Chemical Engineering Science, 1966,Vol. 21, pp. 87-95. Pergamon Press Ltd., Oxford. Printed in Great Britain.

The efl.ect of viscosity on the flooding conditions in wetted wall columns

R. CLIFT, C. L. PRITCHARD and R. M. NEDDERMAN

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge

(Received 12 November 1964; in revised form 18 January 1965)

Abstract--The gas velocitiesfor flooding in a wetted wall column have been measured as a function of
liquid viscosity and flow rate. The flooding velocities were found to be somewhat higher than those
predicted by DAVIDSONand SrmA~R. Measurements have also been made of the liquid downflowafter
the column has flooded.

INTRODUCTION and a is the surface tension at the gas liquid inter-

A WETTED wall column is a device often used for
contacting a gas with a liquid. It consists of a
vertical tube down which the liquid flows freely as
an annular film and through which the gas passes,
generally counter-current to the liquid. Under
certain conditions the counter-current flow be-
comes unstable and part of the liquid passes co-
current with the gas. This phenomenon is known
as " f l o o d i n g "
The formation of standing waves on a liquid
film due to gas flowing upwards over it has been
considered theoretically by SHEARER and DAVID-
SON [1]. They found that for every value of liquid
flow there is a critical gas velocity beyond which
the wave amplitude became very large. Three
dimensionless groups emerge naturally from the
theory.
(1) Weber number W e = PgU2m
(7
4 PzQI
(2) Reynolds number Re =
l.t ~z D
(3) " L i q u i d property Z = [tr3 /91/1/3
parameter" | p4 g )
where U is the critical gas velocity, Qe is the liquid
volume flow rate, pg and p~ are the densities of the
gas and liquid respectively, p is the liquid velocity
face. m is the thickness of the undisturbed film
given by the Nusselt equation:
m--- [ 3#Q,/1/3
According to the theory We, R e and Z are uniquely
related at the point where the standing waves
become very large. SrIEARER and DAVtDSON
plotted a family of curves for W e against R e with
various values of Z as a parameter. The curves
appeared to agree fairly well with published values
of the flooding point in wetted wall columns.
Therefore they suggested that the phenomenon of
flooding was due to wave formation on the liquid
film, and that their theoretical curves could be
used to predict flooding.
The results with which the SHEARERand DAWD-
SON theory was correlated covered only a small
range of Z values. This work was therefore under-
taken to provide information over a wide range
of Z. It will be noted that variation in Z results
almost entirely from variation in the viscosity of
the liquid since most commonly encountered
liquids have more or less the same density (0-5-2)
and surface tension (30-80 dyn]cm) but have a
wide variation in viscosity (0.01-1 P).
A similar study has been undertaken by WALLIS
[2] but since there is reason to suppose that end
effects were important in WALLIS' apparatus it
was thought worthwhile repeating the work. The
present results are compared with WALLIS' below.

87
 R. CLIFT, C. L. PRITCHARD and R. M. NEDDERMAN

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Consttanntkhead
The object of this work was to investigate the
effect of viscosity on the flooding in a wetted wall
column. Water and aqueous glycerol solutions
were therefore used as these always show New-
tonian behaviour and it is possible to change the
viscosity over a wide range without appreciably
affecting either the density or surface tension.
Details of the solutions used are given in Table 1. I
I I
Sintered[-~
sectionL_~ .

1
Table 1

Viscosity* Density Surface Z*

Tension RotameterJ~
(cP) (g/cma) (dyn/cm) I
I
1° 82 ~ Glycerol 82-5 1.21 65-0 9.1
2. 77~ Glycerol 46-0 1.20 65"8 20
3. 70~o Glycerol 23.4 1.18 66"4 50
4. 59~ Glycerol 10.4 1.15 68.0 147
Air
5. 25~ Glycerol 2"18 1-06 70-2 1200 supply ,[--'~manometer
6. Water 1.32 1 "00 72'0 2310

* These values varied somewhat from day to day depen-

ding on the ambient temperature.

In principle the apparatus required was simple,
consisting of a vertical column with means for
introducing air and liquid, and controlling and
measuring their flow rates. Steps were taken to
ensure that smooth entry conditions were main-
tained in both fluids. The apparatus is shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 1.
The column consisted of two 6 ft lengths of
perspex tubing, the nominal i.d. being 1¼ in.
The sections were checked to ensure that their
internal dimensions were matched to within fairly
small tolerances. The perspex sections were in-
terspaced by an annular section of sintered bronze,
approximately 3 in. long and machined so that
its i.d. was the same as that of the perspex tube.
The whole column was set up with its axis ver-
tical.
Air could be introduced at the base of the column
from the low pressure laboratory supply via a
rotameter. The horizontal 1 in. pipe from the
rotameter turned through a right angle inside the
compartment at the lower end of the column, so
that the air stream passed vertically upwards to
impinge on a horizontal circular disc fixed to the
Storage tank
F[o. 1
end of the pipe. In this way the airflow was dis-
tributed across the width of the entry compartment
and prevented from passing straight up the column
as a jet. A smooth bell-shaped section turned
from a block of wood served to accelerate the air
stream to the velocity with which it would pass up
the column. It was anticipated that this device
would calm the air flow and reduce its turbulence
at entry to the column. This calming section was
similar to that used by BASHFORTHet al. [3] and
NICKLIN and DAVIDSON [4] before them. The air
pressure in the chamber was measured by either a
mercury manometer or an inclined water mano-
meter to give a wide range of sensitivity.
The sintered bronze section already referred to
was used to ensure that the liquid flow was com-
pletely smooth at entry. It was thought that the
standing disturbance set up at entry when a liquid
is simply poured down a vertical surface (see
Fig. 2) would be largely eliminated by admitting
the liquid through a porous section. To ensure

88
 The effectof viscosityon the floodingconditionsin wettedwallcolumns
Liquid~~/'-~l~' inJ/ Lqiu~~
~l di
[a] (b)
Fla. 2
steady flow the liquid was supplied to the porous
section from a constant head tank via a rotameter
and control valve. The liquid leaving the top or
b o t t o m of the column was returned to a storage
tank from which it was pumped to the head tank.
Since the liquid was introduced half way up the
column instead of at the top as is usual in such
work it was possible to measure the division of
the flow into components passing co- and counter-
current to the gas flow. This division occurs at
flow rates higher than the flooding rates.
A disentrainment device was fitted to the top of
the column to prevent the droplets of liquid formed
under flooding conditions from spraying over the
laboratory.
METHOD OF OPERATION
Since the viscosity of aqueous glycerol solutions
is very sensitive to variations in composition and
temperature, it was measured frequently during
the course of each run by a portable Ferranti
viscometer (Couette type). The other relevant
properties surface tension and density are less
affected by changes in temperature or composi-
tion and it was thought sufficient to measure the
density at the end of each run and to calculate the
surface tension from this using published data.
Since the surface tension varied by only 15 per
cent throughout the experiments, this technique
must have been accurate to within a few per cent.
The calibration of the liquid rotameter was
sensitive to the viscosity so this was checked for each
89
solution by measuring the volume of liquid passed
in a given time. The air rotameter was calibrated
by passing the air through it and then through
a standard gas meter. A calibration curve was drawn
up for air at 16.7°C and 78.0 cm H g under which
conditions its density is 1-25 x 10 -3 g/cc.
In SHEARER and DAVIDSON'S predictions the gas
velocity and density appear only in the combina-
tion U2pg a quantity which is directly related to
the reading on a rotameter since the volume of
gas passed at a given reading is inversely propor-
tional to the square root of the gas density. Hence
in this work it was never necessary to know either
the gas flow rate or density separately since the
group U2pgcould be calculated directly from the
rotameter reading. Henceforth all air velocities
mentioned are hypothetical velocities calculated on
the assumption that the air was at its " s t a n d a r d "
density of 1.25 x 10 - a g/cc.
Most of the experimental work was concerned
with obtaining pairs of values of the liquid and
gas flows at which the column would just flood
with the flows increasing or would just cease to
flood with the flows decreasing. In these deter-
minations it was found simpler to operate the
column at constant input of liquid and to change
the air flow slowly, rather than vice versa. Occa-
sional checks showed that the flooding points
determined in this way were identical with deter-
minations made at constant air flow. This is
inevitable since if a column is just about to flood
a minute increase in either flow rate will cause
flooding.
At a later stage in the work, measurements
were made of the quantity of liquid flowing down
the column under certain conditions. The tech-
nique adopted was to maintain a constant level in
the funnel which formed the base of the column
by a suitable setting of the outlet valve and to
pass the outflow into a measuring cylinder for a
definite time.
QUALITATIVEDESCRIPTIONOF THE PHENOMENA
OBSERVED
At low or zero air flow, the liquid flows as a
film down the walls of the column. With the
more viscous solutions (20 cP and above) the
 R. Cur-r, C. L. PRITCHARDand R. M. NEDDERMAN
~
F /f
<~
' I
I
0 I 3 4
liquid film was disturbed by waves which became
visible some distance below the sinter and increased
in amplitude as they travelled to the bottom of
the column. As the air flow was increased, these
waves grew in amplitude and the point of wave
inception crept up the column until they were
visible right from the liquid entry. At the higher
Reynolds numbers these waves were replaced by
the smaller more random ripples commonly found
on turbulent films. However as the gas flow was
increased waves were formed, but with the least
viscous solution these were only observed at gas
velocities close to flooding.
When the flooding point was almost reached the
pressure drop across the column began to increase
from its previous very small value (see Fig. 3) and
at the same time the waves on the film were seen
to have become so large as to form thin bridges or
slugs across the air stream. These bridges were
quickly broken up by the air flow and the droplets
resulting from their collapse were carried up by
the gas stream.
Further increase in either liquid or gas flow
increased the bridging and pressure drop across
the column until a critical point was reached at
which the liquid slugs became larger and were no
longer dispersed immediately by the air stream.
The flow pattern in the tube was now chaotic and
the liquid slugs were carried above the sinter,
thereby resulting in a division of the liquid flow
into components passing co- and counter-current
with the gas. The increase in pressure drop was
augmented at the flooding point by the increased
o
QL=33-1 crn3/sec
~ ,~
5 6 7 8 9 I0
Qg, L/sec
FIG. 3
length of liquid filled column. Therefore at the
flooding point the pressure drop would increase
with time as the top half of the column filled with
liquid.
Once the column was flooded, the liquid below
the sinter appeared to be in a much less chaotic
state than that immediately before flooding. Slugs
still formed across the column, but much less
frequently.
As the air flow was increased the pressure drop
across the column passed through a maximum
(see Fig. 3). The subsequent fall off of pressure
appeared to be due to considerable reduction in
the hold up in the lower part of the column. At
a higher value of the air flow Qc the downflow of
liquid ceased altogether and the lower part of the
column began to dry out. This point appears to
correspond roughly to an inflexion in the curve of
pressure drop against gas flow and was indepen-
dent of total liquid flow rate.
Once co-current flow has been fully established
in the upper part of the column, the air supply
could be reduced below the value required to
initiate flooding before the column returned to
purely counter-current flow. The point at which
the air ceased to carry any liquid upwards was as
definite as the point at which co-current flow started
and was also characterised by a discontinuity in
the pressure drop curve. It will be referred to as
the flooding point with decreasing gas flow or the
de-flooding point.
For the higher viscosity solutions, the flooding
and de-flooding points were not very different but
90
 The effect of viscosity on the flooding conditions in wetted wall columns

,.4~--" /×/× \ Eq.9

1"2

I'O

0"8 _ . " / Z=50 j × f >~\ \

~ ' - ~ \ \ ~x~×X Z=1200
, . × / //"Z=I50 \ \ ,,,,.q,.x x Z=~310
0'6 - - ~ ~ ' - ~ ~.~x .....x~

_ .,
0.4

0.2 •"/Z=3360 "~.

I ] '
3 ,o so ,oo soo ioo~-
Re
Fro. 4

with the less viscous liquids the two points were HEWITT and WALLIScorrelations are in terms of
some way apart. That these two points are not the quantities Vg and Vt defined as
coincident has already been remarked by HEWITT
and WALLIS[5] in the course of some experiments V./ P' t ~/2
on flooding with the air-water system. In fact it V* = .[Dg(p t _ P.)] (2)
is hardly surprising that they are not the same
since they represent quite different conditions: the v: =
{'D.(fL Pg)//'/2
flooding point is the upper limit of counter-current
flow, the de-flooding point is the lower limit of where Vg and Vl are the superficial gas and liquid
co-current flow. velocities respectively. No theoretical basis is
given for the use of these groups. HEW[TT and
RESULTS WALUS correlated their results with the expressions

(a) Flooding point determination

,/(v?) + , / ( v * ) = 0.88 (4)

The flooding point was determined by the pro- for low liquid flows and
cedure outlined above. From the measured values
V(v, ) + x/(v~*) = 2.0 (5)
of the flow rates and fluid properties the results
were converted to a relation between Re, We and for high liquid flows.
Z, allowance being made for the fraction of the tube It will be seen from Fig. 5 that our results lie
occupied by the undisturbed film in calculating U. almost entirely in the transition region between
These values are shown in Fig. 4 along with the these two correlations. Since the results cover
predictions of SHEARERand DAVIDSON. It will be the range of liquid Reynolds number from 100 to
seen that though the predicted Weber Numbers 1100, the transition region is clearly extensive and
are roughly the same as those found experimentally, of major importance. If a correlation in the
there is not close agreement between theory and HEWITT and WALL[S tradition is required the
experiment. In particular the maxima in the following would be of more use.
theoretical curves occur at considerably lower
Reynolds numbers than those found by experi- x/(V*) + 0.34x/(V* ) = 0.79 (6)
ment. The correlation
The present results for water are consistent with
those of HEWITT and WALLIS (see Fig. 5). The ~/(V¢) + 0.55x/(V~) = 0.65 (7)

91
 R. CLIFT, C. L. PRITCHARD and R. M. NEDDERMAN

I.(3
experimental results. KAPITZA'S equation is of
interest in that it predicts an infinite flooding
velocity at zero liquid flow. SHEARERand DAVIDSON'S
~Eq.5 theory and HEWITT and WALUS' correlation suggest
0,8 that the flooding velocity tends to a finite value at
zero liquid flow. The experimental evidence suggests
that the latter trend is correct. Furthermore,
KAPITZA predicts that the relationship between We
0.6 and Re should be independent of Z. This is n o t
in agreement with experiment.
In one respect the Re-We-Z plot is a little
misleading. The use of Re (~ #- 1) and We (a #~)
0,4
ensures that the maxima in the flooding curves
shall become higher and further to the left as # is
increased and Z thereby decreased. As a result,
0"2
Hewittand Wallis Ec~4~ the effect of viscosity on the flooding point is made
o Present work to appear much more critical than it really is.
The flooding point for three of the experimental
solutions are plotted on Fig. 6 as flooding velocity
I I t as against liquid flow rate with viscosity as a
02 0'4 0.6
parameter. The effect of viscosity on flooding
conditions is seen to be quite small: the change in
FIG. 5
the flooding velocity is of the order of 20 per cent
for a 70 fold change in viscosity. Figure 6 also shows
given by StoRES, PICKERING and BLACKER [6] is that the column floods more easily with increased
not in agreement with either the present results liquid viscosity, a fact not obvious from the
or those of HEWITr and WALUS. Presumably this Re-We-Z representation. VERSCHOOR [7] has
is because of different entry conditions. pointed out that the liquid surface tension affects
It will of course be realised that SHEARER and the flooding point critically; and this is consistent
DAVIDSON'S correlation involves the gas flow rate with SHEARER and DAVIDSON'S curves, although
squared, whereas the HEWITT and WALLIS' corre- again the method of plotting conceals it.
lations involve the square root of the gas flow rate. WhELm' results for the 9 cP solution are shown
It is therefore not surprising that there should in Fig. 6. The flooding velocities are much less
appear to be better agreement by the latter method. than those found in these experiments, indicating
KAPITZA [7] has predicted the flooding condi- that end effects were important in WALLIS' experi-
tions in a wetted wall column and gives the rela- ments.
tionship
U- k = 3"5[Tzopgl/2~ l/3 ( t7t l/2 (b) Conditions when the column is flooded
\ p,(2, ] (8)
Liquid downflow. In order to investigate the
where k is the velocity of a surface wave on the behaviour of the column under flooded conditions,
film." Since k ~ U it can be neglected and equation a series of runs was performed in which the airflow
(8) can therefore be rearranged to give was kept constant and the nett downflow of liquid
71 (Qd) was measured as a function of the total flow
We = - - . (9) of liquid (Qt) to the column. Figures 7 and 8 show
Re
the results as Qt was increased from zero to a value
This is plotted on Fig. 4 and it can be seen that it considerably in excess of the flooding value and
does not give an accurate prediction of the present then reduced again to zero.

92
 The effect of viscosity on the flooding conditions in wetted wall columns

95C

90C

~- 85C
E
u

soc 0"°,2 , o . , o m

75C

70C ~./.,c~9Cp 0"=0:3 uyneS.C,,,

,r ".~ ~' r ,E I ,,,

I 2 3 4 5

Q__L cmZ/sec
lrD '

FIG. 6

When the column was not flooded, the liquid
downflow was of course identical to the liquid input
so the condition in the column moved along the
line Qd = Qt (marked OA on Fig. 7). As the flow
was increased there was a small increase in pressure
drop (marked O 'A' on Fig. 8). The flooding point
is characterised by the usual discontinuity in the
pressure drop curve (A'B'). The results show that
there is also a discontinuity in the Qa-Qt plot
(from A to B) as the downflow drops to a value
which is sometimes as low as a fifth of the down-
flow immediately before flooding. Clearly the
× Flow increosing
t21
0 Flow decreosing
IO
difference represents the upflow into the top
section of the column.
If the total flow is increased the pressure drop
increases slightly (B'C') but the liquid downflow
remains constant. Under flooded conditions the
liquid passed down the column in discrete slugs.
This appears to account for the scatter of the
experimental points about the line DBC. The
downflow was measured by collecting the liquid
over an interval of time, so the collection of one
slug more or less made an appreciable difference
to the measured value of Qa. Nevertheless, the
results show quite clearly that the liquid downflow
in a flooded column is independent of the total
liquid input.
Once the column was flooded Qt could be re-
duced below the flooding value without altering

× Flow increasing
0 Flow decreasing
m ,×C t

u 6 E' ~ . . . , ~ - ~ ' 5 " ~ ~

D~.o~- u iB

0
4 E
~J
xO C

(3.
<3
O' 0 LD" xi×J A"
I I I I I . T
4 8 12 16 20 4 8 t2 16
Or, cm3/sec QI , cm3/sec

Flo. 7 FIG. 8

93
 R. CLIFT,C. L. PmTCHARDand R. M. NEDDERMAN

Qd. The column did not deflood until Qt had
been reduced to the value of Qa (point D, D'),
that is to say until the upflow has been reduced
to zero. At this point there was a sudden reduction
in the pressure drop as the top part of the column
emptied.
The triangle DAB on the Qt-Qd plot and the
area D " A ' B ' D ' on the Q r A P plot represent regions
over which the liquid downflow is dependent on
the history of the flow conditions. To investigate
whether there was any tendency to pass spon-
taneously from DB to DA, the column was held
at the conditions represented by E and E' for over
an hour. N o change in the conditions could be
observed. An attempt was also made to initiate
flooding from a point near A by shaking the
column. A very hard blow would sometimes cause
a slug to form but this was quickly dispersed
I,OOC
o Flooding
:~ Deflooding
90C
~ Nett liquid downflow
without causing any co-current flow. Thus to pass
from a point on D A to a point on BD or vice
versa, it is normally necessary to pass clockwise
round the triangle DAB.
Since the downflow in a f o o d e d column is inde-
pendent of total liquid input it must be a function
of gas velocity and liquid properties only. Also it
must be equal to the de flooding flow rate. Figure 9
shows the gas velocities as a function of liquid
rate for the flooding, de-flooding and downflow of
the 10cP solution. It can be seen that the two
latter effects lie on the same line.
Figure 9 shows that there is a critical gas velocity
at which the downflow becomes zero. This presum-
ably represents the deflooding rate at zero liquid
flow but there is no fundamental reason why it
should also represent the flooding rate. However,
it will be seen that the de-flooding and flooding
rates approach each other closely as the flow rate
is decreased, and it is therefore reasonable to
suppose that the flooding and de-flooding points
are the same for zero liquid flow.
Values of the critical gas flow for zero liquid
downflow, Qc, were determined for various solu-
tions and the results shown in Table 2. While there
Table 2

Viscosity of Liquid(cP) Qe (1./sec)

1.3 8-06
80G
2.2 7"92
11-8 7.92
E 23-4 7.77
44.8 7"84

70C appears to be a gradual decrease in Qc as the

viscosity is increased, this only amounts to about
3 per cent change for a 40 fold change in viscosity.
Thus Qc is effectively independent of viscosity and
a mean value of 7.901./sec is taken. This corres-

\
60C
ponds to a gas velocity of 10.1 m/see which is in
good agreement with the value of 9.5 m/sec given
by BASHFORTH et aL [3]. This then represents the
gas flow rate at which no counter-current flow can
f I I I i r . exist, i.e. the socalled " d r y o u t " point.
0 I 2 3 4 5 6
OL The values for the de-flooding conditions for
crnZ/sec
TrD ' the 10cP solution are presented on the We-Re-Z
FxG. 9 plot (Fig. 10) for comparison with the predictions

94
 The effect of viscosity on the flooding conditions in wetted wall columns

agree well with those of HEwITr and WALLIS, who

I'0 used similar apparatus. However, the range investi-
gated (Reynolds numbers from 100 to 1100) is not
covered by the WALLIS correlations.
(3) When a wetted wall column floods, the quantity
O'e
of liquid flowing down the column immediately
decreases. In general, the less viscous the liquid,
the greater the decrease. Further increase in the
0 . 6 mA
total liquid flow does not affect the downflow.
x (4) A column " d e f l o o d s " when the total liquid
Shearer and Davidson" flow equals the downflow which the gas flow will
permit in a flooded column.
0"4-- (5) At, and above, a certain critical gas velocity
there is no nett flow of liquid down the column.
This critical gas velocity is close to the value given
0 Flooding by BASm:ORTHet aL for the lowest air velocity which
02-- will support a standing film of water. It is virtually
x Deflooding
independent of liquid viscosity.
Nett liquid downflow
NOTATION
I 1 I I I # Acceleration due to gravity
0 50 I00 150 200 250 D* k Wavevelocity
Re m Liquid film thickness
F~. I0 D Tube diameter
Qc Critical volumetric gas flow
of SHEARER and DAVIDSON. It can be seen that Qa Volumetric liquid downflow
at high Reynolds numbers the experimental results Q~ Volumetric gas flow
Qt Volumetric liquid flow
for flooding are in fair agreement with the pre- Qt Total volumetric liquid flow
dictions. This is perhaps fortuitous since the agree- U Mean gas velocity
ment is not so good at low Reynolds numbers. Vu Superficialgas velocity
Vg* Dimensionless gas velocity
Vt Superficialliquid velocity
CONCLUSIONS Vt* Dimensionless liquid velocity
(1) Neither SItEARER and DAVIDSON nor KAPIrZA Z Liquid property parameter
Re Reynoldsnumber
adequately predict the onset of flooding in a wetted We Weber number
wallcolumn. SrmA_r~ERand DAVIDSONat least predict /z Liquid viscosity
the general form of the dependence of flooding on po Gas density
p~ Liquid density
gas and liquid flows. KAeITZA fails even in this. ~r Surfacetension
(2) The present experimental results for water AP Overall pressure drop
REFERENCES
[1] SrmAReRC. J. and DAVmSONJ. F., J. Fluid Mech. (In Press)
[2] W~d~taSG. B., General Electric Co., Schenectady, New York. Report No. 62 GL 132 1962.
[3] BASHFORTHE. Q. FRASERJ. B. P. HUCrnSONH. P. and NEDD~RMANR. M., Chem. Engng ScL 1963 18 41.
[4] NICKI.rND. J. and DAVIDSONJ. F., Proc. of Two Phase Fluid Flow Syrnp., Inst. Mech. Eng., London, 1962 p. 29.
[5] H~wrrr G. F. and WAtus G. B., A.E.R.E.--R4022 1963.
[6] SHn~sG. L. PICKEeal~GA. R. and BLACKERP. T., A.E.E.W.--R343 1964.
[7] KAPITZAP. L., Zh. Exp. i. Teor. Fiz., 1948 18 19.
[8] VERSCHOORH., Trans. Inst. Chem. Enyng, 1938 16 66.

Zusammenfassung--In einer NaBwandkolonne wurden die Flutgeschwindigkeiten des Gases in

Abh~ingigkeitvon Z[ihigkeitund Durchsatz der Fliissigkeit gemessen. Die Flutgeschwindigkeitenlagen
etwas h6her als nach der Voraussagevon DAVIDSONund SI~E~R. Auch die Rieselgeschwindigkeit der
Fliissigkeit am Flutpunkt wurde bestimmt.

95