HOW DO WE KNOW WHAT ANGLO-SAXON MEN WORE?

He wore wool or linen trousers. A tunic made of linen and then a thicker tunic made of wool on top of that. He would
wear a belt at his waist which would have his knife and pouch hanging from it. He would also wear leather shoes. Men did
not wear much, if any, jewellery.
How do we know what Anglo-Saxon women wore?
Anglo-Saxon women wore long under-dresses probably made of linen. On top of this they wore over-dresses made of
wool and held together by pairs of brooches at the shoulder. They wore belts at the waist from which hung their knife and
pouch. Women wore jewellery, especially if they were very wealthy or important. Like the men, they also wore leather
shoes.
During the earliest period of Anglo-Saxon rule in England, leading noblemen who assumed kingship dressed quite similar
to the rest of the society. Over time, the clothing of the king became more elaborate. For instance, by the 8th century,
Anglo-Saxon kings were wearing leather tunic with elaborate decorations such as rings sewn on it to reflect their social
status.

Ancient Egypt's Social Pyramid

The Pharaoh
High government officials like the vizier (the pharaoh's right hand man), the chief treasurer and the army general
Priests and nobles (who serve as lesser government officials)
Soldiers and scribes (who write down important events and calculate taxes)
Craftsmen and merchants
Farmers and unskilled workers
Slaves
Often, people from a single level would live in the same area of a city. The levels of the pyramid could shift and
individual tiers were more powerful at different times.
Duties of Each Level
The Pharaoh
The Pharaoh was a god on earth and the ultimate authority in Egypt. It was his/her duty to make the law and maintain
order in the Kingdom. The people expected the pharaoh to keep the gods happy so the Nile would flood and there would
be a good harvest. S/he had to maintain the army to defend the country from outside threats and internal difficulties. The
people looked to the pharaoh to ensure their well-being and when s/he did not live up to this expectation s/he had less
power. The Pharaoh owned all the land in Egypt but he could gift land to other people as gifts or to award them.
Government Officials
Government officials consisted of members of the royal family, nobles and priests. The royal family made up the original
members of the government, the highest position of which was the vizier. Over time, the royal family left government
positions, leaving the nobles to fill them. At first, the pharaoh appointed all government positions but soon they became
hereditary.
The vizier was the pharaoh’s second-in-command and sometimes served as High Priest of Amun-Ra. He oversaw the
political administration and all official documents had to have his seal on them. The vizier managed the taxation system
and monitored the supply of food. He listened to problems between nobles and settled them. The vizier also ran the
pharaoh’s household and ensured the royal family’s safety.
Priests served the gods’ needs and, at times, the power of the High Priest of Amun-Ra rivaled pharaoh’s. Pharaoh
appointed the priests during early periods but later the posts became hereditary. They spent their time conducting rituals
and ceremonies, in pharaoh’s name, in temples to keep the gods happy. Priests were a part of ancient Egypt's daily life and
they oversaw the running of the temple community.
Nobles were the only group, beside the royal family, who could hold a government office. They ruled the nomes (regions
of Egypt), made local laws and maintained order. Nobles also owned farm land which the peasant class worked for them.
Scribes and Soldiers
Scribes, part of the third level of the pyramid, were some of the only people in Egypt who could read and write. They kept
the records of the country including the amount of food produced and gifts presented to the gods. Scribes also kept records
of the number of soldiers in the army and the number of workers on construction sites. They also wrote the copies of the
Book of the Dead and biographies found in ancient Egyptian tombs.
Soldiers protected Egypt from outside attacks and ended social uprisings. At times, they also oversaw the lowest classes
when they built the pyramids. Second sons would often join the army because they gained wealth. They could get booty
from battles and the pharaoh might reward them with land for their service.
The Middle Class: Craftsmen and Merchants
The middle class consisted of craftsmen, merchants and other skilled workers such as doctors. Merchants sold the goods
made by craftsmen and doctors treated injuries. Craftsmen or artisans included carpenters, jewelers, metalworkers,
painters, potters, sculptors, stone carvers and weavers. Women could work in some of the crafts, such as weaving.
Craftsmen often worked in workshops with other artisans of the same type.
Peasants
Peasants were the farmers, servants and constructions workers. The government employed construction workers who built
royal buildings like pyramids and palaces. Servants worked in the homes of the higher levels of society cleaning, making
food, and completing other tasks.
Farmers were the most important part of the society because they raised the food that fed ancient Egypt. Pharaoh, or the
nobles they worked for, provided them with food and clothing. This was an exchange for their cultivation of royal or
noble land. Farmers lived in small, mud-brick houses and could rent land in exchange for a percentage of the crops from
nobles or the Pharaoh.
Slaves
At the bottom of ancient Egypt's social structure were the slaves. Egypt did not have slave markets. Most of the time, the
ancient Egyptians acquired slaves as prisoners-of-war. Slaves worked in the homes of the nobles, in the royal palace and
in the temples. They also mined and quarried stone and precious materials. None of the records found to date say that
slave labor built the pyramids of Giza, despite myths claiming they did.
Quick Facts
The Pharaoh was the ultimate authority in Egypt.
The people held the pharaoh responsible for their well-being.
Government officials helped ensure that the country ran well.
Priests oversaw the temples and the rituals and ceremonies to honor the gods.
Scribes recorded the events of the kingdom.
Soldiers protected the kingdom from military threats.
The middle class made craft items for the other classes and sold them.
Farmers grew the food that supported the entire kingdom.
Slaves were prisoners-of-war who worked in houses, mines or quarries.
Ancient Egypt
Agriculture
A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most
important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians
were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural,
technological, and artistic pursuits. Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on
the amount of land a person owned.
flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for
growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed
and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers
relied on the Nile to water their crops. From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then
threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was
then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.
The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the
two main food staples of bread and beer. Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of
their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to
make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were
grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included
leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.
Trade in Ancient Egypt
The Egyptians were masters of trade in the ancient world. Encouraged by Hatshepsut’s (1) expedition to Punt and
Thutmose III’s (2) trades for rich loot in Southwest Asia and the Mediterranean Region, Egypt was a center of trade.
Egyptians and their trading partners sailed along the Nile River to trade their goods, but sometimes also traveled to and
from the Eastern or Western Deserts. Egyptians bartered with their precious resources, including gold, papyrus, linen, and
grain. Sometimes, they even traded decorative artifacts (3), and some people stole them out of the Pharaohs’ tombs! For
these goods, they received items not commonly found in Egypt in return. These included cedar wood from Lebanon;
ebony and ivory from Africa; incense, myrrh and oils from Punt; lapis lazuli from Afghanistan; gold from Nubia, and
even the important metals copper and iron from their best allies. Occasionally, they bought mud pottery or horses from
other civilizations (4). They were only allowed to trade in marketplaces. Trade was also used in promoting friendship
between civilizations. Gifts were given to show that one country wanted peace and/or alliance with another. Strangely (to
us), princesses were commonly given from one country (or ruler) to another! This may explain why Ramses II has over
100 wives! Sometimes, Egypt determined how much of an item was being offered for trade by comparison to pieces of
metal of known weight (using a balance or scale). In 400 B.C.E., gold, silver, and bronze coins became the currency of
Egypt, but even then, bartering was still popular (5). Trade affects all of the social classes of Egypt because so many
different kinds of resources were traded. For example, peasants needed cheap food to survive on, while Artisans used
ebony, linen, iron, and copper for their crafts. Scribes traded for better food, such as meat, beer, and fish. They also used
the leather traded from other places to be made into their carrying bags by artisans. Priests bought linen to have it made
into the clothes. Government officials and the Pharaoh will use luxury resources such as copper or other metals, and
incense. In summary, trade in ancient Egypt was important because it gave civilians the resources required to live and
prosper (6).