Diff Calc Notes Inc

QUICK AND EASY
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
WORKBOOK
Leo Jonker
Queen’s University
Fall 2007-2008
Foreword
Most of the students entering in first year engineering at Queen’s Univer-

sity have taken differential Calculus in High School. This applies to stu-
dents who have graduated from Ontario high schools, those who have had
some CEGEP education in Quebec, all Alberta Students (assuming they took
mathematics 31 in their final high school year), and some British Columbia
and Saskatchewan students, . Most of the students coming from outside
Canada have also had some Calculus before they get here. A smaller number,
including most of those who come from schools in the Maritime provinces,
and those coming from Manitoba have not had any significant amount of
calculus. This should not worry you. You are probably better prepared in
other ways, but it does meant that you will need some extra help at the
beginning of first year.
We would like our first year calculus course to make use of the more advanced
preparation of some students, without creating a situation that is impossible
for those students for whom Calculus is a completely new experience. These
notes are intended to prepare all students for APSC 171, Calculus I.
In them we will introduce students to differential calculus in a highly intu-
itive fashion, one that will, we think, fit well with the tenor of the rest of the
course. We will introduce the idea of the derivative, discover formulas for
the derivatives of polynomial functions, the exponential functions, and loga-
rithmic functions, and we will discuss basic rules for calculating derivatives
of combinations of functions (the Product Rule, Quotient Rule and Chain
Rule).
This is a set of (deliberately) incomplete notes prepared for your use. The
notes reflect the way in which the material should be learned. The intro-
i
ii
duction to each topic is concise, but complete. You should be able to read
and understand it. At certain points the flow of thought in interrupted by
a question for which the answer is not provided. If the notes are used in
a class, this is where the instructor will ask you to become involved in the
completion of the argument. If the notes are used as self-study, then this is
where you try to make sense of the question. When you get stuck you can
consult James Stewart, Calculus: Early Transcendentals, the text for the
course, or any Calculus book that may be available to you. At other times,
the gaps in the notes follow problems in which the theory you have learned
can be applied. These, too, are for you to fill in. Some of these problems are
indicated as ”Concept Questions”. These are multiple-choice questions that
signal points at which key concepts are often misunderstood or misapplied.
They have short answers, but do require some thought.
Computer assisted learning
There are also some computer-based learning objects designed specifically

for the course, and written a few years ago by Thomas Norman, a former
student in Mathematics and Engineering. These are small interactive com-
puter programmes to help you learn the concepts behind a topic. Whenever
a topic has one of these learning objects associated with it, this is indicated
in the interactive notes as follows:
Computer help for this topic is available on the course website
To find these learning objects, go to the course website and click on “Com-
puter assistance” in the column on the left.
Contents
What is a derivative really? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Rates of Change
(Sections 2.7 and 2.9 in Stewart) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Derivatives of Exponential Functions
(Section 3.1 in Stewart) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Derivatives of Combinations of Functions
(Sections 3.1 and 3.2 in Stewart) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
The Chain Rule
Inverse Functions
Logarithmic Functions
Derivatives of Log Functions
iii
iv CONTENTS
WHAT IS A DERIVATIVE REALLY? 1
What is a derivative really?
There is just one big secret at the heart of Calculus:
If you consider a function over a very small interval of input values it

always looks like a linear function.
This means that if you try successive input values, equally spaced and very
close to each other, the output values seem to go up at a constant rate. Here
are two examples:
Consider the function f (x) = x2 . We know this function is not linear (its
graph is not a straight line), and yet, look at the following table of (a few)
values of this function:
x x2
3.000 9.000
3.001 9.006
3.002 9.012
3.003 9.018
It sure looks linear on this small scale! So does the following table of some
values of the function f (x) = ex :
x ex
1.000 2.71828
1.001 2.72100
1.002 2.72372
1.003 2.72644
In each case the output goes up by 0.00272 when the input goes up by 0.001;
so once again, this function looks linear when you get close.
This property of looking linear when you “zoom in to a point” becomes
visual when you apply it to the graph of a function. Here are three pictures,
produced by Maple, of the graph of the exponential function ex at smaller
and smaller scales around the point x = 1:
2 CONTENTS
8
3.2
3.6
3.1
6
3
3.2
2.9
y4 y y
2.8
2.8
2.7
2
2.6
2.4
2.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1
x x x
This property that makes graphs look linear when observed on a small scale,
is closely related to the fact that when we look around us, the earth looks
more or less flat. We can, perhaps, forgive our distant ancestors for thinking
that it really was flat.
Of course, as with all simplifications, there is a caveat. The secret is not
quite true of all functions. If the graph of your function has a corner at some
point, as in the case of f (x) = |x|, no amount of zooming in is going to make
that corner go away. A function that looks linear when you zoom in to a
point on its graph is called a differentiable function. Fortunately most
of the functions we deal with are differentiable, or else are differentiable at
most points.
Eventually we should turn our observation about the local linearity of func-
tions into something we can do mathematics with. In particular, the insight
should help us do certain kinds of calculations.
Before we get to that, however, there is a second secret at the heart of
Calculus, which has a lot to do with the one we revealed at the start of this
chapter, even though it may seem quite unlike it:
If a quantity δ is very small, then its square δ 2 is negligible by comparison.
When we say something is negligible relative to something else, we mean

that its size is a small fraction of the ‘something else’. For example, consider
δ = 0.001 then δ 2 = 0.000001. If we were to subtract 0.000001 (or add
it) to 0.001, it would make a negligible difference to the total. It would
add only one-thousandth of its value to the total. The difference becomes
even more pronounced if δ = 0.000001; for then δ 2 = 0.000000000001 and

subtracting or adding this to δ would change it by only one-millionth of its
initial magnitude.
Concept Question 1. If δ is very small (say around 1/1000), which of the

following is a reasonable approximation? (≈ means “is approximately equal
to”)
5+δ 5
1. ≈ A. Equation 3.
3 3
2
δ+δ
2. ≈δ B. Equation 5.
δ2
3. 5 + δ ≈ 5 C. Equations 1 and 3.
7−δ 7
4. 2
≈ D. Equations 1, 3, and 4.
δ+δ δ
13
5. ≈ 13 E. All of the equations.
δ
Click here for help
The connection between the two “secrets”
So how is the secret on page 2 connected to the secret on page 1? Suppose we

have a simple function, say f (x) = x2 . We want to use the second secret to
4 CONTENTS
explain why this function will seem linear if we stay very close to any given
initial point. Say we start at x = a, and examine what happens to f (x) when
x is replaced by a + ∆x, where ∆x represents a very small number. That is,
we want to see how the value of this function changes as ∆x changes, but is
kept very small. Then
f (a + ∆x) = (a + ∆x)2 = a2 + 2a∆x + (∆x)2 .
By the secret on page 2, we can ignore (∆x)2 for all practical purposes, as
long as ∆x stays very small. Thus
f (a + ∆x) ≈ a2 + 2a∆x .
Notice that if we think of ∆x as a variable (and keep a constant), the right

side is a linear function g(a + ∆x) = a2 + 2a∆x. Notice that we do not want
to say
f (a + ∆x) ≈ a2 + 2a∆x ≈ a2 ,
which is also true, though with a rougher approximation. The reason is, we
want to see what linear function f (a + ∆x) resembles, so if there is a term of
first degree in ∆x we do not want to remove it, for it indicates the manner
in which the value of f (a + ∆x) changes.
If we go back to writing x for a + ∆x we get
g(x) = a2 + 2a(x − a) ,
where, as we said already, f (x) and g(x) are extremely close to each other,
as long as x is very close to a. Notice that if we let x = a the two function
are precisely equal to each other.
Example 1. If we write down the equation of the graph of g we get y =

a2 + 2a(x − a). Since a is kept constant, this is clearly the equation of a
line. Zooming in to the graph of f around the point (a, f (a)) is the same as
restricting x to values close to a. What do we call the line given by the graph
of g?
Click here for help

Notice, from the equation of the graph of g, that the tangent line to the
graph of f at (a, f (a)) has slope 2a. This slope is defined as the derivative
of f (x) = x2 at a.
The derivative of a function f at an input value a is the slope of the

tangent line to the graph of the function at the corresponding point
(a, f (a)) on the graph.
We will give a more important characterization of the derivative in a moment,

but for now let us note what we have learned about the derivatives of the
function f (x) = x2 at various points:
The derivative of f (x) = x2 at input value x is equal to 2x.
Thus its derivative at x = 2 is equal to 4. At x = 0 it comes to 0. At x = π

it comes to 2π.
The process that associates the derivative at x to the input x can be thought
of as a new function constructed from the original function f . It is called the
derivative function, or simply the derivative, and is denoted f . Thus
we have learned that if f (x) = x2 then f (x) = 2x. It has suddenly become a
simple matter to calculate the slope of the parabola y = x2 ! This process of
calculating the derivative function from the original is called differentiation.
Notice that since f (a) is the slope of the tangent line from which the graph
of f becomes indistinguishable when we zoom in to a, we are saying, in effect,
that near a,
f (a + ∆x) ≈ f (a) + f (a)∆x .
In other words, the derivative at a is the coefficient of the linear term
in the linear function that best approximates f near a.
As we said on page 2, all “reasonable” functions are differentiable with the
exception of isolated points at which the graph of the function has “corners”.
Even when you do not have a formula for a function, but are given its graph,
you can say something about its derivative:
6 CONTENTS
Concept Question 2. Given the graph of f , which of the graphs below it

is the graph of f ? Is it the solid graph A, the dashed graph B or the dotted
graph C?
Click here for help

We would like to be able to calculate a formula for the derivative of any

polynomial. Let’s begin with other power functions.
Theorem If f (x) = xn , where n is a positive integer, then f (x) = nxn−1 .
Example 2. Prove that this theorem is true, by expanding f (a + ∆x) and

then applying the secret revealed on page 2 to the resulting expression .
Click here for help

8 CONTENTS
A polynomial function is just a sum of constant multiples of power func-

tions. Suppose we have a polynomial
f (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + · · · + cn xn .
Then to find the derivative f we could apply the same idea to all of the
terms at once: replace x by a + ∆x. Then
f (a + ∆x) = c0 + c1 (a + ∆x) + c2 (a + ∆x)2 + · · · + cn (a + ∆x)n
≈ c0 + c1 (a + ∆x) + c2 (a2 + 2a∆x + · · · ) + · · · + cn (an + nan−1 ∆x + · · · ) ,

where the dots indicate terms that involve ∆x to power 2 or higher, and
which can therefore be ignored relative to the ”lower order terms”. Thus
f (a + ∆x) ≈ c0 + c1 (a + ∆x) + c2 (a2 + 2a∆x) + · · · + cn (an + nan−1 ∆x)
= f (a) + (c1 + 2c2 a + 3c3 a2 · · · ncn an−1 )∆x .

If we extract the coefficient in front of ∆x, and then replace a by x we get
the derivative (the slope):
Theorem: The derivative of a polynomial
f (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + · · · cn xn
is
f (x) = c1 + 2c2 x + 3c3 x2 + · · · + ncn xn−1 .
Notice that this says that to calculate the derivative of a polynomial you
should calculate the derivatives of the power functions in the terms, and then
combine the results in the way they were combined in the original polynomial.
Notice also that the derivative of a constant function is always 0 (see what
you get if all the coefficients except c0 are equal to zero). The reason is that
the graph of a constant function is a horizontal line, and therefore the slope
is 0 at each point.
Example 3. What is the slope of the graph y = 3x2 − 5x + 7 at (1, 5)?
Click here for help
Example 4. For what values of x does the graph of f (x) = x4 −8x3 + 22x2 −
24x + 3 have positive slope and for which values does it have negative slope?
Click here for help

10 CONTENTS
Rates of Change
(Sections 2.7 and 2.9 in Stewart)
NOTE: James Stewart: Calculus, Early Transcendentals 6e, is the text-

book we will be using in the first year Applied Science calculus
courses. However, you should be able to read these notes without
any reference text so there is no need to buy the book before you
arrive at Queen’s.
The most important characterization of a derivative is its ability to measure
instantaneous rate of change. Most of you have discussed rates of change
in high school, especially in cases when the function expresses distance (its
output) in terms of time (its input). If f is the function whose rate of change
we want to discuss, say at an input value a, then we might begin by taking
a value not too far from a, say a + ∆x, and comparing the function values at
these inputs by subtracting f (a + ∆x) − f (a). This expresses a change in
the function value, but not yet a rate of change. To get that, you have to
compare this change in the output value of the function to the corresponding
change in the input. This comparison is achieved by division: The average
rate of change of the function f between inputs a and a + ∆x is
f (a + ∆x) − f (a)
Average rate of change = .
∆x
Sometimes it is convenient to give a name to the output of the function, say
y = f (x). Then the numerator in the above expression represents a change
in the y-value and can be denoted as ∆y. That is, the average rate of change
is the ratio
∆y
.
∆x
f
∆y
∆x
a a + ∆x
RATES OF CHANGE 11
In the diagram, this average rate is equal to the slope of the line segment
joining the points (a, f (a)) and (a + ∆x, f (a + ∆x)). The line extending this
segment is sometimes referred to as a “secant line”. Now suppose we let ∆x
get smaller and smaller. Then the point (a + ∆x, f (a + ∆x)) will gradually
slide (along the graph) towards (a, f (a)), and in the process the secant line
will turn (a little) and gradually converge to the tangent line, as in the next
picture:
a
On the one hand, the slope of this tangent line is what we mean by the
derivative f (a). On the other hand, this slope is what the slopes of the
secant lines get closer and closer to as we let ∆x get smaller and smaller.
This idea is expressed as a limit:
f (a + ∆x) − f (a)
f (a) = lim .
∆x→0 ∆x
This means that if, in the fractional expression on the right, you let ∆x get
closer and closer to 0, then the value of that expression gets closer and closer
to f (a). In general, whenever we have any kind of expression E(u) that
depends on a variable u, then by “the limit of E(u) as u → c” we mean the
quantity L that E(u) gets closer and closer to when u is allowed to get closer
and closer to c. The notation for this is
L = lim E(u) .
u→c
Returning to the discussion of the derivative, and writing x in place of a+∆x,

we get
12 CONTENTS
f (x) − f (a)
f (a) = lim .
x→a x−a
This is the definition of the derivative you will usually see in a

textbook .
Because of this characterization of the derivative as the limit of a ratio of
change in output to change in input, several alternative notations for a deriva-
tive reflect this understanding. If the variable name y is used for the output
of a function f , as in y = f (x), then we also write any of the following:
dy d
f (x) = = f (x) .
dx dx
Let us see how this limit approach might work for the function f (x) = x2 :
The slope of the secant between (a, a2 ) and (a + ∆x, (a + ∆x)2 ) is
(a + ∆x)2 − a2 a2 + 2a∆x + (∆x)2 − a2 2a∆x + (∆x)2

= = .
∆x ∆x ∆x
At this point we can either notice that we can disregard (∆x)2 because it is
so small in comparison to the other terms in the numerator, in which case
we conclude
2a∆x + (∆x)2
f (a) = = 2a ,
∆x
or we can say, slightly more formally, that
2a∆x + (∆x)2
f (a) = lim = lim (2a + ∆x) = 2a .
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0
Either way, we have confirmed the derivative calculation we did much earlier.
We saw earlier that the derivative of xn is nxn−1 , for any positive integer n.
In fact this formula is valid even when n is not a positive integer, but any
fixed real number. We do not have time to do all the proofs necessary to
show this, but we do have time to show it for two instances.
RATES OF CHANGE 13
Concept Question 3. To find a formula for the derivative of the function

f (x) = x−1 = 1/x, at a point a, we have to find the limit
f (a + ∆x) − f (a)
f (a) = lim .
∆x→0 ∆x
What does the expression on the right look like for this function?
1 1
a
+ ∆x − a
A. lim
∆x→0 ∆x
1 1
a+∆x
− a
B. lim
∆x→0 ∆x
∆x
C. lim
∆x→0 (a + ∆x) − a
Click here for help
Example 5. Calculate this limit and thus find the derivative of x−1 .
Click here for help

14 CONTENTS
√
For a second example, we will find the derivative of x = x1/2 .
√
Concept Question 4. If we want to calculate the derivative of x, say at
a point a, we should begin with the expression for the average rate of change
between a and a + ∆x. Which of the following is the correct expression for
that?
√ √
a + ∆x − a
A.
∆x

(a + ∆x) − a
B.
∆x
√ √ √
( a + ∆x) − a
C.
∆x
Click here for help

RATES OF CHANGE 15
We must take the limit of this expression as ∆x → 0. This does not look
simple, and may require some algebra to transform the expression:
Example 6. Find the limit of √ the expression for the average rate of change
at a for the function f (x) = x.
Click here for help
A combination of similar techniques will show that the theorem for derivatives
of power functions,
d n
x = nxn−1 ,
dx
16 CONTENTS
is true for any fixed rational power n. In fact,as already pointed out, the
theorem is true for any fixed real power whatsoever; but proving that requires
other methods.
Derivatives of Exponential Functions

(Section 3.1 in Stewart)
We will now turn to a calculation of the derivative of the exponential func-

tion ex . There are several ways to introduce the number e. The one we will
use defines e as that number which is just right so that the derivative of ex
at x = 0 is equal to 1. In other words, among the exponential functions bx
for b = 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 3, etc there is one base b = e just right that the slope
of its graph, where it crosses the vertical axis, is precisely equal to 1. (You
may remember from your high school course that this results in an irrational
number, like π. The value of e is approximately 2.718 · · · .)
2x
x
e
(0.5)x
(1.5)x
1x
This way of introducing the number e immediately tells us that if f (x) = ex

then f (0) = 1.
DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 17
Concept Question 5. Which of the following limits expresses this fact?
ea+∆x − ea
A. lim =1
∆x→0 ∆x
(e0 + e∆x ) − e0
B. lim =1
∆x→0 ∆x
e∆x − 1
C. lim =1
∆x→0 ∆x
Click here for help
We will now use this information to prove
Theorem:
d x
(e ) = ex
dx
In other words, at every point, the value of the function ex is precisely
equal to its rate of change.
If you have had some study of exponential growth in high school, this will
sound very familiar. When something grows exponentially, it means that the
rate at which a function increases is proportional to is value.
18 CONTENTS
Example 7. Use the definition of the derivative as a limit of average rates

of increase to prove this theorem.
Click here for help

DERIVATIVES OF COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS 19
Derivatives of Combinations of Functions

(Sections 3.1 and 3.2 in Stewart)
In order to differentiate effectively, we should develop a kind of “arithmetic”

of differentiation, which includes not only the derivatives of certain key func-
tions, but which also includes ways to calculate derivatives of combinations
of functions whose derivatives we already know. Here is the first such theo-
rem:
The Constant Multiple Rule: If c is a constant and f is a differen-

tiable function, then so is cf , and
d d
[cf (x)] = c f (x)
dx dx
or, equivalently,
(cf ) = cf
Note that when we speak of the function cf we mean the function whose value
at an input x is equal to the product cf (x). If we evaluate this function at
a we get cf (a); if we evaluate it at a + ∆x we get cf (a + ∆x). Thus the
average rate of change of cf between a and a + ∆x is
cf (a + ∆x) − cf (a)
.
∆x
This factors immediately to become
f (a + ∆x) − f (a)
c .
∆x
To find the derivative of cf we have to take the limit of this as ∆x → 0. But
since c is constant we can take the limit of the fraction and multiply by c
afterwards - it will come to the same thing (think about this!) Therefore
f (a + ∆x) − f (a)
(cf ) (a) = c lim = cf (a) .
∆x→0 ∆x
If now we replace a by x we have a proof of the theorem.
20 CONTENTS
The next theorem tells us how to differentiate the sum of two functions whose
derivatives we know already. Notice that it tells us to go ahead, differentiate
each function, and add the results afterward.
The Sum Rule: If the functions f and g are both differential, then so
is f + g, and
d d d
[f (x) + g(x)] = f (x) + g(x)
dx dx dx
or, equivalently,
(f + g) = f + g
Notice that we have already seen instances illustrating the sum rule, for when
we differentiated polynomials we found that it amounted to differentiating
each of the polynomial’s terms separately and then adding (or subtracting)
them.
Concept Question 6. What is the correct expression for the average rate
of increase of the function f (x) + g(x) between a and a + ∆x?
(f (a) + g(a)) + ∆x − (f (a) + g(a))

A.
∆x
f (a + ∆x) − f (a) g(a + ∆x) − g(a)
B. +
∆x ∆x
(f (a + ∆x) + g(a + ∆x)) − (f (a) + g(a))
C.
∆x
Click here for help

We are now ready to prove the Sum Rule, by taking the limit of this expres-
sion as ∆x → 0:
(f (a + ∆x) + g(a + ∆x)) − (f (a) + g(a))

(f + g) (a) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x

f (a + ∆x) − f (a) g(a + ∆x) − g(a)
= lim +
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x
f (a + ∆x) − f (a) g(a + ∆x) − g(a)
= lim + lim
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x
= f (a) + g (a) .
Example 8. Calculate the derivative of 5ex + 3x2 + 5x7 .
Click here for help

22 CONTENTS
The following rule for finding derivatives of combined functions is proved in

the same way as the Sum Rule:
The Difference Rule: If the functions f and g are both differential,

then so is f − g, and
d d d
[f (x) − g(x)] = f (x) − g(x)
dx dx dx
or, equivalently,
(f − g) = f − g
Example 9. Find the slope of the graph of the function g(x) = π + 7x −

3x8 + 0.5x3 − 2ex at the point (0, π − 2)
Click here for help
Now that we know how to differentiate the sum and the difference of two
functions whose derivatives we already know, it is time to turn to their prod-
uct. Here the product of f and g is thought of as a new function whose value,
at input x, is given by f (x)g(x). In other words,
(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) .
The Product Rule: If f and g are both differentiable functions, then

so is f g, and
d d d
[f (x)g(x)] = f (x) [g(x)] + g(x) [f (x)]
dx dx dx
or, equivalently,
(f g) = f g + gf
You are probably wondering why the formula is so complicated. This will
become clear when we look at the proof:
Example 10. Prove the Product Rule.
Click here for help

24 CONTENTS
At the beginning of this short course on differentiation we introduced the

derivative as the rate of change of the linear function that best approximates
the function near a particular point a. Later we moved to a more formal
definition of the derivative as a limit of average rates of change, and used
this more formal approach to prove our theorems. To indicate how the earlier,
less formal, approach can help us form good intuition in many situations, we
will now give an alternative (less precise but still instructive) proof of the
Product Rule:
We know that (near a)
f (a + ∆x) ≈ f (a) + f (a)∆x
g(a + ∆x) ≈ g(a) + g (a)∆x

Therefore,
(f g)(a + ∆x) = f (a + ∆x)g(a + ∆x) ≈ (f (a) + f (a)∆x)(g(a) + g (a)∆x)
= f (a)g(a) + [f (a)g (a) + g(a)f (a)]∆x + (f (a))(g (a))(∆x)2

≈ f (a)g(a) + [f (a)g (a) + g(a)f (a)]∆x
Notice that the coefficient of the linear term in this expression is f (a)g (a) +
g(a)f (a). That is,
(f g)(a) = f (a)g (a) + g(a)f (a)

After adding, subtracting and multiplying functions, we should divide them

next. As is the case with numbers, when you start dividing you have to be a
bit more careful. Whereas you can add, subtract or multiply any two num-
bers, you cannot divide them if the second one is zero. Something just like
it happens when we try to divide one differentiable function, f by another,
g. The new function that results when we do this division is denoted by the
f
symbol , and its value at an input x is
g

f f (x)
(x) =
g g(x)
The domain of this new function does not include those input values at which
the denominator g gives the value 0.
Quotient Rule: If f and g are differentiable functions, then the quo-

0; and
tient function f /g is differentiable at the points x where g(x) =
at those points,

d f (x) d
g(x) dx [f (x)] − f (x) dx
d
[g(x)]
=
dx g(x) [g(x)]2
or, equivalently,
f f g − g f
=
g g2
Again, when we prove this theorem we will see why the Quotient Rule has
this strange form.
Example 11. Prove the Quotient Rule.
Click here for help

26 CONTENTS
ex
Example 12. Calculate the derivative of .
x2
Click here for help
√
x
Example 13. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph y =
x+1
at the point (1, 0.5).
Click here for help

28 CONTENTS
Example 14. Determine, from the expression we found for its derivative,
whether the graph has a low point, high point, or inflection point at x = 1.
Click here for help
Here is a picture of this graph, generated using Maple by entering the com-
mand
> plot(sqrt(x)/(x+1), 0..2);
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x
Example 15. (From Section 3.7 in Stewart) If a tank holds 5000 liters of
water, which drains from the bottom of the tank in 40 minutes, then Torri-
celli’s law give the volume V of the water remaining after t minutes as
2
t
V = 5000 1 − 0 ≤ t ≤ 40
40
Find the rate at which water is draining from the tank after 5 minutes, and
after 30 minutes.
Click here for help

30 CONTENTS
The Chain Rule

If you go to the course web site and click ”computer-assisted learning” in the
column on the left, it will take you to ”MathQ’s” a set of interactive learning
devices. One of these is on the topic of the chain rule. Try it out!
We have studied derivatives of constant multiples, sums, differences, products
and quotients of functions. Another important way to combine functions is
through composition. If f and g are functions, the composite f ◦ g is the
function that for the input x gives the output f (g(x)). In other words,
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
√
Concept Question 7. Suppose f (x) = x and g(x) = x2 + 1. Then the
composition f ◦ g is
A. x + 1
√ 2
B. x(x + 1)
√
C. x2 + 1
√
D. x x2 + 1
Click here for help

THE CHAIN RULE 31
3
Concept Question 8. We want to express the function k(x) = ex +5 as a
composition of two functions f and g; that is we want k = f ◦g. What should
f and g be?
A. f (x) = x3 + 5 and g(x) = ex
B. f (x) = x3 and g(x) = 5 + ex
C. f (x) = ex and g(x) = x3 + 5

3 +5
D. f (x) = ex and g(x) = x3 + 5
Click here for help
Though composition is, conceptually, probably the most complicated way to

combine functions, the theorem for calculating the derivative of a composition
is one of the simplest:
The Chain Rule: If f and g are both differentiable and F = f ◦ g

is the composite function defined by F (x) = f (g(x)), then F is also
differentiable, and F is given by the product
F (x) = (f ◦ g) (x) = f (g(x))g (x)
Another way to put this: If y = f (x) and u = g(x) are both differen-
tiable, then
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
Notice, however, that the two factors on the right are not fractions! Each
represents a derivative.
32 CONTENTS
The idea behind the chain rule is very simple. The following diagram illus-
trate this. Imagine starting at some initial input x, as illustrated on the left
of the diagram. The function g turns x into u, which f then turns into y.
Composing the two functions f and g is a little like building a “box” around
the two components f and g to make a new “input-output machine” called
F (dashed line in the diagram). Suppose we change x by a small amount ∆x.
This produces a small change ∆u in the output of g, where the relationship
between the two small changes is given (approximately) by the derivative:
∆u
≈ g (x)
∆x
Since u is also the input to f , the small change ∆u in its input in turn
produces a small change ∆y in the output of f , again related to ∆u by the
derivative of f :
∆y
≈ f (u)
∆u
The derivative of F at x is (approximately) the ratio of the two small changes:
∆y ∆y ∆u
F (x) ≈ =
∆x ∆u ∆x
u = g(x)
x g f y
∆x produces ∆u produces ∆y

∆u ∆y
∆x ≈ g (x) ∆u ≈ f (u)
so,
THE CHAIN RULE 33
∆y
≈ f (g(x)) · g (x) .
∆x
∆y ∆u
≈ ≈
∆u ∆x
While the equations in this discussion are all in the form of approximate
∆y ∆u ∆y
equalities, in that the ratios , and all represent average rates
∆u ∆x ∆x
of change, and therefore only approximate the instantaneous rates, these
approximations get better and better as ∆x (and therefore also ∆u) tend to
zero. In the limit, therefore the equality becomes an exact equality combining
derivatives.
∆y
Notice that lim represents the derivative of f at u = g(x); that is, it
∆u→0 ∆u
is equal to f (u) = f (g(x)). This accounts for the form of the first factor in
the formula for the chain rule:
F (x) = f (g(x))g (x)
√
Example 16. Calculate the derivative of x2 + 1
Click here for help

34 CONTENTS
3 +5
Example 17. Find the derivative of 4ex .
Click here for help
2 +3x+8)7
Example 18. Find the derivative of F (x) = e(x
Click here for help

INVERSE FUNCTIONS 35
Inverse Functions
Our next goal and final goal in this short introduction to derivatives is to
present the formulas for the derivatives of logarithmic functions. In order
to do this we have included a brief review of the theory of inverse functions
(this section) followed by the definition of logarithmic functions (the next
section), before we discuss their derivatives in the last section.
Note the following indication that there is computer help for this topic on the
course web site. This computer help is interactive and designed not only to
test whether you remember the facts about inverse functions, but also to help
you understand them.
A function f is one-to-one if no two inputs (values in its domain) have the

same output (values in its range). The following graphs illustrate this.
y
f (x)
Not one-to-one
x1 x2
The graph shows that the points x1 and x2 produce the same output
(i.e. f (x1 ) = f (x2 )), therefore the function f (x) is not one-to-one. We can
geometrically check to see if a function is one-to-one if no horizontal line
intersects the graph of the function at more than one point.
36 CONTENTS
y
g(x)
One-to-one
satisfies “horizontal line test”
The graph of g(x) illustrates that there are no two distinct points in its
domain that produce the same output (i.e. g(x1 ) = g(x2 ), whenever x1 = x2 ).
Suppose we have a function f with domain D and range R. We want to look
for a function g that undoes what f does. If such a function g exists for
f , then it is called the inverse of f . In symbols this can be written as
g(y) = x ⇐⇒ f (x) = y.
This can be illustrated with the following diagram:
x f y
D R
x g y
Then
g(f (x)) = x,
and
f (g(x)) = x.
Concept Question 9. Suppose f (x) = x + 5. What should the inverse

function g be?
A. g(y) = y + 5
B. g(x) = 1/(x + 5)
C. g(x) = x − 5
Click here for help

38 CONTENTS
Example 19. Suppose f (x) = 1/x, then what is its inverse g(x)?
Click here for help
Concept Question 10. Suppose f (x) = x2 , then what is the inverse of f ?

√
A. g(x) = x
B. It has no inverse
C. g(x) = x−2
Click here for help

Example 20. In the Haber-Bosch reaction for the production of ammonia,

a nitrogen molecule combines with three hydrogen molecules to produce two
molecules of ammonia. The reaction can be written as
N2 + 3H2 −→ 2NH3 .
If the reaction is started with the concentration of hydrogen (in moles per
litre) three times as high as the concentration of nitrogen, then the amount
of ammonia (in moles) produced after t minutes is given by the formula
1
A(t) = 2α −
,
3 1
8α3
+ kt
where α is the initial concentration of nitrogen and k is a constant depending

on temperature.
(a) Find the inverse of A.
Click here for help

40 CONTENTS
(b) What does the inverse function tell you?

Graphs of Inverse Functions

Suppose g is the inverse of f and that D and R are the domain and range of
f , respectively. Then R and D are the domain and range of g, respectively.
This means that the domain of f equals the range of g and that the range of
f is the same as the domain of g.
y1
x
x1
Example 21. Sketch the graph of the inverse of f on the axes given above.
Click here for help

42 CONTENTS
Usually we write f −1 , rather than g, for the inverse. Note that this means
that f −1 (x) is not the same as (f (x))−1 ! The former is the inverse function
applied to x, while the latter is the reciprocal of f (x).
To understand the effect of the inverse function g of a function f whose
graph is before you, you do not have to reflect the graph of f to produce the
graph of g! The effect of the function f is shown by going from a point x1
on the horizontal axis via a vertical line to the graph of f , and then moving
horizontally towards the vertical axis, reaching it at y1 = f (x1 ). The effect of
g is seen on the same picture (without drawing the graph of g) by reversing
this procedure: start at a point y1 , then travel horizontally to the graph of
f and then vertically to reach the horizontal axis at x1 = g(y1).
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 43
Logarithmic Functions
One of the most important applications of the theory of inverse functions is

the introduction of Logarithmic Functions.
From its graph we know that ax (a > 1) is increasing, and therefore has an
inverse. The inverse of the function ax is the logarithm to the base a,
loga (x).
Recall the relationship between a function f and its inverse g. We expressed

it in three different but equivalent ways:
g(y) = x ⇐⇒ f (x) = y ,
g(f (x)) = x ,
f (g(x)) = x .
Concept Question 11. Let f (x) = ax and g(x) = loga (x). Which of the
following statements is true? (⇐⇒ means “if and only if ”)
[i. ] loga (y) = x ⇐⇒ ax = y [A. ] i,ii, and iii
[ii. ] a(loga )x = x [B. ] ii, iii, and v
[iii. ] loga (ax ) = x [C. ] i, iii, and iv
[iv. ] aloga (x) = x [D. ] i, ii, and iv
[v. ] loga (y) = ax ⇐⇒ x = y [E. ] iii, iv, and v
Click here for help

44 CONTENTS
The graph of loga x:

y
ax
loga x
x
1
What is the domain of loga x ?
What is the range of loga x ?
Counterpart of Laws of Exponents
1. loga (xy) = loga (x) + loga (y);

2. loga (x/y) = loga (x) − loga (y);
3. loga (xy ) = y loga (x).
You might say that logarithms turn products into sums, quotients into dif-
ferences and powers into products. These laws are a direct consequence of
the laws of exponents on page 57 in the textbook. MAKE SURE YOU
KNOW THESE LAWS VERY WELL.
Example 22. Evaluate log5 200 − 3 log5 2.
Click here for help
Example 23. Solve for x in the expression log6 x + log6 (x + 1) = 1.
Click here for help

46 CONTENTS
The natural logarithm is the logarithm loge (x).

Special notation: ln x (n for “natural”). Note the following:
ln x = y ⇐⇒ ey = x;
∴ ln ex = x;
∴ eln x = x (if x > 0);
∴ ln(e) = 1.
x−2 x−3
Example 24. Solve for x in the expression ln x−1
= 1 + ln x−1
.
Click here for help

Example 25. Since a = eln(a) , therefore ax = eln(a)x . Use this to find a

formula for the derivative of ax .
Click here for help

48 CONTENTS
Derivatives of Log Functions

Example 26. We know that x = aloga (x) . Using the Chain Rule for the
right hand side, differentiate both sides and then use the result to calculate
the derivative of loga x.
Click here for help
Notice that in this proof, as in several other proofs in this introduction to

differentiation, we glossed over some fine points. In this case we used the
Chain Rule, which, if you go back to check, assumes that both functions in
the composition are differentiable in the first place. Here we quietly assumed
that we knew this to be true, when in fact we did not prove that loga (x) is
a differentiable function. In a more rigorous treatment of Calculus this issue
would be addressed.
A special case for this formula is
d 1
(ln(x)) = .
dx x
You should MEMORIZE these formulas, as they will appear many times.
DERIVATIVES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 49
Example 27. Graph the function ln |x|.
Click here for help
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
Example 28. Find a formula for d

dx
ln |x|.
Click here for help

50 CONTENTS
Example 29. Calculate the derivative of ln(| x3 + 2x − 7 |).
Click here for help

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Most of the students entering in ﬁrst year engineering at Queen’s Univer-

Computer assisted learning

There are also some computer-based learning objects designed speciﬁcally

Computer help for this topic is available on the course website

What is a derivative really? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

What is a derivative really?

There is just one big secret at the heart of Calculus:

If you consider a function over a very small interval of input values it

If a quantity δ is very small, then its square δ 2 is negligible by comparison.

When we say something is negligible relative to something else, we mean

even more pronounced if δ = 0.000001; for then δ 2 = 0.000000000001 and

Concept Question 1. If δ is very small (say around 1/1000), which of the

Click here for help

The connection between the two “secrets”

So how is the secret on page 2 connected to the secret on page 1? Suppose we

f (a + ∆x) = (a + ∆x)2 = a2 + 2a∆x + (∆x)2 .

Notice that if we think of ∆x as a variable (and keep a constant), the right

Example 1. If we write down the equation of the graph of g we get y =

Click here for help

The derivative of a function f at an input value a is the slope of the

We will give a more important characterization of the derivative in a moment,

The derivative of f (x) = x2 at input value x is equal to 2x.

Thus its derivative at x = 2 is equal to 4. At x = 0 it comes to 0. At x = π

Concept Question 2. Given the graph of f , which of the graphs below it

Click here for help

We would like to be able to calculate a formula for the derivative of any

Theorem If f (x) = xn , where n is a positive integer, then f (x) = nxn−1 .

Example 2. Prove that this theorem is true, by expanding f (a + ∆x) and

Click here for help

A polynomial function is just a sum of constant multiples of power func-

f (a + ∆x) = c0 + c1 (a + ∆x) + c2 (a + ∆x)2 + · · · + cn (a + ∆x)n

≈ c0 + c1 (a + ∆x) + c2 (a2 + 2a∆x + · · · ) + · · · + cn (an + nan−1 ∆x + · · · ) ,

f (a + ∆x) ≈ c0 + c1 (a + ∆x) + c2 (a2 + 2a∆x) + · · · + cn (an + nan−1 ∆x)

= f (a) + (c1 + 2c2 a + 3c3 a2 · · · ncn an−1 )∆x .

Theorem: The derivative of a polynomial

Example 3. What is the slope of the graph y = 3x2 − 5x + 7 at (1, 5)?

Click here for help

Click here for help

NOTE: James Stewart: Calculus, Early Transcendentals 6e, is the text-

Returning to the discussion of the derivative, and writing x in place of a+∆x,

This is the deﬁnition of the derivative you will usually see in a

(a + ∆x)2 − a2 a2 + 2a∆x + (∆x)2 − a2 2a∆x + (∆x)2

Concept Question 3. To ﬁnd a formula for the derivative of the function

Click here for help

Click here for help

Click here for help

Click here for help

Derivatives of Exponential Functions

We will now turn to a calculation of the derivative of the exponential func-

This way of introducing the number e immediately tells us that if f (x) = ex

Concept Question 5. Which of the following limits expresses this fact?

Click here for help

We will now use this information to prove

Example 7. Use the deﬁnition of the derivative as a limit of average rates

Click here for help

Derivatives of Combinations of Functions

In order to diﬀerentiate eﬀectively, we should develop a kind of “arithmetic”

The Constant Multiple Rule: If c is a constant and f is a diﬀeren-

(f (a) + g(a)) + ∆x − (f (a) + g(a))

Click here for help

(f (a + ∆x) + g(a + ∆x)) − (f (a) + g(a))