tend to be long-
design, those changes or deviations should be reviewed,
lead items anyway, will be delayed even longer as the
evaluated and approved by the design engineer.
contractor and owner settle why the contractor's offer-
ing must be differentfrom the design engineer's rules of
Engineers should perform such critical studies as the thumb. To avoidthis confrontation, the design should be
oshort-circuit study, completed by the design engineer.
• protective device coordination study and
oarcflash hazard study. 7.9.3 Arc flash hazard study
The main objectives of the arcflash hazard study are to
7,9,1 Short-circuit study determine the necessary flash-protection boundary
Short-circuit studies determine the magnitude of currents distances and incident energy to determine the minimum
flowing throughout the power system at various time personal protective equipment (PPE) requirement. The
intervals aftera "fault" occurs and at various locations in results of the arc flash study can be used to reduce the
the plant. The output of the study PPE requirement, since adjustments to reduce the arcfault
oidentifies whether the system and equipment can conditions will result in reduced PPE requirements. It is
withstand the available fault current; expected that the outcome of this study, when imple-
ospecifies the ratings of the equipment; and mented, will result in mostCategory 4 PPE requirements
• describes conductor construction, lengths, and being decreased to Category 1 or 2.
reactance to resistance (XlR) ratios, transformer
impedances, ratings, wiring connections and short- For further informationon arcflash studies please see the
circuit protective device ratings. Appendix C.
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the system.
• Ease of disaster recovery.
• Ability to interface to the different types of
equipment that can be found in typical plant,
distribution, energy transfer and storage systems.
• Initial and ongoing operating costs of the system .
• Ability to grow as the provider's chilled-water
8.3.2 General design factors infrastructure grows, including integrating new
There are some general factors that must be considered
equipment without affecting existing operations.
before undertaking any DCICS design effort. These
factors will greatly influence the overall design and
deployment of the system:
• How will the provider operate and maintain the sys-
tem? Will control and monitoring functions be per-
formed locally at the plant level, remotely at
strategically positioned command centers, or a
combination of both?
.If remotely, is the communication infrastructure in
place in the provider's district to support the large 8.4 Physical Model
amount of inter-plant networking that is required
with this approach? figure 8-1 models the physical nature of a typical
.Will the plants be manned or unmanned? How will district cooling instrumentation and control system. The
equipment be sequenced on and off - manually, purpose of this model is to introduce a standard
automatically or semi-automatically? terminology that is used throughout this chapter.
• How will energy metering data be gathered? Man-
ually or automatically by the DClCS? Will sub me- A brief description of the various entities that make up
tering of the individual tenants be performed or will the DClCS physical model can be found in the following
the provider simply meter their customers' build- sections. A typical DCICS may contain any number of
ings and/or complexes as whole units? these entities.
• How will data be "forwarded" to the provider's
accounting systems? Electronically, or transcribed 8.4.1 Sites
manually? A typical DCICS site may physicallycontain the following
.WiII the DCICS be required to interface to any third types of installations:
party packagessuch as energy efficiency optimization .plant(s)
programs or maintenance scheduling programs? .command center(s)
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Lovel5
Dlsb1ct
Cooling Intorfocos WI
CoolingProvldo(s Co
I&C ,-'- NeitworkFor:Cciriri8cti
System
;;';;,~e~lJ~r_'S;§lInli~·~~,:::ti'::\,';
, . Accounting Sys\oms,Export ,.
Ono '. :',Energy~anagem8llt'~~TII:;',:-H:i:'
-'-Malntenance,Syst~mS;,_:;,j:::,;::"j,;:::::,:,,:;-,
Optimization Sys\oms,'< ','
Opef8~on.s SlIPpprtSyStems; Eitc,
One Or Many
~LD-----...
Sites
Ono
Ono
Local
Plant
I&C
System
Ono
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Terminal server
server, the historical server and any other server Typically, Level 0 devices are configured and calibrated
required to perform its stated purpose. Additionally, an via switches, potentiometers, and/or jumpers located
engineering workstation will have development directly on the devices. Due to their hard-wired nature,
versions of that same software, as well as other there is typically a limited amount of information that
programming/configuration tools installed on it. can be obtained from Level 0 devices.
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8.5.2 Level 1
Level 1 devices connect directly to their associated
controller via proprietary high-speed industrial networks
or directly to the controller'sinternal communications bus,
not by hard-wiring, as is the case with Level 0 devices.
Certain Level 0 devices utilize communication protocols
that are superimposed on the hard-wired I/O signals Levell devices are "smart" devices that are typically
(i.e., HARTprotocol). Thesetypes of deviceswould still configured and calibrated through the use of special
be classified as Level 0 devices since the physical configuration software over the same network that
connection to the DClCS controller(s) is via hard-wiring, connects them to their associated controllers. In
not a communication network. addition to the process variable(s) that they monitor,
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many other variables such as tag names, ranges, erating data and alarm/diagnostic information, can be
malfunction reports and configuration details can be obtained from the onboard chiller controller over this
read from Levell devices by the controllers that are high-speed network.
connected to them. This type of information would not
be available using an equivalent Level 0 device. Variable-frequency drives - Variable-frequency drives
(VFDs), which are also called variable-speed drives
Examples of Levell equipment include "smart-net- (VSDs), are devices that control the various types of
work-ready" transmitters, local and remote I/O racks motor-driven devices that are found in a typical plant
and modules, some variable-frequency drives and most (compressors, fans, and pumps). The proper use of
energy meters. VFDs is one of the best ways to increase plant energy
efficiency.
Some Levell devices, such as "smart-network-ready"
pressure transmitters, are standalone and do not VFDs are typically connected to the DClCS via a high-
require any Level 0 devices to perform their stated speed industrial network due to the large number of
function, Other types of Levell devices, such as chilled- control and monitoring points that are available from
water energy meters, require that hard-wired Level 0 them. However, some providers continue the practice of
instruments (temperature and flow transmitters) be using hard-wiring to connect critical control points, such
connected to them to perform their energy calculations. as start/stop, speed control and running status. In this
Thesole purpose of yet other typesof Level 1 devices, such scenario, where critical points are hard-wired, the high-
speed network is still typically connected, but the data
gathered over it is used for monitoring purposes only.
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available on the market: that either type of system is adequate to control any
oprogrammable logic controllers (PLC) provider's DClCS. It should also be pointed out that
o distributed control systems (DCS) with the technology available today, it is possible (and
o direct digital controllers (DDC) even likely) that some providers will elect to install
hybrid PLClDCS systems.
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Controller
Pros Cons
Type
Programmable Logic • Easily integrated with tbird-party hardware. • Because the programming languages arevery
Controller (PLC) • Easily integrated with third-party user inter- flexible, PLC programs can be difficult to
face systems (Levels 3 and 4). troubleshoot and maintain if the programs
• Programming languages are very flexible and are not written according to a pre-approved
easyto troubleshoot, provided the programs standard.
are written according to a pre-approved stan- • The controller and userinterface systems are
dard. usually not as tightly integrated as with a
• The ability to have multiple manufacturers' DCS, which may increase application devel-
PLCs seamlessly integrated to each other and opment time.
to a single-user interface.
• Therearethousands of integratorsworldwide
who can support and service PLCs. If a
provider's relationship with a particular PLC in~
tegrator sours, ongoing support for their
DClCS is usually easy to find.
Distributed Control • The controllers (Level 2) and user interfaces .A DCS is proprietaryin nature. Once a DCS is
System (DCS) (Levels 3 & 4) aredesigned asone system. One selected, the provider is usually married to
"front-end" isusedto program both the con- that manufacturer's controller, I/O and user
trollers and the user interfaces. This usually interface equipment and software.
meansfaster application development time. elt is necessary to usethe DCS's userinterface.
• A DCS typicallyhasadvanced algorithms built Connecting to third-party HMI systems may
in that makescomplicated processing of ana~ be cumbersome and even impossible.
log points easier than PLCs. However, most elf none of the built-in algorithms meet the
DCICSs will never need to take advantage of requirements of the system, the program-
these types of algorithms. ming languages are usually not powerful
• Because the controllers and userinterfaces are enough to createyour own algorithms.
designed asone system they will typicallyhave • Des manufacturerstend to limit the number
advanced self-dlaqrostk capabilities. of companies who support their equipment
to a select few per region. Finding ongoing
support for their DCS may prove difficult if
the relationship between the provider and
the companywho originallyinstalled the DCS
is severed for any reason.
provider's command center(s), while other components integrated into the DCS. In fact, manufacturers of DCS
may be located on the plant floor(s). systems may argue that there is no distinction at all
between Levels 2, 3 and 4. However, for the purposes
of this chapter and the sake of consistency across
platforms, these levels will remain as previously defined.
8.5.6 Level 5
Level 5 systems are installed on the provider's corporate
network and interfacewith the DClCS. Examples include
Examples of Level4 equipment that reside in command .Iinks to remote DClCS users;
centers include master/backup data servers, historical .billing and accounting systems;
data servers, terminals servers, operations workstations .maintenance systems;
and engineering workstations. Note that command .optimization systems, such as real-time modeling
centers may be local to the individual sites (such as in and simulation software;
a control room in a chilled-water production plant) or eexpert energy management systems; and
may be located remotelyat strategic locationsthroughout • operations support systems.
the provider'sdistrict. Typically, the only Level 4 equipment
that resides on the individual plant floors themselves is Level 5 equipment is beyond the scope of this chapter.
operations workstations.
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II
,~I.-=--~_~
TYII"; TlJ><m:>'Enug,'S:-'<>S"
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~quiPl"."1 Dr,. ..
Figure 8-3 illustrates a sample DCICS. The purpose of It is important to specifythe proper instrumentation to
this figure is to further clarify the models previously effectively monitor and control a plant's operation. An
introduced in this chapter. It is not intended to represent under-instrumented plant will be difficult to operate,
any specific provider's system or to imply the use of any maintain and troubleshoot. An over-instrumented plant
specific manufacturer's equipment. To simplify the will be expensive, confusing to operate and will not
figure, Level 0 equipment is not depicted. necessarily lead to a "better" control system. Both
situations should be avoided.
8.7 Level 0 - Best Practices
Careful analysis should be conducted of the plant's
The sections that follow present some guidelines for operating requirements. In order for a point to be
specifying and installing Level 0 equipment. considered, it must be needed to
.effectively control the plant's operation based on a
8.7.1 Point justification pre-approved sequence of operations;
The following process variables are monitored and .gather information about the plant's operation for
controlled by Level 0 instruments in a typical district accounting or administration purposes (i.e., for
cooling instrumentation and control system plant: customer billing or efficiency calculations);
.temperature .notify plant operations that the plant is not
.Iiquid/steam flow operating properly or that a problem has occurred
.Iiquid/steam pressure or is about to occur; and
.outside-air humidity .drive external Level 5 applications like optimization
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applications and operations support systems. sensors that are available for some process variables
that are typically found in a plant and some best
8.7.2 Criteria for device selection practice specifications that should be considered when
Before selecting an instrument, its purpose must be specifying each type of instrument.
considered. Forexample, if a temperature transmitter is
being used for customer metering it will require a 8,7.3 Redundant Level 0 equipment
higher accuracy than if it were used solely for Where the monitoring of a certain process variable is
troubleshooting purposes. critical to the plant'soverall operation, redundant Level 0
instrumentation may be required. The controller that
Once the purpose of the instrument is ascertained, the the instrumentation is connected to would determine
specification of the proper instrument for the task can which transmitter to use and should alarm if the values
be made. Table 8-2 outlines the different types of being read from the transmitters differ from eachother
Process
Sensor Types Best Practice Specifications
Variable
Temperature • RTDs - resistive temperature 1. End-to-end accuracy: Liquid:
detector(preferred) Critical: +/- 0.56 C (+/- 1 F)
• Thermistors Non-critical: +/- 0.56 C (+/- 1F)
Air(dry bulb): +/- 1.11 C (+/- 2 F)
2. Resolution: +/- 0.56 C (+/- 1 F)
3. Process connections: Liquid: Use thermo wells that pene
trate the pipethey are installed in by
the lesser of half the pipe diameter or
six inches. Air: Provide protection
from direct sunlightand the building's
exhaust when installed out doors for
moreaccurate readings.
4. Sensor range: RID: -260 C(-436 F) to 650 C(1202 F)
Thermistor: -136 C(-212 F) to 150 C
(302 F)
5. Transmitter range: 4-20 mADC (preferred), 0-20 mADC,
0-5 VDC, 1-5 VDC, 0-10 VDC, 2-10
VDC, or -10-10 VDC signal propor-
tionalto a specified range within the
overall sensor's range.
6. Transmitter type: 2-wire (preferred)
7. Cost RTD: Moderate
Thermistor: Low
8. Stability: RTD: High
Thermistor: Moderate
9. Sensitivity: RTD: Moderate
Thermistor: High
10. Linear: RTD: Yes
Thermistor: No
11.Number of sensor wires: 3 or 4 wiresare acceptable
12. Transmitter mounting: Integral to sensor or located remotely
on a pipe, instrument stand, wall or
panel areall acceptable. Should be
easy to access for maintenance and
calibration purposes. If thereis a local
display, it should be at eye level and
easily read. Note that some con-
trollers can accept RTD and therrnis-
tor inputs directly without the need
for a separate transmitter.
Liquid Flow • lnllne magneticmeter 1. End-to-end accuracy: In-line magnetic meter:
(preferred) Highest +/- 1% full-scale typical
• Ultrasonic meter Ultrasonic meter, vortex meter:
• Insertion magnetic meter High +/- 2% full-scale typical
• Vortexmeter Insertion magnetic meter, insertion
Process
Sensor Types Best Practice Specifications
Variable
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Process
Sensor Types Best Practice Specifications
Variable
liquid Pressure • Capacitance 1. End-to-end accuracy: +/- 1% full-scale typical
• Piezoresistive 2. Resolution: 6.9 mbar (0.1 psi)
(eithertype is acceptable for
most DCICS applications) 3. Maximum operating Sensor-specific. Mustbe greater than
pressure: the normaloperating pressure that
the instrumentwill experience when
installed.
4. Normal operating Application-specific - should be
pressure: specified during detailed DClCS
design. Must be less than the
maximum operating pressure that
the instrumentis designed for.
5. Burst pressure Sensor specific. Must be greater than
the maximum operating pressure that
the instrumentis designed for.
6. Process connections: Typically provided through capillary
tubing. Isolation valves should be
used at all capillary pressure tapsinto
the main process piping sothat the
instrumentcan be isolated for
maintenance purposes. Three-valve
isolation/equalization manifolds
should be used on all differential
pressure applications. Provisions
should be provided for blow down
of the capillary tubing in situations
where fouling mayoccur
7. Transmitter range: 4-20 mADC (preferred), 0-20 mADC,
0-5VDC,1-5VDC,0-10VDC,2-10
VDC, or -10-1 0 VDC signal proper-
tional to a specified pressure range.
8. Transmitter type: 2-wire (preferred)
9. Transmitter mounting: Typically, integral to sensor. Capillary
tubesshouldbe routed sothat the
sensorltransmitter assembly iseasy to
access for maintenance and calibration
purposes and the tubes themselves
aresafe from damage. If there isa
local display, it should beat eye level
and easily read.
Outside-Air Humidity • Bulk polymer relative humidity 1. End-to-end accuracy: +/- 5% relative humiditytypical
• Thin-film capacitance relative 2. Resolution: 0.1 % relative humidity
humidity
(eithertype is acceptable for 3. Measurement range: 0.0 to 100.0 % relative humidity
most DCICS applications) 4. Use: In a typical chilled-water production
plant, the outside-air wet-bulb
temperature is needed for efficient
plant operation. There are wet-bulb
temperature sensors available that
monitor wet bulb directly, but are
moreexpensive and require more
frequent calibration then RH sensors.
It is recommended that RH sensors
be used and that the controller that
the humidity instrumentation is
connected to calculates the wet-
bulb temperature from the RH and
dry-bulbtemperatures using industry
standard calculations.
5. Transmitter range: 4-20 mADC (preferred), 0-20 mADC,
0-5VDC,1-5VDC,0-10VDC,2-10
VDC, or -10-10 VDC signal propor-
tional to 0.0 to 100.0 % RH.
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Process
Sensor Types Best Practice Specifications
Variable
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The obvious disadvantage to Level 0 instrumentation .Pneumatically actuated valves: pneumatic auto/
redundancy is cost. For this reason, careful thought manual loading stations.
should be given during design as to which instruments .Chillers: local onboard chiller control panels with
(if any) should be installed redundantly. A general rule push buttons, pilot lights, selector switches, and/or
of thumb is to install redundant instruments if failure of operator interface terminals.
a particular instrument would cause the entire plant to .Air compressors: local onboard compressor
shut down. If the answer is yes, then redundant instru- control panels with push buttons, pilot lights,
ments should be considered, but are not mandatory. selector switches, and/or operator interface terminals.
Redundant Level 0 instrumentation should be handled
on a case-by-case basis and should only be utilized in 8.7.6 Good installation practices
the most critical situations because it will increase A number of good installation practices were discussed
initial costs and ongoing maintenance costs. in detail in section 8.7.2 for each type of instrument
found in a typical plant.
8.7.4 Local instrumentation
When a particular process variable must be monitored
locally at the processand remotely by the district cooling
instrumentation and control system, one approach is
to install transmitters with local displays, rather than
installing separate local gauges to monitor the same
point. An obvious drawback to this approach is that if
power to a transmitter with a local display is lost, and
In general, a well-designed DCICS will allow Level 0
there is no local gauge, then there would be no way to
field instrumentation to be easily serviced, maintained
monitor the process variable in question, either locally
and calibrated by properly trained personnel while
orfrom the DClCS. Therefore it istypicallybest practiceto
minimally affecting the overall operation of the plant.
use local gauges for critical processvariablesthat must
Extensive use of thermo wells, isolation valves and
be monitored locally even if transmitter power is lost
insertion instrument ball-valve assemblies should be
or if the DClCS is down.
employed so that instrumentation can be removed and
serviced while the plant is running.
If a particular process variable only needs to be moni-
tored locally at the process, then local gauges are the
All instrumentation wires, cables, and tubing should be
obvious choice.
properly labeled following a pre-approved labeling
Regardless of how the local reading is obtained - from
scheme.
a local display on a transmitter or from a standard local
gauge - the reading should be easily obtained without
Local codes for conductor sizes, colors and insulation
should be adhered to.
obstruction or the need for a ladder.
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These same process variables can also be monitored by doing so reintroduces a single point of failure (the I/O
Level 0 transmitters (see section 8.7). Some criteria to module and/or rack) into the system for the Level 0 devices.
consider when deciding to specify a Level 0 or a Level
1 field instrument are covered in section 8.9.2. 8.8.3 Onboard chiller controllers
Most modern chillers are provided with stand-alone on-
The same best practice considerations that apply to board controllers that monitor and control the essential
Level 0 field instrumentation apply to their Level 1 operation of the chiller. These controllers will typically
counterparts as well (see section 8.7). In addition, the have network connectivity of some sort built inand can
network that connects the Level 1 field instruments to also accept hard-wired control signals.
their respective controllers must also be specified,
designed and installed properly. Section 8.8.8 contains Whether the DClCS will interface to the onboard chiller
some best practices that should be followed when controller(s) over its network or via hard-wiring, or a
specifying, designing and installing Levell networks. combination of both, is dependent on the designer's
confidence in the networking capabilities of the
8.8.2 110 modules and racks onboard chiller controller(s) and the robustness of the
Level 0 equipment connects to its respective network's design and implementation. Network
controller(s) via I/O modules. I/O modules are installed confidence should be based on reliability. throughput
in two locations with respect to their controllers: and security. Not all of the networks that are supported
• Locall/O modules are installed in the same rack by chiller manufacturers aresuitablefor control purposes.
as their controllers and communicate with the
controller over the controller's internal communi- If the designer has little or no confidence in the
cation bus. network's capabilities, then hard-wiring should be used
• Remote I/O modules are installed in an I/O rack for all controlled points, and the network would be
remotely from their controllers and communicate used for monitoring only those points that are non-
with the controller over a high-speed industrial essential to the plant's overall operation. Conversely, if
network. the designer has a high level of confidence in the
Since a loss of a remote I/O network may affect many chiller's networking capabilities, then it is acceptable to
instruments simultaneously, special thought must be put perform both monitoring and control functions over
into the design and deployment of these networks. the network, provided the best practice guidelines in
Refer to section 8.8.8 for items to consider when section 8.8.8 are followed when specifying, designing
specifying, designing and installing any Levell network. and installing the network.
employed in their circuitry. This resolution should be At a minimum, the following points should be accessi-
high enough as to introduce negligible error into the ble from the onboard chiller controller(s) via hard-wiring
end-to-end accuracies of Level 0 devicesto which they and/or over the network:
are connected. Most modern analog I/O modules utilize .chiller start/stop command
at least 12-bit converters, which is usually more than .chiller funning status
adequate for most DCICS applications. As microchip .general alarm status (alternately, individual alarms
technology continues to improve, more and more may be available)
manufacturers are switching to 16-bit converters, .supply-temperature setpoint
which even further improves the end-to-end accuracy .electrical voltage, current and energy
of the entire circuit. A minimum of 12 bits is eevaporator refrigerant temperature
recommended, but 16 bits is preferred when available. .evaporator refrigerant pressure
.evaporator chilled-water proof of flow status
When redundant Level 0 equipment is utilized, thought .condenser refrigerant temperature
must be put into whether or not to utilize redundant .condenser refrigerant pressure
I/O modules and/or racks as well. It may not be .condenser-water proof of flow status
acceptable to wire the redundant Level 0 devices into .compressor discharge refrigerant temperature
the same I/O module or even the same I/O rack, since .guide vane position
107
DISTRICT COOLING BESTPRACTICE GUIDE
C2008lnlema~'onal Dis/n'a Energy As5OdaHOI1. All rightsreevea.
8.8.4 Variable-frequency drives from a typical DClCS VFD via hard-wiring and/or over
Most modern industrial VFDs the network:
.can be equipped with a network option for control .starVstop command
and monitoring purposes, .running status
.can be controlled and monitored via hard-wiring .fault status
or .speed command
.can be used with a combination of both strategies. .speed feedback
.voltage, current, and electrical power data
How the district cooling instrumentation and control .disconnect status
system will interface to the VFDs is dependent on the .bypass/normal status
designer's confidence in the networking capabilities of .local/remote status
the VFDs and the robustness of the network's design .hand-off-auto status
and implementation. Again, network confidence
should be based on reliability, throughput, and 8.8.5 Energy monitoring equipment
security. If the designer has little or no confidence in Both thermal and electrical energy production and/or
the network's capabilities, then hard-wiring should be consumption are monitored in a typical DCICS. Energy
used for all controlled points, and the network would meters are used to monitor this energy data for
be used for monitoring only those points that are accounting or administrative purposes (i.e., for billing,
non-essential to the plant's overall operation. plant efficiency calculations and other purposes).
Conversely, if the designer has a high level of
confidence in the VFDs networking capabilities, then it Table 8-3 outlines the two types of energy meters that
is acceptable to perform both monitoring and control are found in a typical DClCS plant and some best
functions over the network, provided the best practice practice considerations that should be taken into
guidelinesin section 8.8.8 arefollowed when specifying, account when specifying each type of instrument.
designing and installing the network.
8.8.6 Metering and submetering
At a minimum, the following points should be accessible The decision to meter entire buildings or submeter the
individual building tenants is application specific and
should be handled on a case-by-casebasis.
Process
Sensor Types Best Practice Specifications
Variable
Thermal Energy Temperature: RTDs, thermistors, 1. End-to-end accuracy: +/- 5% full-scale typical
sensor/transmitter assemblies 2. Resolution: Consumed/produced energy:
(RIOs preferred)
1ton-hour
Instantaneous energy: 0.1 ton
Liquid Flow: alltypes listed as
Flow: 0.063 Vs (1 gpm)
acceptable in section 8.7.2. Temperature: 0.056 C (0.1 F)
Online magnetic meter preferred)
3. Process connections: Two temperature sensors or
sensorltransmitter assemblies, one
for supply andthe otherfor return.
See the process variable temperature
section 8.7.2 for process connection
details.
One flow sensorltransmitter. See the
process variable-liquid flow section
8.7.2 for process connection details.
4. Transmitter connectivity It isrecommended that energy meters
to DClC5: used in a typical DClCS connect to
the plant controllers via a high-speed
industrial network, not hard-wiring,
making them Levell devices. This is
dueto the large amountof data
that is available from most modern
energy meters.
Table 8-3. Energy meter best practice specifications. Continued
108
DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008 Intema~bna! Dls/Tiet Energy A55ooil~On_ Ai! ngh!5reSlYVed.
Process
Sensor Types Best Practice Specifications
Variable
Thermal Energy 5. Local displays: Every energy meterinstalled in a
(continued) DClCS application should have a
local display that allows the provider's
personnel to take readings, locally at
.the meter, in the eventthe link to the
controller issevered for any reason.
6. Transmitter mounting: Pipe, instrument stand, wall or panel
are all acceptable means of mounting
the transmitter. There should be easy
access for maintenance and calibration
purposes. Thelocal display should be
at eye level and easily read.
7. Monitoring for billing If an energy meteris being used for
purposes: billing purposes, it should be capable
of calculating andstoring metering
data internally, independent of the
controller it isconnected to, sothat
if the link to the controller is lostfor
any reason, the metering datawill
not be lost. This isgood practice even
in non-revenue type meters.
Electrical Energy Current and voltage transformers 1. End-to-end accuracy: +/- 5% full-scale typical
2. Resolution: Energy: 1.0 kWh
Real power:0.1 kW
Reactive power:0.1 kVAR
VA:0.1 VA
Power factor: 0.1
Voltage: 0.1 volts
Current 0.1 amps
3. Process connections: One currenttransformer(Cf)
per phase.
One voltage transformer (Fl) per
phase.
Should be installed in a motor control
center (MCC).
4. Transmitter connectivity It isrecommended that energy meters
to DCICS: used in a typical DClCS connectto
the plantcontrollers via a high-speed
industrial network, not hard-wiring,
making them Level 1 devices. This is
dueto the large amount of datathat
are available from most modernen-
ergy meters. There areother types of
energy meters that provide an analog
output (i.e., 420 mADC) that is pro-
portional to the instantaneous electrical
power (kW)being measured or a pulse
output that indicates the amount of
electrical energy (kWh) that has been
consumed/produced since the last
pulse. These types of meters are not
recommended in a typical DClCS
application.
5. Local displays: Every energy meterinstalled in a
DClCS application should have a
local display that allowsthe provider's
personnel to take readings, locally at
the meter, in the eventthe link to the
controller is severed for any reason.
6. Transmitter mounting: Typically; electrical energy meters
are installed through a door in the
switchgear lineup for the circuits they
are monitoring. There shouldbe easy
109
------- - - - ----------------------_._---_.
Process
Sensor Types Best Practice Specifications
Variable
Electrical Energy accessfor maintenance and calibra-
(continued) tion purposes. The local display should
be at eyelevel and easily read.
7. Monitoring for billing If an energy meteris being usedfor
purposes: billing purposes it should be capable
of calculating and storing metering
data internally, independent of the
controller it is connected to, so that
if the link to the controller islostfor
anyreason, the metering datawill
not be lost.
Table 8-3. Energy meter best practice specifications.
district cooling provider. A well-designed and imple- and control of the plants occurs over these networks.
mented ETS will allow for submetering of individual For this reason, the proper specification, design and
customers as well as for metering of entire buildings. installation of Level 1 networks is critical.
Someprovidersmay elect to utilize Level 5 real-time ther- A well-designed Level 1 network will not allow for a
mal modeling and simulation (RTIMS) systems that are single point of failure, where the failure of a single
capable of performing "virtual metering" as a backup to device on the network causes all of the devices on the
their normal mode of physical metering. These applica- network to lose communication with their controller(s).
tions are beyond the scope of this chapter, but should be This includes, but is not limited to, network interface
considered during the design of any large-scale district devices, bridges, routers and hubs.
cooling instrumentation and control system.
Level 1 network cable routing also must be considered.
The network cable should be routed in such a way that
a break in any segment of the network should
minimally compromise the controller's ability to
communicate to the rest of the equipment on the
network. In some situations this may mean installing
redundant cabling and network infrastructure devices.
When redundant cabling is used, the two redundant
8.8.7 Redundant Level 1 field
networks should be physically routed in different paths
instrumentation
to decrease the likelihood of the same event taking out
When a certain process variable is critical to the plant's
both networks. Redundant network cables should
overall operation, and that process variable is
never be run in the same conduit or along side of each
monitored by a Level 1 field instrument, redundant
other in separate conduits over long distances.
Level 1 instrumentation may be required. The controller
that the instrumentation is connected to would deter-
mine which instrument to use and should alarm if the 8,8.9 Level 1 data considerations
values being read from the transmitters differ from each During the detailed design phase of a DClCS, it is
other by more than a pre-determined amount. important to consult the manufacturer of any planned
Level 1 equipment to ensure that all of the data
Redundant instruments have the added advantage of required by the application will be available over the
ease of maintenance and calibration because one in- high-speed industrial network that will connect it to the
strument can be temporarily taken out of service while associated controller. The data format accuracy when
the plant continues to run using the other instrument. read over the network and its refresh rate over the
network are also important requirements to consider
The obvious disadvantage to Level 1 field instrumentation and should be specified on a case-by-case basis.
redundancy is cost. For this reason careful thought is
required during design regarding which instruments (if 8.9 Levels 0 & 1 - Choosing Points
any) should be installed redundantly. to Monitor and Control
8,8,8 Level 1 network best practice This section presents some illustrations that depict what
considerations points should be monitored and controlled for different
Level 1 networks are, in some respects, the most critical equipment segments that can be found in the various
networks in a DClCS because the low-level monitoring types of plants owned and operated by a typical provider.
110
DISTRICT COOUNGBEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008 Intemarional Districtfne<gy Aswdation.Ail right'ire:.erved.
The examples that follow illustrate both Level 0 and infrastructure available in the district cooling
Levell instrumentation implemented together. Table provider's district, this may be miles away from the
8-4 provides a key to the instrument tagging symbols plant at an energy transfer station that the plant
used and explains how Level 0 and Levell devices are supplies (see section 8.9.1/Heat exchangers) or it
depicted in the examples. Table 8-5 describes how to may be in the plant itself.
interpret the function identifiers that are shown in the .Control the speed of the running secondarypumps
examples. A discussion is provided after the examples based on this differential pressure.
regarding the criteria that should considered when .Stage the secondary pumps based on this
deciding to whether to specify Level 0 or Levell field differential pressure (customer demand).
instrumentation or a combination of both. .Monitor the supply flow (FIT-1001) and tempera-
ture (TIT-l 001), the return temperature (TIT-2001)
and the chilled-water energy (JIT-1001) being
delivered to all of the customers on the loop. Note
that individual customers are typically
metered at the energy transfer stations, not at
the chiller plants. Submetering of individual users
at each customer site isalso an alternative that may
be considered and should be accounted for in the
design and implementation of the DCICS.
8.9.1 Example equipment segments .Stage primary pumps based on chiller status.
• Stage chillers based on chiller load (IIT-1380, see
Primary-secondary systems section 8.9.1/Chiller evaporators), supply tempera-
ture (TIT-l001), supply flow (FIT-l001), andlor
Figure8-4 illustrates the recommended instrumentation direction of chilled-water flow (deficit vs. supply) in
for a primary-secondary system. Forclarity, the following the decoupling line (FIT-3000).
discussion refersto the tag names depicted in the figure. .Monitorthe temperature being supplied from all of
the chillers (TIT-lOOO).
At a minimum, the instrumentation should be in place • Monitor the temperature being returned to all of
to perform the following functions: the chillers (TIT-2000).
• Monitor the differential pressure across the customer .Monitor the temperature (TIT-3000) and bi-direc-
load at the furthest possible hydraulic point(s) from tional flow (FIT-3000) in the decoupling line.
the secondary pumps (PDIT-l 000). Depending on the
physical "tayout and the communication The purpose of the bi-directional flow meter in the
Instrument that is installed inthe fieldin a utility panel,and is NOT accessiblefrom the front of
@"YYlZ"
the panel.
~"
Instrument that is installed in the fieldin a control panelthat is accessiblefrom the front of the
control panel.
YYlZ"
~"
Instrument that is installed in the fieldin a control panel that is NOT accessible from the front of
the control panel.
YYlZ"
DCICS hardwired Input,output, or function that is accessibleby the user via the Level 2 and/or
~"YYlZ"
Level 3 user interfaces. When connected to a field deviceit indicates that the field device Isa
level0 device.
~"
DCICS hardwired input, output.or function that is NOT accessible by the user. When connected to
a field device it indicates that the fielddevice is a level0 device.
YYlZ"
DClCS input.output or function,acquired through a communicationlink,that is accessible by the
@"YYlZ"
user via the tevel z and/or Level 3 user interfaces. Whenconnected to a field device it
indicates that the field device is a level1 device.
DCICS input, output or function,acquired by a communicationlink,that is NOT accessible by the
@"YYlZ"
user. When connected to a fielddevice it indicates that the fielddevice is a level1 device.
111
DISTRlcr COOUNG BEST PRAcrlCE GUIDE
02008 InlM1a~onal Dis!fietEnergy ksoa'ation. All right'.irroservro.
MEASURED OR READOlTTOR
INITIATING PASSIVE
VARIABLE MODIFIER FUNcnON DUTPlTTFUNcnON MODIFIER
Analysis Alarm
A
Burner.Combustion User'sChoice Button Blue
B
Conductivity Control Closed
C
Density(Mass) Or Differential
D SpeclficGravitv SpecificGravity
Voltage Sensor(Primary
E Element)
Flow Rate Ratio(Fraction} Forward
F
User'sCholce Gauge-Local G~"
G Vlewlna Device
Hand High
H
Current{Electrical) Indicate
I
J Power sa"
Time.TImeSchedule TImeRateOf Change Control Station
K
Level Ught low
L
Moisture Or Humidity Middle.lntermedlate
M
User'sChoke
N
User'sChoke Ofdke. Restricflon Open
0
Pressure Point.(Test)
p COnnection
Quantity Integrate.Totalize
Q
Radiation Regulating Record Red.Reverse. Remote
R
Speed.Frequency Safety Switch
5
Temperature TransmIt
T
multivarlable Multifunction Multifunction Multifunction
U
Vibration.Viscosity Valve louver
V Damper"
Welght.Force well WhIte
W
Run.Energize X Axis
X """ate Actuate
VAxis Relay.Compute Yellow
y Status.Evenr.State
Of Presence Of Presence Convert
Position.Dimension ZAxis Driver.Actuator
Z Undassifietl Final
Control Element
decoupling line (FIT-3000) is to detect surplus or deficit supply flow transmitter (FIT-lOO1) at the plant. An
flow conditions. Decoupling line flow in the supply to alternative involves eliminating the customer-supply
return direction indicates a surplus flow condition. flow transmitter and adding up all of individual chiller
Decoupling line flow in the return to supply direction flows (FIT 1370, see section 8.9.1/Chiller evaporators)
indicates a deficit flow condition. This same information and using the resultant sum as an indication of total
can be obtained by trained personnel in other ways, flow to the plant's customers. Also, it is important to
thus eliminating the need for the decoupling line flow provide ways to determine how much flow is presentin
meter (FIT-3000). Some alternate methods include the decoupling lineand the directionin which it isflowing .
• observing the chiller supply (TIT-l000), return This means that if the customer-supply flow transmitter
(TIT-2000) and decoupling line (TIT-3000) tempera- (FIT-lOO1) is eliminated, then the decoupling line flow
tures and meter (FIT-3000) must usuallybe provided(the decoupling
.adding up all of the individual chiller flows (FIT-1370, line is usually smaller than the supply line).
see section 8.9.1/Chiller evaporators) and comparing
the result to the flow to be delivered to the If the customer-supply flow transmitter (FIT 1001) is
customers (FIT-l001). eliminated, and the provider still wishes to have an
independent customer-supply energy meter at the plant
Due to the large size of the supply line in a typical (JIT-l00l), then the plant controller must provide the
district energy primary-secondary system, it may not customer-supply energy meter (JIT-1 00 1) with a flow
always be feasible to install an independent customer- value proportional to the value that it calculates from
112
DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
e2OO8Infemilbonill Di,l!id Energy A>,oo'aUon. All right> re~
!V-10Cl1 I
CHILLER
BANK ,orr
,~
IV-UN12 I
o
the individual chiller flows and the flow in the decou- At a minimum, the instrumentation should be in place
piing line. to perform the following functions:
• Monitor the differential pressure across the customer
In addition to eliminating the independent customer- load at the furthest possible hydraulic point(s) from
supply flow transmitter (FIT-1Q01), the independent the distribution pumps (PDIT-l 000). Depending on the
customer-supply energy meter (JIT-l00 1) can also be physical layout and the communication infrastruc-
eliminated. If it is eliminated, then the individual chiller ture available in the cooling provider's district, this
energy meters (JIT 1370, see section 8.9.1/Chiller may be miles away from the plant at an energy
evaporators) would be used to determine the total transfer station that the plant supplies (see section
chilled-water energy that the plant is delivering to its 8.9.1/Heatexchangers) or it may be in the plant itself.
customers. Also, any flow present in the decoupling oControl the speed of the distribution pumps to
line would need to be accounted for and figured into maintain a minimum customer differential pressure
the overall plant efficiency calculations. (PDIT-l000).
oStage the distribution pumps based on customer
demand (PDIT-l 000).
oStage chillers based on chiller load (IIT-1380, see
section 8.9.1/Chillerevaporators), supplytemperature
(TIT-l000) and/or supply flow (FIT-l 000).
o Monitor the differential pressure acrossthe chiller
bank (PDIT-3000).
oAutomatically modulate the bypass control valve
Variable primary systems (CV/PY-3000), based on the chiller bank differential
pressure (PDIT-3000) to maintain a minimum flow
Figure 8-5 illustrates the recommended instrumenta- through the chillers. Normally this valve should be
tion for a variable-primary system. For clarity, the fol- closed and should only modulate open under very
lowing discussion refers to the tag names depicted in low customer demand conditions.
the figure. oAllow operators to manually control the bypass
113
DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
02008In~aliooal District Energy Assodali'oo. Allrightsreserved.
control valve locally at the valve, bypassing the plant's customers. However, this scheme only works if
DClCS altogether (HS-3000). the bypass control valve (CV 3000) remains closed. If
.Monitor the remote status of the bypass control the bypass valve does open, a way of determining how
valve's local-off-remote (LOR) switch (HS-3000). much flow is present in the bypass line must be
• Monitor the position of the bypass control valve (ZT- provided. This may involve installing a flow meter in the
3000) . bypass line (the bypass line size is typically much smaller
• Monitor the supply flow (FIT-WOO) and temperature than the supply line size)or using a delta Ptype of valve
(TIT-WOO), the return temperature (TIT-2000) and in the bypass line and calculating bypass flow based on
the chilled-water energy (JIT-1 000) being delivered the valve's position.
to all of the customers from the plant. Note that in-
dividual customers are typically metered at the en- Regardless of how it is calculated, if the customer-
ergy transfer stations, not at the chiller plants. supply flow transmitter (FIT 1000) is eliminated, and the
Submetering of individual users at each customer provider still wishes to have an independent customer-
site is also an alternative that may be considered. supply energy meter at the plant (JIT-1 000), then the
plant controller must provide the customer-supply
Instead of using the differential pressure across the energy meter (JIT-1 000) with a flow value proportional
chiller bank to control the bypass valve, the individual to the value that it calculates.
chiller flows may be used (FIT-1370, see section
8.9.1/Chiller evaporators), thus eliminating the need for In addition to eliminating the independent customer-
the chiller bank differential pressure transmitter supply flow transmitter (FIT-WOO), the independent
(PDIT-3000). customer-supply energy meter (JIT-1 000) can also be
eliminated. If it is eliminated, then the individual chiller
Due to the large size of the supply line in a typical energy meters would be used to determine the total
district energy variable primary system, it may not chilled-water energy that the plant is delivering to its
always be feasible to install an independent customer- customers. Note that any flow present in the bypass
supply flow transmitter (FIT-WOO) at the plant. An line would need to be accounted for and figured into
alternative involves eliminating the customer-supply the overall plant efficiency calculations.
flow transmitter and adding up all individual chiller
flows (FIT 3001 through FIT-3003) and using the
resultant sum as an indication of total flow to the
1,,"1001 i
------., 0
CHILLER
BANK
I~=I
114
Dlsmlcr COOLING BEST PRAOICE GUIDE
102008 International Distn'ct EnergyA5soclab"on. Ail rightsreserved.
nr
,m """""'
nr
"n
m
_.-
•~~""'
•
"n
n
m, -•
•
OiUllDWATaI
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CHWR
115
DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C2008lntemaliooal Dlnn'ct Energy As5OCia~on. Allrightsresevea:
for monitoring purposes only. However, with the .Stage the condenser-water pumps on and off based
increased reliability available in modern high-speed on the number of chillers running or the current flow
industrial networks, either approach (hard-wired or requirements of the condenser-water loop.
networked) is acceptable provided the network is .Maintain the cooling tower basin Level (L1T-9010,
robust and fail-safe. see section 8.9.1/Cooling towers) by controlling the
makeup flow to the towers (AV-8020).
If a provider requires that the evaporator supply and • Monitor the full-open/full-close status of the
return pressures be monitored remotely as well as condenser-water makeup isolation valve (lSO-
locally, indicating transmitters can be used and the local 8020lZSC -8020).
pressure gauges (PI-1320, PI-1323) can be removed. .Allow operators to manually control the condenser-
water makeup isolation valve locally at the valve,
Condenser-water systems bypassing the DCICS altogether (HS-8020).
.Monitor the remote position of the condenser-
Figure 8-7 illustrates the recommended instrumentation water makeup isolation valve's open-close-remote
for a condenser-water system. For clarity, the following (OCR)switch (HS-8020).
discussion refersto the tag names depicted in the figure. .Communicate with the chemical treatment system's
onboard controller to obtain the following minimum
At a minimum, instrumentation should be in place to information:
perform the following functions: • condenser water conductivity (AIT-8030)
.Monitor the condenser-water supply (TIT-801 0) and • condenser water pH (AIT-8031)
return temperatures (TIT 8011). • general alarm status (XA-8030)
• Control the cooling tower fans and valves to main- .Use the same communication link to command the
tain the condenser-water supply temperature (TIT- chemical treatment system to manually open/close
8010) to setpoint, the blowdown valve (AV-8030).Normallythe chemcal
.Stage the cooling towers to meet the demands of treatment system's onboard controller will automa-
controlling condenser-water supply temperature ically control this valve based on condenser-water
(TIT-801 0) to setpoin!. conductivity (AIT-8030).
• Monitor the outside-air temperature (TIT-8000) and .Monitor the condenser-watermakeup flow (FIT-8020)
relative humidity (MIT-8000). Calculate the outside- and the blow down flow (FIT 8030). Totalize these
air wet bulb (MIY-8000) from these values. values to calculate the total amount of water
CooUNG
TOWER
SANK
CONDENSER
WATER
MAKEUP
CHEMICAL
CHEMICAL INJECTION
mEATMENT
SYSTEM
CONDENSER
WATER PUMPS
(CONSTANT SPEED)
• CHIUERBANK
•
MANLBLOWDOWN
(CONDENSERS)
H~
00
,,,,,"''''''' SLOWDOWN
TODRAIN
•
116
DISTRICT COOUNG BESTPRACTICE GUIDE
e2008lntema~bna//)j<;rTlct £n~ AWJoEJtIiln. AIIn'ghtsre5efVed.
delivered to the plant (FIO-8020) and the total designed DClCS will allow the provider to take advantage
amount of water sewered by the plant (FlO 8030). of these credits when they are available. To calculate
the amount of water evaporated from the cooling towers,
The proper selection of the condenser-water supply- the blowdown flow total (FlO8030) is subtracted from
temperature setpoint is the key to saving energy in the the makeup flow total (FlO 8020).
condenser-water loop. A setpoint that is too low will
require more energy to maintain the setpoint while Another way to decrease the operating cost of a
providing little or no impact to chiller efficiency. chilled-water production plant is to research alternate
Conversely, a setpoint that is set too high will result in sources of makeup water. Depending on the location of
inefficiencies in the chiller's operation and may even the plant this may be in the form of well water and/or
cause it to trip off. The selpoint should be set to a value condensate captured from other equipment.
that is within the recommended range specified by the
chiller manufacturer. Strategic selection and location of the chiller plant
equipment (i.e., cooling towers, chillers) instrumentation
Using the calculated outside-air wet bulb (MIY-8000) and valves will allow providers in certain temperate
to reset the condenser-water supply temperature within climates to utilize free cooling during the colder months
an acceptable range will also provide potential energy of the year.
savings if implemented properly. A well-designed and
implemented district cooling instrumentation and A well-designed and implemented DCICS will be able
control system will support condenser-water supply- to support one or more of the following methods of
temperature reset. free cooling:
• refrigerant migration
Some water authorities offercredit allowances to their .strainercycle
customers for waterthat is delivered to their customer's oplate-and-frame heat exchanger
plants but is not sewered. In the case of a chilled-water
production plant, this volume of water represents the Cooling towers
water that is evaporated from the cooling towers. To
qualify for the credit allowance some form of water Figure 8-8 illustrates the recommended instrumentation
usage documentation is usually required. A well- for a typical cooling tower. For clarity, the following
~= NOIIIMI.mT.
>
" -=~
-
~
"
"
~m
-=-
cws
117
DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
e2008lnrem~~'0fl~1 District EnergyAssociation. Allrightsreser.W.
COfIVENSERWATBl
< CWR
"",," I
CONDENSERWAmI
SUPPLY
CW' ) 1/
I v-mil
•
Figure 8·9. Chiller condenser supply and return instrumentation.
discussion refersto the tag namesdepicted in the figure. LAL-9010). Stop the fan if a high-vibration or a low
oil-level situation exists.
At a minimum, the instrumentation should be in place • Monitor the temperature of the condenser water in
to perform the following functions: the cooling tower's basin (TIT 9012) and turn the
.Automatically modulate the cooling tower's supply basin heater (XS-9012) off and on to maintain that
valve (FY-901 0) and bypass valve (FY-9011) to main- temperature to setpoint.
tain condenser-water supply temperature to .Allow operators to manually turn the basin heater
setpoint. off and on locally at the basin, bypassing the DClCS
• Monitor the actual positions of the cooling tower's altogether (HS-9012).
supply valve (ZT-901 0) and bypass valve (2T-9011). • Monitor the auto status of the basin heater's hand-
• Allow operators to manually control the cooling off-auto (HOA) switch (HS 9012) .
tower's supply and bypass valves, locally at the .Monitor and maintain the level of the condenser
valves, bypassing the DCICS altogether (HS-9010 water in the cooling tower's basin (L1T-9010) to
and HS 9011, respectively). setpoint by opening and closing the condenser-
.Monitor the remote status of the cooling tower's water makeup valve (AV-8020, see section
supply and bypass valves' local-off-remote (LOR) 8.9.1/Condenser-water systems).
switches (HS-9010 and HS-9011, respectively).
• Stage the cooling tower fan as needed to maintain An alternative to monitoring the electrical energy being
the condenser-water supplytemperature to setpoint. consumed by a plant's individual motors is to monitor
.Communlcate with the cooling tower fan's VFD to the electrical energy at one or two locations, in the
facilitate the following minimum functionality: switchgear that feeds all of the motors, thus eliminating
.Automatically start/stop the fan from the DCICS the energy meters at each motor.
(XS-9010).
• Monitor the fan's running status (XI-9010). It may be acceptable to some providers to install
• Monitor the fan's VFD fault status (XA-901 0). low-temperature and high/low-level switches instead
• Automatically modulate the fan's speed from the of transmitters in the cooling tower basins.
DClCS (SC-9010) to maintain condenser-water
supply temperature to setpoint. Centrifugal chiller condensers
• Monitor the actual fan speed (SIT-901 0).
• Monitor the electrical voltage (EIT-9010), current Figure 8-9 illustrates the recommended instrumentation
(IIT-9010), and power (JIT-901 0) being consumed for the supply and return piping to a single centrifugal
by the fan . chiller condenser. For clarity, the following discussion
• Monitor fan vibration sensor and oil level (VAH-9010, refers to the tag names depicted in the figure.
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At a minimum, the instrumentation should be in place mentation for a constant speed pump. For clarity, the
to perform the following functions: following discussion refers to the tag names depicted in
• Automatically isolate the condenser's return from the figure .
the condenser-water return piping with a modulating
control valve (CV-3140). At a minimum, the instrumentation should be in place
• Monitor the actual position of the condenser-water to perform the following functions:
return control valve (2T 3140). .Automatically isolate the pump's supply with an iso-
.Allow operators to manually control the condenser- lation valve (AVIXS-1380).
water return control valve locally at the valve, • Monitor the full-openlfull-c1ose status of the pump's
bypassing the DClCS altogether (HS-3140). supply isolation valve (250 1380IZSC-1380).
• Monitor the remote status of the condenser-water .Allow operators to manually control the pump's iso-
return control valve's local-off-remote (LOR) switch lation valve locally at the pump, bypassing the
(HS-3140). DClCS altogether (HS-1380).
• Monitor the presence of flow through the condenser .Monitor the remote status of the pump's open-
(FSL-3180). close-remote (OCR) switch (HS 1380).
• Monitor the condenser head (refrigerant) pressure .Manually isolate the pump's discharge with an iso-
(PIT-3180). lation valve 01-1389). Note that some providers may
.Control the condenser head pressure (PIT-3180) elect to automate this valve as well.
to setpoint by modulating the condenser-water .Automatically start/stop the pump from the DClCS
return control valve (CV 3140) when the chiller is (XS-1341).
funning. • Monitor the voltage (EIT-1341). current (IIT-1341)
• Monitor the condenser refrigerant temperature and power (JIT-1341) being consumed by the pump .
(TI1-3180). .Allow operators to manually start/stop the pump
• Monitor the flow (FIT-3140) and temperature locally, bypassing the DCICS altogether (HS-1341) .
(TIT-3140) of condenser water leaving the condenser .Monitor the auto status of the pump's hand-
and the temperature (TIT-3130) of the condenser off-auto (HOA) switch (HS-1341).
water entering the condenser. • Monitor the status of the pump's local disconnect
.Local~monitor the condenser-water supply (PI-3181) switch (HS-1342).
and return (PI-3180) pressures as close to the .Monitor the differential pressure across the pump
condenser as possible. (PDIT-1341 ).
• Locally monitor the pump's supply (PI-1341) and
If a provider requires that the condenser supply and discharge (PI-1342) pressures as close to the pump
return pressures be monitored remotely as well as as possible.
locally, indicating transmitters can be used and the local
pressure gauges (PI-3180, PI-3181) can be removed. If a provider requires that the pump supply and
discharge pressures be monitored remotely as well as
Constant-speed pumps locally, indicating transmitters can be used and the local
pressure gauges (PI-1341, PI-1342) can be removed. In
Figure 8-10 below illustrates the recommended instru- this scenario, the differential pressure transmitter
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(PDIT-1341) could also be removed and the DClCS • Manually isolate the pump's discharge (V-3021).
could calculate the differential pressure from PI-1341 Note that some providers may elect to automate
and PI-1342. this valve as well.
.Communicate with the pump's VFD to facilitate the
Variable-speed pumps following minimum functionality:
.Automatically start/stop the pump from the DCICS
Figure 8-11 illustrates the recommended instrumentation (XS-3020).
for a single variable speed pump. For clarity, the • Monitor the pump's running status (XI-3020).
following discussion refers to the tag names depicted in • Monitor the VFD's fault status (XA-3020).
the figure. .Automatically control the pump's
speed from the DClCS (SC -3020) .
At a minimum, the instrumentation should be in place • Monitor the actual pump's speed (SIT-3020).
to perform the following functions: • Monitorthe electrical voltage (EIT-3020), current
.Automatically isolate the pump's supply with an iso- (1IT-3020), and power (1IT-3020) being consumed
lation valve (AV/XS-3020). Note that depending on by the pump.
where the pump is installed, the automated isola- .Allow operators to start/stop the pump locally,
tion valve may actually be on the pump's bypassing the DClCS altogether (HS-3020AlB).
discharge; however, the following discussions .Monitor the auto status of the pump's hand-off-
assume an automated supply isolation valve and auto switch (HS-3020A).
a manual discharge isolation valve. .Allow operators to control the speed of the pump
• Monitor the full-open/full-dose status of the pump's locally, bypassing the DClCS altogether (HS-
supply isolation valve (ZS 3020/ZSC-3020). 3020CID).
.Allow operators to manually control the pump's • Monitor the remote status of the pump's local-
supply isolation valve locally at the valve, bypassing remote speed control switch (HS3020C) .
the DCICS altogether (HS-3020). • Monitor the normal status of the VFD's bypass/nor-
• Monitor the remote status of the pump's supply mal switch (HS-3020E).
isolation valve's open-close-remote (OC R) switch .Monitor the status of the pump's local disconnect
(HS-3020). switch (HS-3020F).
D1SCONNECTSTAT. HS VFD
HS
0'" DI 3020F
<OCA1.OISC. HS VFD
3020E BYPASSINORMAl.
REM.SPO.Crt.
AD
r-_~~~~====,-_-+.~~REMOTEsrAT.
01
ISUPPLY
I~,.. I~
I
Ci j
'-302
3020
I
~r Porr
3020
D1Ff.PRES.
AI
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This example uses a communication link to the VFD, heat exchanger'scustomer-side supply temperature
not hard-wiring, making it a Levell device. Because of to setpoint.
the wealth of information that is available from industry .Monitor the actual position of the heat exchanger's
standard VFDs, this is usually the more cost-effective provider-side return valve (2T-3000).
approach. The slight increase in cost of a 'network .Allow operators to manually control the heat
ready' VFD is more than offset by the installation cost exchanger's provider-side return valve, locally at the
of hard-wiring all of these signals. Some providers may valve, bypassing the DClCS altogether (HS-3000).
elect to implement a hybrid approach, where all of the • Monitor the remote status of the heat exchanger's
control signals (start/stop, speed control) are hard- provider-side return valve's local-off-remote (LOR)
wired, but a communication link is used to gather all of switch (HS-3000).
the other information. Still other providers may only .Monitor the provider-side supply flow (FIT-l00D)
hard-wire the control signals and not collect the other and temperature (TIT-1000), the return temperature
data at all. (TIT-3000) and the chilled-water energy (JIT-l 000)
being delivered to the heat exchanger by the
Heat exchangers provider.
• Monitor the heat exchanger's customer-side return
Figure 8-12 illustrates the recommended instrumentation temperature (TIT-4000).
for a single heat exchanger utilized in a typical energy .Monitor the approach temperature of the heat
transfer station (ETS) application. For clarity, the exchanger to trend heat exchanger performance.
following discussion refers to the tag names depicted in .Locally monitor the pressures at each of the heat
the figure. exchanger's ports (PI-1000, PI 2000, PI-3000 and
PI-4000).
At a minimum, the instrumentation should be in place • Monitor the differential pressure across the
to perform the following functions: provider's side of the heat exchanger (PDIT-l000).
.Monitor the heat exchanger's customer-side Ensure that this signal is communicated back to the
supply temperature (TIT-2000). controller in the plant(s) that supplies chilled water
.Automatically modulate the heat exchanger's to this heat exchanger. The speeds of the distribu-
provider-side return valve (FY3000) to maintain the tion pumps in the plantsshould becontrolled to main-
HEAT
EXCHANGER
1== I
~
,~
o
!..mlJU» I
-,
m
CHWS
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8.10.2 Selection criteria It is essential that the controller have a large internal
The controller(s) selected should support at least one variable capacity to perform the complex tasks typically
of the following pictorial programming languages: required by a district cooling instrumentation and con-
• Function block diagrams trol system application .
• Ladder logic diagrams
.Sequential function charts Since the controller must communicate to many types
of external devices (Levell, 3 and 4 equipment), it must
High-level, general purpose languages, such as C, C++, support a variety of communication protocols and
Pascal, Fortran and Visual BASIC, while very powerful, media.
should be avoided due to their complexity.
Most controllers are installed in harsh environments and
Regardless of the programming language selected, its must be capable of operating in those conditions. Fol-
instruction set must be robust enough to build the lowing are typical environmental:
complex logic, math, sequencing, timing, counting, and .Operating temperature: 0 C - 60 C (32 C - 140 F),
other algorithms that are required in a typical DCICS typical
application. Some of the control functions that are seen .Operating relative humidity: 5% RH - 95% RH
in different types of plants are discussed in section 8.14. (non-condensing), typical
The ability to create, modify, upload, download and .Others to consider:
save controller programs using an engineering work- _vibration
station is recommended. Once stored in a controller, _shock
the proqrarns- and their associated data should be • radiated RF immunity
protected by battery andlor EEPROM, which prevents
accidental loss in the event of a power failure. 8.10.3 Distributed controllers
For large plants it may be beneficial to design the
The ability to make online changes to the controller's plant's control system using distributed controllers as
logic while the plant continues to operate should be opposed to using one controller for the entire plant.
required by all DClCS controllers. That way, if a particular controller must be taken offline
for any reason, only those devicesthat are controlled by
The programming environment used by the controllers that controller must be operated manually in order to
must support a broad range of debugging and keep the plant running, instead of all of the devices in
troubleshooting tools including cross-referencing, the plant, as is the caseif a single controller is used.
advanced search-and-replace features, and data table
lookups. Online program monitoring and tracing that For example, controllers could be distributed in a large
graphically presents the different states and values of chilled-water production plant as follows:
the program's instructions and the data they are .Controller 1 - Cooling tower controller
operating on must be supported. .Controller 2 - Condenser water loop controller
.Controller 3 - Chilled water loop controller
The controller selected must be able to process a large .Controller 4 - Balance of plant controller (HVAC,
number of 1/0 points reliably and quickly. The 110 electrical energy monitoring, chemical feed sys-
tem monitoring and control, etc.)
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from voltage transients, line noise, spikes, surges grade, user-input devices, such as mice and keyboards,
and fluctuations; is not acceptable in most situations. Instead, the Olfs
.have the ability to annunciate its status to the should be provided with waterproof membrane-style
DCICS by way of hard-wired va
or communications; keyboards and pointing devices. Touch-screen technology
and is also recommended whenever possible.
.be equipped with automatic maintenance bypass
capabilities to ensure continued power to the load- 8.11.4 Local OIT power requirements
side equipment in the event of battery failure or Thelocal Oflsshould be backedup by the sameemergency
battery replacement maintenance. generators and/or uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)
that back up their associated controllers.
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level 4
Topic Best Practice Tips
Component
Data Server(s) Hardware The role of the data server implies its criticality. If its hardware is improperly
specified, it can become a single point of failure that prevents personnel
from interfacing with their equipment and can result in loss of data. A
well-designed data server will
• be a server class machine, running a server-class operating system;
• have large amounts of random access memory (RAM);
• have multiple processors (if the operating system and application
softwarecan exploitthem);
• incorporate hard-drive fault tolerance (minimum RAID Level 1);
• have redundantpower supplies;
• have redundantcooling fans; and
• have a minimum of two network interfacecards (NIC):
eone to communicate with its associated controllers over the
controller network.
eone to communicate with the balance of the Level 4 equipment
over the data network.
eone to communicate with the balance of the Level 4 equipment
overthe data network.
Redundancy To further decrease the likelihood of a data server becoming a single
point of failure, multiple data servers should be installed in redundant
and highly available configurations. In thesetypes of configurations, at
least two data servers are used. One is designated as the master and
the otherts) is designated asthe backup(s). Normally, all of the other
Level 4 servers and workstations communicate with the master data
server for their data. However, if the masterdata server should fail, all
of the other Level 4 servers and workstations should automatically
switch to the backupdata server for their data. Fallback to the master
data server upon its recovery can be automatic or manual, depending
on the district cooling provider's preference.
Level 4
Topic Best Practice Tips
Component
Data Server(s) • historical data collection software
(continued) • historical data trend display software
• reporting software
Historical Server Hardware The criticality of the historical server depends on the "value" that the
provider places on the data beingcollected and stored. The following
criteriashould be addressed when determining the "value" of the data:
• Why isthe databeing collected and stored? Formaintenance and
troubleshooting? To determine plantefficiencies? For customer invoicing?
.What is the required data collection rate?
• How long mustthe databe retained?
The selection of storage file format is veryimportant since the data that
the file stores will not only be accessed by other DCICS applications, but
also by third-party, Level 5 systems (i.e., accounting, maintenance and
billing systems). Most Level 5 systems should support issuing SQL queries
againstrelational databases that will makeaccessing the data much
easier than if proprietary filesare used.
Proper initial design of the storage file format and how the LevelS
applications will access the stored data can make integration much
easier downthe road, andcan lead to ongoing savings in datamaintenance.
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level 4
Topic Best Practice Tips
Component
Historical Server Logging rates and data retention requirements should be defined dur-
(continued) ing the detailed design of the DCICS. Thiswill determine the size of the
mass storage device(s) that the historical server requires.
Data security, backup Data security, backupand restoration activities are also important factors
and restoration to consider when specifying and implementing a historicalserverfor a
DClCS. Depending on the "value" of the data, backups should be
performed at regular intervals and stored off site. Following are examples
of robust backup procedures:
.Automated backupto tape or other removable media performed
locallyat the historical server's location. Maintained by the owners
of the DCICS.
• Automated backupto corporate backup servers, which in turn are
backed up by other systems. Requires ongoing coordination with
the IT department that owns the backup equipment, but otherwise
should be transparentto the owners of the DCICS.
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to their Level 3 OITs and Level 4 data servers. Level 2+ disastrous. However, if the provider depends on the
data networks are used to connect Level 4 data servers communication backbone to control equipment and
to other Level 4 servers and workstations and to tie all the connection is lost, then the impact might not be
of the local controller networks in a provider's district known until it is too late to do anything about it. It
together. Level 2+ networks can span multiple plants should be noted that control is actually done at the
and sites, and in the case of the central data network local plant controller - Level 2. Even when a satellite
presented in the sample Deles in section 8.6, may plant is "controlled" remotely, the remote input is to
extend to all of the plants and command centers. issue requeststo control equipment and to change set-
points. The actual control and setpoint mainte-
Network Example networks introduced nance is done by the local controller.
Category sample DClCS in section 8.6
Fiber optics
Level 1 Networks Remote 110 networks
Energy monitoring networks
Chiller controller networks From the reliabilitylsecurity perspective. the bestso-
VFD networks lution would be to install a fiber-optic system
"Smart" transmitter networks dedicated to and controlled by the provider. Fiber
Level 2+ Networks Controller networks optics is the best backbone for speed, flexibility
Data networks and maintainability, but it has the disadvantage
Level 5 Networks Corporate networks (notinthe scope of higher first cost. If a fiber-optic system is(or will
of this chapter) be)alreadyin place in the district cooling provider's
district, then sharing bandwidth might be a fea-
Table 8-8. DClCS network categories.
sible alternative. However, the provider should
The sections that follow provide some best practices to assume somesecurityand privacy will be lost.Alternatively,
consider concerning the specification, design and the provider could install the fiber-optic system and then
installation of Level 2+ networks. lease bandwidth to others. That way the provider could
exert greater control over its operation, at leastin theory.
Generally, fiber-optic systems will be more expensive
than wireless and Internetoptions. However, costs can
be reduced if the fiber can be installed with the district
cooling piping in new installations.
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owned by the district cooling provider. The key element to the success of remote control is
having a fairly sophisticated DClCS Level 2+ network
Wireless systems can be hacked from the curbside infrastructure in place.
using a laptop, making it a much less desirable option
then fiber optics, but it is still acceptable provided the 8.13.4 Sophistication
appropriate security measures are put in place. When controlling from remote locations, it is critical
that process variables be available to the remote
Internet operators on a timely basis. When the plant is locally
manned, an operator may detect a problem developing
Monitoring and control through Internet connections simply by the sound a machine is making, an unusual
is also fairly common. Service through an Internet odor or any symptom that can be physically sensed.
provider's high-speed infrastructure should be much These human senses are impossible to replicate with
quicker than through a leased line and would be the sensors and computers. Thus, any time a plant is
better Internet choice. Regardless, the connectivity to operated remotely, the provider is putting itself at a
the satellite plants will depend on the quality of the potentia I risk.
Internet connection. If the Internet connection is weak,
these options should not be considered. The extent of the risk depends on the plant'scomplexity.
On the complex side, a diesel electric generation plant
Hacking through the Internet is extremely convenient as with steam heat-recovery generators and absorption
the intruder can do it any time from any place in the chillers would be a difficult plant to control safely from
world, making it a much less desirableoption than fiber a remote location. On the simple side, an electric
optics, but it is still acceptable provided the appropriate centrifugal chiller plant could be safely controlled from
security measures are put in place. a remote location (this is often done). Since the most
complex procedure isstarting up a system, if the startup
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software levelsand needs to be as robust as possible to port network monitoring via OPC (OLE for process con-
prevent unauthorized access, either accidental ormalicious. trol). Some of the data typically available includes
• device status,
On the hardware side, securelintelligent hubs, switches, .Iink status and
routers and firewalls that can be configured to limit .network statistics.
access to authorized people andlor computers should
be used extensively. The ability to read this information using an OPC server
allows it to be incorporated into most modern HMI ap-
On the software side, security should be implemented plications where it can be trended, alarmed and dis-
at the operating system level using the most modern, played along with all of the other process data being
robust security schemes available. Items such as unique accessed. Separate applications (other than the appro-
and complex user names and passwords and password priate OPC server) are not required to access this data.
expiration should be considered. In general, all of the It can be embedded into the same HMI application that
security-related recommendationsmade by the operating is used to control and monitor the rest of the equip-
system's manufacturer should be followed closely. ment in the district cooling provider's plants.
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a different port to access the energy monitoring It should be pointed out that the data being generated
network in Plant-F2. Finally, the user would access the by a typical DClCS needsto be made availableto systems
energy meter needed to configure over the Plant-F2 that run on the provider's corporate network, such as
energy metering network. billing and accounting systems. For this reason the two
departments (DCICS and IT) will need to interface
The example above illustrates the power of network regularly and a high level of cooperation needs to be
bridging and controller pass through from a serviceability maintained between the two.
point of view. Personnel do not need to travel to the
individual plants to service the equipment in them. With
this power also comes the potential for malfeasance by
unauthorized personnel, so robust security measures
must be put in place if network bridging and controller
pass through are implemented.
For instance, a typical task that IT departments perform 8.13.11 DClCS Level 2+ network
on a regular basis is to shut down network hubs for component power requirements
maintenance. This is fine on the corporate network DCICS Level 2+ networks allow large portions of the
where the shutdown can be scheduled during off hours DCICS to communicate with each other. Without
and the impact to theprovider's operation is minimized. proper thought, a failure of a single Level 2+ network
However, shutting down a DCICS hub, regardless of component can result in a substantial lossof visibility to
the time of day, can have disastrous consequences, the provider's plants. One of the first things to consider
resulting in loss of visibility to one or more plants. is how this equipment will be powered.
Another typical IT function is to automatically download It is highly recommended that all Level 2+ network
patches and updates to the servers and workstations equipment be backed up by emergency generators
on the corporate network. Thisis a valuable service that and/or uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
IT departments provide. It helps to keep the provider's
corporate computers up to date with the most recent Emergency generators require the use of an automatic
versions of software and free of viruses. However, the transfer switch (ATS) to automatically toggle between
software implemented in a typical DCICS is designed, normal power and the emergency power generator
deployed and tested using certain revision levels of that is started when normal power is lost. The automatic
operating systems and other software. If this software starting of an emergency generator and the activation
is updated without first testing the updates in a con- of the ATS takes time (<30 seconds typically). A UPS is
trolled environment, the entire DCICS may stop working. needed to keep the Level 2+ networking equipment
energized for the short amount of time required to start
The choice of what department owns and operates the the generator and transfer to emergency power. The
DCICS network infrastructure is left up to the individual UPS should be sized to keep the equipment energized
provider, but it is important to emphasize that special during this short power transitional period.
care must be taken when servicing any piece of DCICS
network equipment. There may also be situations where an emergency
generator is not available at a particular plant. In these
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situations a UPS is required and should be sized to keep _heat exchanger customer-side pump control
the Level 2+ networking equipment energized for a (depending on customer)
much longer period of time. The length of time is _energy monitoring
dependent on the individual provider's requirements.
8.15 Human-Machine
8.14 Control Functions Interface Functionality
This section presents an overview of the types of control The provider's staff can interface to the DCICS in many
algorithms that a well-designed and implemented different ways from many different locations:
DCICS should be able to support. Details on these .Local to plants
control schemes are beyond the scope of this chapter .Iocal Level 3 OITs
and would typically be defined by the DClCScontractor elocal Level 4 workstations
during detailed design. .Command centers
• data servers
In general, a well-designed and implemented DCICS • historical data servers
should be able to perform all of the control functions .command center Level 4 workstations
necessary to meet the provider's main objective of .Indirectly from Level 5 applications by accessing
providing chilled-water energy to its customers in the the data stored in the relational database(s) on
most cost-effective manner possible. This includes, but the historical server(s).
is not limited to, the following: • Remotely from anywhere in the world, with the
proper security credentials, using standard Web
browsers via the terminal server(s) that are
installed in the command centers.
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contractors to increase the price to cover • Large EPC contractors are executing many projects
contingencies. on an ongoing basis and normally have a project
organization with well-established methods and
routines in place. Since the owner executes large
projects less frequently than an EPC contractor, it
may lack up-to-date experience and staffing.
Typically, the owner's requirements are established in a There is a wide variation in the level of detail in ORDs,
document called the Owner's Requirements Document ranging from a brief summary of key performance
(ORD) or Owner's Project Requirements (OPR). specifications to a specific conceptual design. An
example table of contents for a detailed ORD for a
There are many variations in this procurement district cooling plant is presented in Table 9-1.
approach, e.g., the owner may directly procure major
equipment. It is important that the ORD clearlydistinguish between
the owner's requirements and the conceptual design.
The following are key advantages of EPC procurement: The EPC contractor must fulfill the project require-
elt has a single point of responsibility and there are ments, whereas the conceptual design represents one
likelyfewer contracts between the owner and others. possible way to do the design to meet the require-
• There is a reduction in time required, leading to an ments. In the end, the EPC contractor must take full
earlier online date. responsibility for the design.
• Determining the most cost-effective design can be
enhanced through the contractor's input during the 9.3 Packaged Plants
design phase.
• Cost savings can result from reduced coordination A third option for procurement of design and
costs, reduced time for carrying a construction loan construction of district cooling plants is purchase of
(which typically carries a higher interest rate than packaged or modular plants. With this approach, plant
permanent financing) and an earlier online date. modules are manufactured in a factory, including
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General Flanges
System Description Joints
Plant Design Description Valves
Definitions Insulation
Codes and Standards Plant air compressor
Design Overview and Concepts Control Equipment Requirements
System Design Requirements Instruments
Utility Cost Information Programmable logic controllers
Plant Phasing and Project Schedule Flow meters
Plant System Descriptions and Design Criteria Transmitters
Mechanical Electrical Equipment Requirements
Chilled-water system 66 kV substation
Condenser-water system 11 kV and 3,300-volt switchgear
Water makeup and treatment systems Dry-type transformers
Safety systems Plant power factor
Refrigeration storage and handling Safety switches
Ventilation Raceway system
Monitoring Wire and cable - 600 volts and below
Over-pressure protection Medium-voltage cable
Control Wiring devices
System control descriptions Substation earthing (grounding)
Architecture Ground and lightning protection system
Integrator Panelboards
Electrical Variable-speed drives (VSDs)
Utility power supply Lighting
Short-circuit protection systems UPS system
Voltage regulation systems Fire alarm and detection
Grounding systems Motors
Lighting and small power systems Distribution system controls
Building Services Building Service Equipment Requirements
Acoustics, sound and vibration Acoustics, sound and vibration
HVAC HVAC
Lighting Lighting
Plumbing Plumbing
Security Security
Plant Equipment Requirements Building Construction Requirements
Mechanical Equipment Requirements Arch ite ctu raI/civiI/structu raI descripti an
Centrifugal water chiller packages General
Cooling towers Design criteria for structure
Distribution pumps Space programming requirements
Chiller pumps Construction materials
Condenser-water pumps Environmental
Chilled-water expansion tanks Permits and approvals
Water treatment Owner's Review Process
Chilled water Preliminary design phase
Condenser water Final design phase
System Piping and Materials Construction/startup phase
Piping Commissioning
Fitting and branch connections Standards of Acceptance
Table 9-1. Example detailed outline of Owner's Requirements Documents (ORDs) for engineer/procurelconstruct (EPe)
procurement.
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10. Commissioning
Numerous definitions and opinions of commissioning the procurement and project delivery process. Because
exist, but ASHRAE's definition is especially noteworthy. the different major elements of a district cooling
ASHRAE defines commissioning as "a systematic system (plant, distribution, ETSs) are often procured in
process of ensuring that systems are designed, installed, separate packages, it is especially important that there
functionally tested and capable of being operated and be one entity that has the responsibility and authority
maintained to perform in conformity with design intent." to ensure that all elements are designed, installed and
operated as an integrated whole. To ASHRAE this entity
ASHRAE Guideline 0-2005 addresses the commission- is known as the commissioning authority (CA), but
ing process for an entire project, from initial concep- sometimes many of the same roles are discharged by
tion through operations. The process is organized as the owner's engineer (OE).
follows:
• Pre-design - Owner's Project Requirements (OPR)
are defined.
• Oesign - Based on the OPR, construction docu-
ments are prepared by the engineer.
• Construction - Based on the construction docu-
ments, bids are received. Equipment and systems
are installed, inspected, tested and placed into op-
eration to meet the OPR. Effective integrated commissioning of district cooling
• Occupancy and Operations - Starting at substantial systems is rarely achieved, with the result that the
completion, functional performance testing is district cooling provider's operations staff bear the
preformed and ongoing operations and mainte- burden of trying to make sure that all systems operate
nance are verified against the final OPR. effectively together, which may be difficult or impossi-
ble to achieve after the fact. Compressed schedules
Commissioning is frequently considered to focus on exacerbate this problem.
startup, testing, adjusting and balancing, and some
standards focus on these tasks. For example, the U.S. It is especially important for the commissioning process
National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB) Stan- to address district cooling system design and perform-
dard emphasizes the performance of work identified in ance as it relates to delta T, energy use, available equip-
the following ASHRAE Construction and Occu- ment capacity and customer comfort. Chapter 5 details
pancy/Operations phases: metrics that may be used at the customer ETS to assess
• Testing, Adjusting and Balancing (TAB) - Traditional system performance at the interface with each
measuring and setting of balancing devices for customer. Performance metrics should also be provided
obtaining proper flows and performance. for the plant very early in the design and planning
• Field Installation Verification (FIV) - Are the equip- process. Tothe greatest extent possible, the CA must be
ment and system ready for startup? capable of broadly evaluating the chilled-water system,
• Operational Performance Testing (OPT) - Is the including details beyond the customer interface, to
equipment operating as intended? ensure that the chilled-water return temperature to the
• Functional Performance Testing (FPT)-Is the equip- plant meets or exceedssystem design at peak- and part-
ment operating as efficiently as intended? load conditions. It is equally important to ensure that the
supply-water temperature provided to customer buildings
Commissioning is much more than just these tasks. Test- is sufficient to meet contractual obligations and satisfy
ing, adjusting and balancing are a necessary first step be- customer cooling requirements. Poor delta T performance
fore dynamic operations are tested as a key part of the is a very common industry problem that has an adverse
commissioning process. However, in addition to making impact on equipment capacity and energy consumption
surethat all the individual equipment is installed correctly and may also affect customer comfort and chilled-water
and with the necessary safety and controls systems, com- revenue. The commissioning process should pay special
missioning focuses on ensuring that the entire system attention to this issue long before the system is in con-
works as designed through all conditions that will occur struction and operation.
during operations, including startup, part- and full-load,
shutdown and alarm conditions. Testing and balancing A project's implementation is driven by cost, time and
usually focuses on minimum and maximum conditions, quality. Constructionmanagerstypicallyconcentrate on the
whereas commissioning addresses sequence of equip- first two elements - cost and time - and commissioning
mentoperation and optimization of performance across authorities concentrate on the third element - quality.
a range of conditions.
The owner expresses the desired outcome through
Commissioning should be integrated into the design what ASHRAE calls the OPR and others call the Owner's
and construction processes and should be a key part of Requirements Document (ORD). Then it is the commis-
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sioning authority's role to ensure that the owner's requirements can be achieved. The commissioning au-
requirements are achieved as the project is planned, thority updates the commissioning plan, prepares
designed, installed, tested, operated and maintained. checklists, witnesses tests and verifies that test reports
The CA brings value to the owner through focused are documented.
attention to quality, process and system performance
within the context of the district cooling provider'sbusi- It is important to require the contractor to provide a
nesscase. The CA should understand the nature of the comprehensive equipment list, full as-built drawings
district cooling business and the often complex and useful O&M manuals for all equipment and
relationships between customer load, capital invest- systems. For projects in the Middle East, oftentimes the
ment and annual operating expenses. O&M manuals supplied by the contractor are simply a
collection of vendor literature and not proper O&M
manuals, which makes it difficult for district cooling
system operating personnel to operate the district
cooling system efficiently.
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DBB EFLH
designlbid/build equivalent full-load hours
A project delivery process in which a consulting engi- Ratio of total annual energy consumption to peak
neer prepares a detailed design including plans and hourly demand.
specifications that are put out to bid to qualified con-
tractors. EPe
eng ineer/procu relconstruct
De A project delivery process in which the design and con-
direct current struction are contracted for with a single entity.
delta P F
The pressure difference between supply and return. degree Fahrenheit
delta T FIV
The temperature difference between supply and return. field installation verification
DER FPT
debt-to-equity ratio functional performance testing
desalination FRP
Any of several processes that remove excess salt and fiberglass-reinforced plastic
other minerals from water.
fps
DIR feet per second
debt interest rate
gpm
DR gallons per minute
dimension ratio
The ratio of HDPE pipe outside diameter to pipe GHG
wall thickness. greenhouse gas
Gases present in the earth's atmosphere that warm
EeWT near-surface global temperatures through the green-
entering condenser-water temperature house effect.
GRP HV
glass-reinforced plastic high voltage
GWP HVAC
global warming potential heating, ventilation and air conditioning
A measure of how much a given mass of greenhouse
gas is estimated to contribute to global warming. It is impeller
a relative scale that compares the gas in question to The rotating element in centrifugal pumps and
that of the same mass of carbon dioxide (whose GWP compressors that transfers energy from the motor to
is by definition 1). A GWP is calculated over a specific the fluid to create pressure head.
time interval. In this document the GWP figures reflect
the commonly used tuo-year interval. 1/0
input/output
HCFC
hyd rochlorofluorocarbon IEEE
A commonly used class of refrigerants. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
HDA I&C
historical data acquisition instrumentation and controls
HFC kPa
hydrofluorocarbon kilopascal
A commonly used class of refrigerants.
kVA
HMI kilovolt ampere
human-machine interface
kW
hot tapping kilowatt
An operation in which a branch connection is made to
a pipe main while the pipe remains in service or "hot." kWh
kilowatt-hour
hp
horsepower LCWT
leaving condenser-water temperature
HR5G
heat-recovery steam generator LNG
A boiler producing steam from recovered heat; often liquefied natural gas
used in a combined-cycle configuration to effectively
utilize thermal energy for power production or addi- m
tional heat uses. meter
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mADC ODP
milliamps DC ozone depletion potential
The relative amount of degradation to the ozone layer
mbar a given chemical can cause, with trichlorofluo-
millibar romethane (R-l1) being fixed at an ODP of 1.0.
MED OIP
multi-effect distillation operator interface terminal
micro-tunneling OLE
A trench less construction method for installing object linking and embedding
pipelines. A technology that supports the linking and embedding
of objects from one application seamlessly into another
MID meter application.
An electronic flow meter that measuresflow by induc-
tion of voltage in a conductor moving in a magnetic OPC
field. These devices are often called "magmeters." OLE for processcontrol
A standard that specifies communication of real-time
mm plant data between devices from different manufac-
millimeter turers.
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PLC 51
programmable logic controller Standard International
PPE SOP
personal protective equipment standard operating procedure
psi TCP/IP
pound per square inch transmission control protocol/internet protocol
A unit of pressure equal to 68.95 millibar. A protocol for communication between computers
used asa standard for transmitting data over networks
psig and as the basis for standard Internet protocols.
pounds per square inch gauge
Pressure above standard atmospheric pressure, TEAAC
measured in psi. totally enclosed air-to-air-cooled
PVC TEFC
polyvinyl chloride totally enclosed fan-cooled
RAM TES
random access memory thermal energy storage
RF TEWAC
radio frequency totally enclosed water-to-air-cooled
RO three-way valve
reverse osmosis A valve having either a single inlet and two outlets or
two inlets and a single outlet.
ROE
return on equity ton
A measure of cooling capacity or demand equal to
ROI removal of 12,000 8ritish thermal units (Btu) per hour;
return on investment sometimes the abbreviation TR is used, for "tons
refrigeration. "
RTTMS
real-time thermal modeling and simulation ton-hr
A measure of cooling energy consumption equal to one
SCADA ton over a one-hour period.
supervisory control and data acquisition
TSE
S/cm treated sewage effluent
Siemensper centimeter
A unit of specific conductivity. turbine meter
A device that measures the rate of flow in a pipe via a
shadow prices rotor that spins as the media passes.
An assumption of C02 emissions cost for the purpose
of comparing options.
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turndown VDC
The ratio between maximum and minimum flow or voltage DC
capacity for the controllable operating range of a piece
of equipment. VGD
variable geometry diffusers
two-way valve
A valve having two ports that can be open or closed, VSD
used for controlling flow to equipment. variable-speed drive
A system for controlling the rotational speed of
ultrasonic meter powered machinery(e.g., pump or fan) by controlling the
A device that measures flow by measuring the time frequency of the electrical power supplied to the ma-
between the transmission and reception of ultrasonic chinery; also known as variable-frequency drive (VFD).
signals over an exactly known distance.
WACC
UPS system weighted average cost of capital
un interruptible power supply system
A power supply system that includes a battery to main- WB
tain power in the eventof a poweroutage. wet bulb
VAV
variable air volume
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Multiply by to obtain
bar 100 kilopascal (kPa)
barrel [petroleum) 159.0 liter (I)
barrel [petroleum] 42 gallon (g)
Btu 1.055 kilojoule (kJ)
Btu 0.0002931 kilowatt-hour (kWh)
Btu/hr 0.2928 watt (W)
cubic feet (ft3; cu ft) 0.0283 cubic meter (m 3 ; cu m)
cubic feet/minute (dm) 0.4719 literlsecond (Ips; 115)
feet (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)
feet (ft) 304.8 millimeters (mm)
ft2/ton 0.09290 m2/ton
feet of water (ft) [head] 2.989 kilopascal (kPa)
feet/minute (fpm) 0.00508 meterlsecond (m/s)
feet/second (fps; ft/s) 0.3048 meterlsecond (m/s)
gallon (gal) [US] 0.003785 cubic meter (m 3 ; cu m)
gallon (gal) [US] 3.785 liter (I)
gallons/minute (gpm) 0.06309 liters/second (1/5)
horsepower (hp) 0.7457 kilowatt (kW)
inch (in) 25.4 millimeter (mm)
inch (in) 1000 mil
mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)
mile/hour (mph) 1.609 kilometer/hour (km/h)
millibar (mB) 0.1 kilopascal (kPa)
ounce (oz) 28.35 gram (g)
pound (Ib) [mass] 0.4536 kilogram (kg)
Ib/in 2 (psi) 0.06895 bar
Ib/in 2 (psi) 2.307 feet of water (It) [head]
Ib/in 2 (psi) 6.895 kilopascal (kPa)
psi/l 00 ft 226.2 Pascal/meter (Palm)
square feet (ft2 ; sq ft) 0.09290 square meter (m 2)
therm 105.5 megajoule (MJ)
ton [refrigeration] 3.516 kiIowatts (kW)
ton [refrigeration] 12,000 Btu/hr
ton-hr 3.516 kilowatt-hour (kWh)
ton-hr 12,000 Btu
yard (yd) 0.9144 meter (m)
to obtain by Divide
NOTE; All approximate conversion factors above are presented with four significant digits.
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DISTRICT COOLINGBEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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Callem' are the units of incident energy that the PPE is adequately braced to handle the available fault
can withstand. Note that a hard hat with full-face shield current. Finally, the bolted fault currents are converted
and the appropriate gloves are required also. into arc fault currents for additional analysis.
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DISTRICT COOUNG BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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2.Relying on quick analysis methods can result in Arc fault current (lfe) is derived from the available
exposure to unexpeded liabilities. Therearea number bolted short-circuit or fault current (I,,) and is always
of shortcuts being offered by individuals and substantially less than its corresponding short-circuit
companies that can have disastrous results. current. The Instituteof Electrical and Eledronics Engineers
Companies should be sure their methods will stand (IEEE) has established a formula for calculating (esti-
up to analysis and peer review. Cure-all solutions mating) the (lfe), and they provide a spreadsheet. The
are being promoted, such as the installation of following areexamples of results from using theirformula:
current-limiting fuses. Many firms rightfully believe
in the use of fuses, particularly current-limiting
types, but as will be shown below, they are not Bolted Fault Current Arc Fault Current
always the answer. They are definitely not a quick-
@480V
fix solution. 10 kA = 6.56 kA
20 kA = 11.85 kA
3. Being overly conservative when performing a 30 kA = 16.76kA
short-circuit analysis results in the misapplication
40 kA = 21.43 kA
of circuit protection equipment, which in turn has
the consequence of calculated arc flash levels
being higher than they actually are.
What is now important is to obtain?
1. The maximum expected (worse case) bolted short-
4. The calculated bolted fault or short-circuit current circuit current.
is a worst-case calculation that assumes very low 2. The minimum and maximum voltage to the facility.
short-circuit impedance. A bolted short-circuit 3. The minimum expected short-circuit current.
connection is based upon two conductors being
"bolted" together to form the short. In reality, Also needed are definitions of the operating modes of
most short circuits are less than ideal, resulting in the facility, such as
fault currents that are less than the calculated • the minimum and maximum motorloads expected
bolted short-circuit condition. during normal operation and off-hour operation;
and
5. On the other hand, the arc fault should be a more • variation in the sourcesof supply to the plant, such
predictable occurrence. The arc fault calculations as- as alternate feeders or cogeneration.
sume that there is a physical gap between conduc-
tors that was bridged by something resulting in the The data from the public utility and the determination
arc formation. Once the arc is formed and plasma is of the facility's modes of operation should be converted
produced,the arccurrent should closelyapproximate into the maximum and minimum arc fault current at
the calculated fault levels. The arc fault calculations various locations in the plant. These results are applied
are an approximation based upon research and test- to protective device coordination studies, where the
ing similarto the short-circuit analysis methods. They protective devices are evaluated, and adjusted if
are not exact, and therefore care needs to be taken necessary, allowing the proper PPE categories to be de-
when usingthe results. termined.
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•
CURRENT INAMPERES
point for the fuse, which is approxi-
10
1000 1000 mately 28,000 amps. Thus, there is no
current-limit effect from using the fuse.
Current-limiting fuses often do provide
additional protection, and they are very
good devices, but they must be applied
100 100 properly. In this example, the circuit
breaker provides the best protection.
In the above example, both the arc fault current and At an arc fault current of 4000 amps the fuse will begin
the bolted fault current are less than the current-limiting to current limit and will open the circuit in quarter cycle,
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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
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CURRE~TINAMPERES
only 2.1 cal/em", however, many busses
1000 had quite high incident energy levels? :
1000: : ~
.24% of busses over 8 cal/em'
PPE Category 2
• 12 % of busses over 40 cal/em'
PPE Category 4
100 .5% of busses over 85 cal/ern'
deadly - no protection
• 1% of busses over 205 cal/ern"
deadly - no protection
Risks to personnel indude-'
10 =='-__" 10 • burns,
• damaging sound levels and
• high pressure (720 Iblft' eardrums
rupture; 1728 to 2160 Ib/ft'lung
damage).
Conclusions
1. Arc fault analysis is actually risk
management. There are basicallythree
SQUARED
Masklrpacl, NW LF.6.0PIH choices:
0.10 ~~~~ha'B '-~-'-l>
LTPUILTO (AO.4-1.0~ S) 0.6 (15QA); II 1- • Be very conservative and require
STPU (1.5.10~ LTPU) 6 (12OOA)
STO(INST'{)A) INST(lA2 T Oul) PPE Category 4, in most cases
INST (2.1S~ S}6 (lSOOA)
resulting in higher maintenance
cost.
• Do nothing and suffer the
0.01 0.01
0.5 10 ~ ~
consequences (pay later).
• Perform the necessary analysis and
make adjustments to reduce the
TCC Name; Motor Current Seale x 10 Reference Voltage: 480 arc fault conditions resulting in
Oneline:
September 8, 2008 2;02 PM reduced PPE requirements.
Prepazred By:PfeifferEngineering Co., Inc.Louisville. KY
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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE
C2008 !nlernil~'onal DlillictEnergy AsIDdatioo. Ailrightsreservro.
The authors and contributors of the District Cooling Best Practice Guide have made
their best effort to be accurate and inclusive, but in the end, some items may
inadvertently contain errors and/or there are additional topics that may be of interest
to you. IDEA welcomes your comments or notices of errors or omissions you deem
important. Please email us at bpg.idea@districtenergy.org with detailed information
on your comments, including the page number and location of any errors, plus your
suggestions for additional content for consideration for the Second Edition.
Along with your comments, please be sure to include your complete contact
information, as listed below, so IDEAstaff can contact you.
Name
Title
Organization
Mailing Address [street, city, state/province (asapplicable), country]
Phone (office and mobile)
Email address
INTERNATIONAL
DISTRICf ENERGY
• ASSOCIATION
24 Lyman Street, Suite 230
Westborough, MA 01581 USA
+ 1 508-366-9339 phone
+1 508-366-0019 fax
www.districtenergy.org