Accounting, Organizations and Society, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 59-69. Pergamon Press, 1976.

Printed in Great Britain

A CONTINGENCY FRAMEWORK FOR THE DESIGN OF

ACCOUNTING INFORMATION SYSTEMS*

LAWRENCE A. GORDON and DANNY MILLER

McGill University

Abstract

Most of the research to date concerning the design of an accounting information system has taken a
rather narrow and inflexible view of accounting information. The primary intent of this paper is to
provide a broader and more adaptive framework for designing such systems. A contingency approach,
which takes into account the environment, organizational attributes, and managerial decision making
styles, is advocated. In this context, several hypotheses are offered concerning the requisites of an
accounting information system.

Problems of designing an accounting information accounting information system. The specific

system (A.I.S.) have long received the attention of relationships considered are indicated by the solid
management accountants. For the most part, the lines in Fig. 1 .i
efforts to date have been directed at searching for
the single most desirable method of generating
Environment 1 A
financial data to promote effective decision
I
I
making. On the other hand, little attention has I
been given to the need for considering environ-
Declslon
mental, organizational, and decision making style Accounttng mformatmn 3
mokmg
system - Style
attributes in the design of an A.I.S. Also over- E I!2 --
III
looked in much of the previous work is the
contingent nature of most decision making.
Accordingly, this paper represents the results of an
effort to fill some of these gaps. Our objective is to
provide a framework for designing accounting
information systems which consider the specific
Fig. 1.
needs of the organization. In order to accomplish
this objective, we have drawn on the literature of
organization theory, management policy, and The characteristics of the accounting informa-
accounting so as to isolate the environmental, tion system, to which the environmental,
organizational, and decision making variables organizational and decision making variables will
which have been shown to be critical to be related are: information load, centralization of
organizational performance. We examine the reporting, cost allocation methods (with reference
impact of these variables upon the requisites of the to both amount and timing), frequency of

*The authors wish to thank all the participants at the 1975 McGill Symposium entitled “Behavioral Models and
Processing Accounting Information”, for their comments on a draft paper which contained some of the initial thoughts
leading up to this manuscript. Subsequent comments on earlier versions of the paper by M. Bariff, J. Birnberg, H. Falk,
W. Frank, D. Marshall, and an anonymous referee are also greatly appreciated.

‘The relationships indicated by the dashed lines will not be discussed in this paper. However, we do not believe that
this restriction will mitigate the thrust of the paper. Further work by the authors, now underway, does include explicit
consideration of these relationships.

59
60 LAWRENCE A. GORDON and DANNY MILLER

reporting, method of reporting (e.g. statements, dimensions and their relationships with the
raw data, charts, pictures), time element of accounting system follows.
information (e.g. ex ante vs ex post data),
performance evaluation, measurement of events Environmental dynamism. Some organizations
(e.g. financial vs nonfinancial data and external vs sell their products in environments where
internal data), and valuation methods (e.g. consumer tastes are stable and predictable, the
historical cost vs market value vs price level technology required to produce goods or render
adjusted information). services remains the same (or almost the same) as
We will also briefly discuss the relationships time passes, and competitors tend to behave in a
hypothesized in the literature among environ- predictable fashion in terms of their product-
mental, organizational, and decision style variables market orientations. Other firms face much more
(links A, B, C in Fig. 1). Our discussion of these dynamic environments. In these settings, consumer
latter relationships will highlight the non-random tastes shift rapidly and unpredictably, new
nature of the required organization attributes and technologies and sources of supply often arise, and
decision making styles, given the nature of the competitors introduce many radically new
environment. products. The same accounting information
In the third section of the paper we discuss system cannot serve the needs of both these
three “archetypes” empirically derived by Miller groups of firms equally well. Thus, we propose the
(1975a) which characterize common clusterings following hypotheses: As environmental
of environmental, organizational and decision style dynamism increases, the effective A.I.S.:
traits. The thrust of this discussion is to relate (a) begins to incorporate more nonfinancial
these archetypes to the A.I.S. requisites which we data to provide managers with information on
hypothesize to be effective under each circum- competitor actions, consumer tastes, and shifting
stance. The first archetype discussed is an demographic factors. Financial data alone will not
“adaptive” firm, while the second and third provide information which is sufficiently precise
portray “running blind” and “stagnant bureau- to inform managers of important trends before
cracy” firms respectively. Implications are drawn they become crises.
about the required features of the A.I.S. under (b) increases the frequency of reporting.
each circumstance. These archetypes are intended Although Cook (1967) implies that an increase in
to illustrate that different information systems are the frequency of feedback will in general increase
required according to each situation and that these managerial performance, it is our contention that
systems should be designed employing a total the relationship between frequency of feedback
conception of the firm and its administrative tasks. and performance becomes more crucial in a
However, it must be emphasized that we are dynamic environment than in an unchanging
attempting to provide a framework for analyzing environment.
the needs of the A.I.S., rather than prescribing a (c) makes greater use of forecast information,
unique system. In fact, due to the contingent again to inform managers of trends and important
nature of a well designed A.I.S., we believe that no issues before they become difficult problems.
one prescribed system could ever be effective in all (d) is more conservative in the allocation of
circumstances. On the other hand, we do offer expenses; for example expense, rather than
several hypotheses on the A.I.S. characteristics capitalize, costs for such things as R & D, so as to
which may be appropriate under certain condi- help inform managers of the additional risk
tions. associated with projects having a long-term payoff.
Thus we would tend to concur with the FASB’s
recommendation (1974) to expense, rather than
THE LINKS OF THE MODEL capitalize, R & D under these conditions. On the
other hand, with a stable (unchanging) environ-
A. The environment of the firm and the requisites ment, the wisdom of their recommendation seems
of the accounting information system questionable.
The environment of an organization can be
characterized by at least the following three key Environmental heterogeneity. The environment
dimensions: (1) dynamism, (2) heterogeneity, and of an organization might be homogeneous in terms
(3) hostility. A discussion of each of these of the required product-market orientations,
 DESIGN OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION SYSTEMS 61

consumer characteristics, production technologies, B . The organization and the requisites of the
and raw materials markets. As pointed out by A.I.S.
Lawrence and Iorsch (1967) Thompson (1967) The literature on organization theory is replete
and Khandwalla (1972a), for some organizations with findings on the types of organizational
the environment may be extremely diverse in these structures required given the conditions in the
respects. For example, a large conglomerate, such environment. Woodward (1965) Lawrence and
as I.T.T., deals in very different markets, with very Lorsch (1967) Bums and Stalker (1961)
different products and different required techno- Thompson (1967) Perrow (1970) and a host of
logies - a heterogeneous environment. We others, have pointed to the need for more
hypothesize that, as the level of environmental “sophisticated” organizational devices as the
heterogeneity increases, the effective A.I.S.: degree of environmental dynamism, heterogeneity,
(a) does more to tailor specific parts of the and hostility accelerate. Typical devices used by
system to the sub-segments of the environment. In firms to cope with these more complex environ-
other words, there is greater need for more ments include uncertainty reduction mechanisms
decentralized as opposed to centralized accounting such as decentralization, divisionalization,
systems. Some divisions of a firm may require an differentiation of organizational sub-units, and
elaborate A.I.S. to cope with a dynamic setting, integration of these diverse orientations via
whereas others may cope with a simple system if committees, rules and policies. We shall discuss
they operate in a stable environment. five organizational attributes which derive from
(b) compartmentalizes information so that it is increased environmental dynamism, heterogeneity,
possible for central management to assess the and hostility, and focus upon the characteristics of
performance of the separate divisions and the the A.I.S. which are required for increasing levels
personnel responsible for them. Cost, profit and of these organizational traits. The attributes,
investment centers are some of the compartment- which are intended to be illustrative rather than
alization techniques available by which to exhaustive, are as follows: (1) decentralization,
accumulate accounting information. (2) differentiation, (3) integration, (4) bureau-
cratization, and (5) resources.
Environmental hostility. A dimension closely
related to environmental dynamism is that of Decentralization. As the administrative task
hostility (Hermann, 1969). Hostility results from becomes more complex, sub-tasks and responsibili-
threatening actions of competitors (e.g. cut-throat ties must be delegated to lower levels of
competition) or threatening shortages of scarce management to ease the burden of decision
resources due to strikes, governmental regulations making. Thus increased environmental dynamism,
or credit squeezes. We hypothesize that, as heterogeneity and hostility must often be
hostility increases, the effective AD.: accompanied by decentralization of power and
(a) provides more frequent reports to inform responsibilities. Such decentralization might take
managers of impending dangers. the form of divisionalization and/or departmenta-
(b) provides substantial nonfinancial data to lization. Under these conditions, the A.I.S. may
characterize the variables most sensitive to, and have to become more sensitive and sophisticated
indicative of, threats in the environment. As since the progress of divisions must be monitored
pointed out by Mintzberg (1975) one of the at the top of the organization. There is an
existing impediments to managerial use of data increased requirement for formal controls to
gathered in formal information systems is that the replace informal controls. We hypothesize that
information is too limited in scope. Presumably under decentralization the effective A.I.S.:
this recommendation would tend to offset this (a) produces more explicit reports on the
impediment. performance of organizational sub-units (i.e. the
(c) employs a fairly sophisticated cost accounting system itself must become
accounting and control system. Khandwalla’s decentralized). As pointed out by Benston (1963)
study (1972b), where he points out that the many have argued that this type of reporting
sophistication of a fum’s control system is highly system is not only the result of, but is in fact a
correlated with the intensity of competition in prerequisite to, decentralization.
that firm, clearly shows that many fums have (b) develops substantial supporting informa-
already recognized this requisite of the A.I.S. tion to enable sub-unit performance evaluation.
 62 LAWRENCE A. GORDON and DANNY MILLER

For example, the development of a transfer pricing literature (e.g. Miller & Gordon, 1975; Driver &
system will facilitate sub-unit profit evaluation. Mock, 1975; Revsine, 1970), more information is
Other ways of facilitating performance evaluation, not necessarily better than less.
as pointed out by Abdel-Khalik & Lusk (1974),
include analysis of costs and measurement of Integration. As the level of organizational
physical units of output. differentiation increases, there is a greater need for
(c) encompasses a sophisticated planning and more integrative devices to assure a consistent and
control system. Decentralized firms must carefully coordinated strategic effort and avoid inter-
consider how they will allocate and control their divisional conflict (Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967).
resources among divisions so that the maximum Khandwalla (1972a) lists an array of integrative
return is achieved without negating the potential devices, such as: participative management,
motivational benefits to be derived from coordinative committees, explicit policies and
decentralization. In this regard, Godfrey (1971) group objectives. Thompson (1967) speaks of
has suggested a short run planning model for use in various modes of interdepartmental coordination,
a decentralized firm, which recognizes the need for such as rules and reciprocal feedback mechanisms,
corporate allocation of scarce resources and also which become required as the degree of
promotes divisional autonomy. environmental uncertainty (dynamism and
hostility) increases. The A.I.S. can serve as a
Differentiation. Some firms have sub-units powerful coordinative device, particularly if the
which are quite similar to one another in terms of degree of organizational differentiation is quite
their modus operandi, time horizons, goal high. We postulate that under these conditions the
orientations, and the interpersonal habits of their effective A.I.S.:
staff. Others contain sub-units which are very (a) incorporates plans and budgets which
different in these respects. The later group of firms represent overall corporate targets to which each
is referred to as being highly differentiated sub-unit must contribute. However, achieving goal
(Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967). Clearly the congruency (Bierman & Dyckman, 1971) among
administrative control tasks and internal sub-units is easier said than done and thus the
communication of the organization become much difficulty of implementing this suggestion should
more difficult if managers with different not be under-estimated.
orientations must come into contact with one (b) presents information to managers of
another. Since they often perceive issues very sub-units on some vital matters or parameters
differently (Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967), we concerning other units. Such information should
hypothesize that the effective A.I.S. can help meet help to encourage joint problem solving among the
the challenge posed by these communication and managers of separate units, which in turn can serve
control problems by: to foster invaluable inter-unit informal com-
(a) providing the different sub-units with an munication.
A.I.S. suited particularly to their needs.
Accordingly the accounting system should be of a Bureaucratization. Bureaucratization refers to
decentralized nature. For example, Watson & the extent to which organizational activities are
Baumler (1975) discuss the role the A.I.S. can play structured, programmed, specialized, and narrowly
in facilitating the requisite degree of differentia- prescribed. Formal rules abound and traditional
tion among organizational units via the modes of operation severely limit the individual
appropriate transfer pricing system. discretion of lower level managers in highly
(b) gathering data from sub-units in a manner bureaucratic settings.* Argyris (1964), Burns &
such that executives can assess the relative Stalker (196 l), Bennis (1966), among others, have
performance of each sub-unit. To the extent that indicated some dysfunctional side effects of
units are very different, data collected for the top bureaucratization, such as insensitivity to the need
management must be chosen carefully so as not to to change strategies and employee dissatisfaction.
mix “apples with oranges”. Also, care must be These are particularly severe in dynamic environ-
taken so as to prevent information overload from ments in which individual initiative at lower levels
occurring. As discussed by many in the accounting is very much required to prompt the organization

‘Pugh era/. (1963) have denoted this situation as “structuring” of activities.

 DESIGN OF ACCOUNTING
to adjust to its external context. We hypothesize
that some of the ill effects of bureaucratization
can be countered by an effective A.I.S. as follows:
(a) the A.I.S. can provide upper level managers
with financial and nonfinancial information on the
external environment. This type of information
may indicate important trends requiring more
flexible and situational organizational responses.
Specifically, the information presented can to
some extent alert the executives and motivate
them to eliminate some dysfunctional bureaucratic
traditions or rules. The A.I.S. can act as a “change
agent”.
(b) the A.I.S. can provide price level adjusted
and/or market value statements, as well as forecast
statements, to inform managers of conditions
which require the departure from traditional
modes of operation. Unlike many proponents of
market value accounting (see, e.g. Romano, 1975)
and price level adjusted statements (e.g. AICPA,
1969) we believe that the virtues of these
valuation methods depend on the specific
organizational traits of the firm in question.
Resources. While some firms have an abundance
of slack resources such as managerial expertise,
technocratic skills, and financial and material
resources, others may experience grave shortages.
We hypothesize that the effective A.I.S. can help
managers to cope with these shortages as follows:
(a) if managerial expertise is known to be
deficient in any area, the accounting system can be
used to provide data which could better inform
managers about things they otherwise would not
have been able to fully understand. For example,
if a new manager is unfamiliar with the behavior-of
his customers, the A.I.S. should be particularly
thorough and informative in terms of the
information which it provides to this manager
about market characteristics and buyer purchasing
patterns. Recent efforts in the area of human
resource accounting (see, e.g. Flamholtz, 1974)
may eventually go a long way in helping to isolate
those areas where managerial expertise is, in fact,
deficient.
(b) if technocratic expertise is lacking, then the
A.I.S. could provide more detailed costing
information such as quantity and cost variances,
percentage of total costs due to scrap or poor
quality, and number of units rejected because of
‘Hopwood (1974) discusses a relationship of another direction - i.e., the manner in which leadership
dimension of decision making style, influences the way managers use accounting
evaluation.
INFORMATION SYSTEMS 63
production flaws. Such statistics would help to
inform managers about the areas where production
methods could be improved.
(c) scarcities in material and fmancial resources
may also be reflected in the A.I.S. Such resources
could be carefully monitored by the information
system through sophisticated costing techniques,
profit plans, resource allocation plans, resource
utilization forecasts, and key indicators of the
conditions prevailing in the financial markets.
C. The de&ion making style of executives and
the requisite of the A.I.S.
The deci ion making style which an executive
employs to i djust his organization’s orientation to
the needs &the environment is critical to the well
being of the enterprise. For example, where the
environment is dynamic, decision makers are
sometimes required to be more proactive in their
decision making (Ackoff, 1969). Perrow (1970)
and Thompson (1967) claim that decision making
must become more sensitive and adaptive to
external requirements under these circumstances.
Thompson & Tuden (1959) and Wheelright (1970)
argue that a simpler, less analytical, more short run
oriented type of decision making will tend to take
place where environments are dynamic and
heterogeneous. Organizational attributes also
determine the types of decision styles needed.
Normann (1971) and Allison (1971) indicate how
structuring of activities reduces adaptiveness and
innovativeness. Cyert & March (1963) indicate
how decentralization might result in less
integrated, more bargaining oriented, decision
styles.
We shah focus on the ability of the A.I.S. to
influence the following six dimensions of decision
making styles: (1) analysis, (2) time horizons,
(3) multiplexity, (4) adaptiveness, (5) proactivity,
and (6) consciousness or explicitness of strategies
and objectives. In other words, we shall examine
the manner in which the A.I.S. may eventually
change a manager’s style of decision making
behavior (Hofstedt & Kinard, 1970).3
Analysis of decisions. The executives of some
organizations spend a great deal of time and effort
studying their environment and the problems and
opportunities which confront the organization.
Other managers tend to make “seat of the pants”
climate, another
information in performance
64 LAWRENCE A. GORDON and DANNY MILLER

decisions on the basis of their intuition, scarcely about goals, programs, and the future of the
regarding the objective characteristics of the organization.
situation. Although Mock et al. (1972) suggest Multiplex decision ma?cing. Some corporate
that the payoffs from “analytical” decision executives consider very few factors in making
making will in general exceed those accruing to strategic decisions. For example, a manager may
“seat of the pants” executives, it is our contention begin to introduce a new product on the basis of
that such payoffs will depend on a host of forecasted market demand, neglecting to examine
environmental and organizational variables. For such things as detailed estimates of product costs,
example, under an extremely stable environment, production methods, and staff requirements.
the incremental costs associated with an analytical Other managers adopt a much more multiplex
rather than “seat of the pants” approach to approach. In some environments, such as ones
decision making may well be more than the which are extremely heterogeneous and/or
incremental benefits derived. On the other hand, dynamic, a multiplex decision making orientation
where environmental dynamism and hostility are is probably not feasible. On the other hand, in a
substantial, a more analytical approach to decision moderately dynamic and heterogeneous environ-
making may become necessary for survival ment, multiplex decision orientation may be both
(although difficult to implement). In the latter feasible and desirable. Assuming the latter
case, we hypothesize that the effective A.I.S.: situation exists, the effective A.I.S. may be able to
(a) provides substantial non financial data on foster multiplexity by:
key operating trends. (a) providing both financial and nonfinancial
(b) provides a graphical presentation of data.
information which compares actual with fore- (b) supplying top level executives with
casted (budgeted) figures and clearly indicates information which pertains to a number of
historical trends. This type of presentation may functions (e.g. marketing, finance, production) in
stimulate managers to further explore key issues. the organization.
(c) stores adequately detailed financial (c) allowing only the very crucial facts to
information so that indepth analysis can be appear on centralized reports, since, in order to
performed where deemed appropriate. prevent information overload, there is a need to
sacrifice depth and detail for breadth.
Decision time horizons (futurity). Managers
(d) providing sub-unit heads with information,
concerned only with day-today operating matters
financial and non-financial, on the activities of
neglect to consider the long-term repercussions of
other sub-units.
their immediate decisions. It may be crucial to give
serious attention to the long-term implications of Adaptiveness. As dynamism increases, there is a
decisions. Certain environmental and organiza- greater need to track what competitors are doing
tional conditions (e.g. a relatively stable environ- and how consumers are behaving. Some corporate
ment, where certain key material resources are managers are quite adaptive to changes in the
steadily being depleted) increase the feasibility and organization’s environment, while others are not.
need for managers to take a long-term approach to The A.I.S. can be an extremely vital vehicle in
decision making. Under such conditions, to promoting adaptiveness to external factors and
provoke executives to look into the future, we internal needs. We hypothesize that, in promoting
hypothesize that the effective A.I.S.: adaptiveness, an effective A.I.S. will:
(a) presents trends, as well as data points. (a) supply managers with information on what
(b) provides forecasts of expected events and is going on in the external environment. Examples
financial variables which are critical to the include information on the market share of the
operating performance of the firm. The recent firm’s various products, and reports of customer
(February, 1973) decision by the SEC in the U.S. attitude surveys.
to permit the tiling of forecasted earnings (b) increase the frequency of reporting so as to
statements should have interesting implications provide information or critical conditions before
towards fostering the generation of this type of they become problems.
information. (c) highlight cost and budget variances and
(c) presents information on objective setting point to situations in which things are not going
procedures which force managers to think more smoothly.
 DESIGN OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION SYSTEMS 65

hoactivity. Proactivity is defined as the control, customer satisfaction and market share
tendency to be ahead of competitors in taking are all potential candidates. The objective setting
certain actions. Its opposite is reactiveness in process may be a participative one, with
which decisions are only made upon provocation. information coming from all relevent departments.
Many managers tend to be overly conservative in (b) compares actual results with targeted or
their approach to decision making. They introduce budgeted objectives so that the performance of
new products or embark upon programs to organizational sub-units can be appraised in light
execute technological innovations in the produc- of overall organizational objectives.
tion process only when they have very clear
evidence that they are in trouble. The absence of
ARCHETYPAL ORGANIZATIONS AND
proactivity is especially serious in dynamic REQUISITE QUALITIES OF THE A.I.S.
environments where it is extremely easy to fall
behind the competition. To promote a proactive By now it should be clear that an accounting
decision making style, we hypothesize that the information system should be designed in light of
effective A.I.S.:4 the contextual variables surrounding the specific
(a) includes information on the activities of organization. Our discussion thus far was intended
competing firms. Information should be supplied to generate some conceptual anchor points and
on new product introductions and technological related hypotheses which might provide a basis for
innovations being implemented in the industry. future research and which eventually designers
While this is hardly a standard sort of information might use as examples in the design of their own
for an A.I.S., it is likely to pay off handsomely in systems. We did not attempt to prescribe a
making managers more aware of the need for panacea system. Instead, we have been trying to
change. establish the point that a contingency approach
(b) reports product demand forecasts (trans- must be taken in designing an organization’s A.I.S.
lated into forecasted revenues) and the long-run In this section we discuss three “archetypal”
prospects for the costs of production. Such firms discovered by Miller (1975a) which represent
forecasts should help executives to think in terms typical agglomerations of environmental,
of promising new markets and technologies which organizational, and decision style traits. The three
might be exploited before the old ones become archetypes are (1) adaptive, (2) running blind, and
uneconomical. (3) stagnant bureaucracy. We then relate these
archetypes to the A.I.S. requisites which we
Consciousness of strategies. Lindblom (1968) hypothesize to be effective under each circum-
describes a type of decision making which is stance.
disjointed. That is, organizational decisions are Based on Miller’s analysis of the cases, it seems
made more or less independently. It is difficult that environmental, organizational, and. dectiion
under this mode to ensure that the actions of style traits are not distributed randomly but
organizational sub-units are congruent with overall actually cluster together to form commonly
organizational objectives. Executives tend to occurring confiigurations. Thus, rather than having
maximize short term objectives and parochial to worry about an unmanageable number of
interests at the expense of strategic goals and long permutations of the variables discussed in the
term plans. In an environment characterized by previous section, it appears that the designer of an
heterogeneity, an explicit and conscious concep- A.I.S. may have only to focus on a few select
tion of decision making is difficult to achieve but variables from which a host of peripheral factors
is most desirable. In an effort to facilitate such an generally follow. Our emphasis here is not,
orientation towards decision making, the effective however, on the derivation of the archetypes
A.I.S.: (since this is discussed at length in Miller, 1975);
(a) incorporates a system of targets and but rather with the generation of hypotheses
objectives which must be met by each department. concerning the requisites of the A.I.S. given the
Targets relating to costs and profits, quality existence of such archetypes.

4Although our discussion has been concerned with the impact that the A.I.S. can have on a given decision making style,
it should be apparent that this relationship is like a two edged sword. For example, Sorter er 01. (19641, have provided
evidence showing how a corporation’s conservative management can unfavorably affect that part of the accounting
system related to depreciation policy.
66 LAWRENCE A. GORDON and DANNY MILLER

A. The adaptive firm because of moderate heterogeneity and lower

Several of the cases studied involved firms differentiation.
whose environments have been quite dynamic for (e) data analysis presented to top management
a substantial length of time while heterogeneity is should be of a low level of detail. Because
only moderate. In these firms, there exists decentralization has been operating successfully
substantial decentralization of authority, moderate and resources are plentiful, top level executives
to low differentiation and more than adequate need not be overly concerned with the minutia of
integration. Managerial, technocratic, and financial lower level operating matters.
resources are quite abundant. Decision making (f) the array of information provided to
styles are characterized by great multiplexity, managers should be quite broad. This type of
substantial analysis of strategic issues, an adaptive information can be effective since managers in
and responsive orientation to important trends in these firms tend to be multiplex, adaptive, and
the environment, and an explicit and well defined analytically inclined. These sorts of executives will
strategy. Executives tend to be quite innovative themselves seek more information (which the
and proactive, in that they seize upon oppor- A.I.S. can store but not distribute) if and when
tunities in their environment rather than waiting they feel it is needed.
until they are in trouble before they act. The
performance level in these firms is high.’ A large B . The running blind firm
part of the apparent success of these “adaptive” Several of the cases studied involved firms in
firms seems to be due to the type of information heterogeneous markets whose environments
and intelligence systems which they employ. change markedly over a relatively short period of
Individuals designing accounting information time. The tremendous dynamism and hetero-
systems for the above described firms have geneity in some of these firms was created by the
apparently done their jobs fairly well. The main actions of competitors. In others, it came about
information system characteristics which are because executives have rapidly acquired new
hypothesized to be effective for such firms are:6 firms in very different types of markets. The
(a) a capacity for gathering information on the organization structure of these companies is rather
external environment. Environmental dynamism peculiar. Power is tightly centralized in the hands
makes this a particularly important feature to of a few top level executives. Organizational
incorporate into the A.I.S. in firms of this sort. differentiation is, however, extremely high because
(b) the collection of non-financial, as well as of the manifest differences among departments,
financial, info;r;r;son (e.g. ipn~fotionide;r divisions, and subsidiaries. Furthermore, the
inflationary new various orientations are not easily reconciled
technological ideas, and consumer taste trends): through integrative devices. Separate and some-
Again, environmental dynamism increases the times conflicting objectives seem to be pursued by
importance of nonfinancial information in track- the various organizational sub-units.
ing the environment. The decision making styles of the managers of
(c) a uniform accounting system from one these firms are characterized by low multiplexity,
sub-unit to another. Since differentiation is low in intuitive rather than analytical decision making,
these firms, the same type of information system and an insensitivity to conditions in the
can be used across the firms’ divisions. A environment. Perhaps most notably, managers in
centralized, rather than decentralized, A.I.S. seems these firms are quite entrepreneurial - they are
more appropriate. proactive and take substantial risks. For example,
(d) the internal flow of information across new product lines, which require a radically new
departments (laterally) and levels of authority or different type of technology are often
(vertically) should take place in an unimpeded, introduced with little indepth analysis. Also, large
timely, and informative fashion. This is important new subsidiaries are often acquired in businesses
due to environmental dynamism and is feasible which are strange to the old entity.

5Performance ratings were based on growth in revenues and profits, and return on invested capital.

6Accounting information system characteristics were not measured by Miller (1975) in his analysis of cases. We are
hypothesizing these attributes in the light of the environmental, organizational, and strategy making attributes of the
firm.
 DESIGN OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION SYSTEMS 61

Performance in these firms is low. The to developing information on sub-unit costs,

intelligence system seems to be inadequately profits and physical output.
suited to the emergent environmental conditions. (g) to help eliminate the ill effects of pursuing
The environment is scanned infrequently and only divisional, rather than organizational, objectives a
for a few select cues (e.g. acquisition candidates) well designed cost accounting and control system
by top level personnel. Controls which can inform should be set up.
managers of the performance of their divisions -
old and new - are often lacking. Communication C. The stagnant bureaucracy
seems to run one way - from top level managers Several of the cases studied involved firms
down to subordinates. Individual divisions in these which have been in an extremely stable and
firms are quite isolated from one another and top homogeneous environment. However, dynamism
managers usually do not know what is happening and heterogeneity have recently been increasing
in the divisions until crises arrive. and, unfortunately, structural and decision-making
Designers of the A.I.S. can ostensibly go a long styles are still geared to conditions of the past.
way in helping to reduce some of the problems in Organizational differentiation is very low and
these firms. For instance: integration is achieved by rigid rules and programs.
(a) it is critical that facts be gathered about Power is highly centralized in the hands of top
“situations” out of control and be sent to top managers. Managerial and technocratic expertise
management in timely fashion. seems to be lacking. Decision-making styles are
(b) information on the new products and characterized by low multiplexity, poor analysis,
technological innovations of competitors should unresponsiveness to external trends in the
be provided to help facilitate an effective style of environment, and excessive conservatism. The
decision making. performance level of these firms is low. The
(c) if a ‘high degree of power centralization intelligence system of these organizations seems to
makes information overload a potential problem, be totally inadequate. The environment is rarely
the onus is on the information system to provide scanned for new problems or opportunities,
the top managers only with critical data which controls are not sufficiently sensitive to highlight
reveal a situation to be out of kilter. For example, important trends before they become extremely
only aggregated data for each division (e.g. total troublesome, and internal communication is held
expenses) should be submitted to top managers, to a minimum and is of an exclusively top-down
since he can quickly scan this information. If a nature.
problem is revealed, they can ask subordinates to The main role of the A.I.S. in these firms
investigate the situation in more detail. should be to make the enterprise more responsive
(d) the large degree of environmental to its changing environment. For example,
dynamism requires that the information system be (a) there should be a move towards gathering
oriented towards gathering data on external trends information on external factors such as the
(e.g., changing national economic conditions, conditions of the economy, new products, and
buying trends, and competitor moves) and trends in the market share of the firm. These
forecasted financial variables. factors are increasingly relevant under conditions
(e) the high degree of organizational differen- of accelerating turbulence.
tiation and the absence of effective integrative (b) reports should provide timely information
measures make necessary the employment of on encroaching problematic trends with com-
coordinative mechanisms in the A.I.S. For parisons of future expectations to historical
example, profit objectives and resource allocation events.
plans may be set up on a company wide basis (c) in an effort to invoke a performance
which should encourage “goal congruency” within orientation on the part of departments, and thus
the organization. Such an effort should foster elicit pressure for change from below, a profit
discussions between top and divisional managers, planning system could be established. Lower level
as well as between divisional managers themselves, managers will thus be motivated to change
thus leading to greater resolution of conflicts of suboptimal operating practices by putting
interests among organizational sub-units. pressure on a relatively complacent top manage-
0-J to enable assessment of divisional ment.
performance, adequate attention should be given (d) price-level and/or market value statements
68 LAWRENCE A. GORDON and DANNY MILLER

may help provide some idea of the firm’s growth Which became apparent is the fragmentary nature
potential. of the research to date. This point was also noted
(e) forecasted statements should also focus by Hofstedt & Kinard (1970, p. 45). Hopefully,
management’s attention on upcoming changes in this paper will help to provide an overall
the organization’s environment. framework for integrating this literature and more
importantly, for coordinating future research.
Indeed one logical extension of our work is the
CONCLUSION further development and testing of the hypotheses
suggested.
Most of the research to date concerning the A secondary outgrowth of this paper has been
design of an accounting information system our suggestions that in some circumstances the
(A.I.S.) has taken a rather narrow and inflexible A.I.S. could act as an agent of change to facilitate
view of accounting information. The primary organizational performance. In other words, it
intent of this paper has been to provide a broader seems possible for a custom designed A.I.S. to
and more adaptive framework for designing such improve poorly functioning organizations by
systems. A contingency approach, which takes providing information most relevant to the key
into account the environment, organizational organizational problems and opportunities.
attributes, and managerial decision making styles Furthermore, we discussed three “archetypal”
was advocated. In this context, several hypotheses firms which represent typical agglomerations of
were offered concerning the requisites of the environmental, organizational, and decision style
A.I.S. attributes and we hypothesized the requisites of
In the process of describing our framework, we the A.I.S. under several of these common
have tried to integrate a small portion of the conditions. These archetypes reinforced our point
existing accounting and related literature. With that a contingency approach must be taken in
respect to the accounting literature, one thing designing accounting information systems.

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