This book is in rhe

ADDISON-WESLEY SERIES IN MATHEMATICS lntroduction to

Consulting Editor: LYNN H. LOOM I S
Commutative Algebra

M. F. ATIYAH, FRS
UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
l. G. ~1ACDONALD

ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY

Reading, Mas~achusetts · Menlo Park, California

London · Amsterdam · Don Milis, Ontario · Sydney
 Contents
lntroduction . • • • .. . . . • • • • • •
..
VIl

Notution und Terminology . • • • • • • • • • • •

•
IX

Chnptcr 1 Rlngs nnd ldcals . • • • • • • • • • • • • 1

Rings and ring homomorphisms . . • • • • • • • 1
ldcals. Quoticnt rings . . . . . • • • • • • • 2
Zero-divisors. Nilpotent elemeots. Units. • • • • • • 2
Pri me ideals and maximal ideals . . . • • • • • • 3
Ni lradical and Jacobson radical . . .' • • • • • • • 5
Operations on ideals . . . . . . • • • • • • • 6
Extension and contraction . . . . • • • • • • 9
Excrciscs . • • • • • • • • • • • • 10

Chnptcr 2 Modules . • • • • . . .. . • • • • • • 17
Modules and module homomorphisms . • • • • • • • 17
Submodulcs and quotient modules . • • • • • • • 18
Operations on submodules . . . . • • • • • • 19
Dircct sum and product . . . • • • • • • • 20
Finitely gencrated modules . • • • • • • • • • 21
Exact seq uences . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • 22
Tensor product of modules . . . • • • • • • • • 24
Restriction and extension of scalars . • • • • • • • • 27
Exact ncss properdes of the tensor product . • • • • • • 28
Algebras . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • 29
Tensor product of algebras . . . . • • • • • • • 30
Exercises . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • 31
Copyright ~ 1969 by Add '
ISOn-Wesley p bl ' h' Chapter 3 Rings nnd Modules of Fractions 36
u IS mg Company, lnc. • • • • • • • • • •

Local properties . . . . . . . . . . · • • • • ' 40

Extended and contracted ideals in rings of fractions • • • • 41
All rights reserved N 43
system, or trans . . o. part of this publicati Exercises . . . . . . . · · · · · · • • • •
recordÍJlg or ot:ut~d, m .any form or by on may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval •

Britain l•'bra rw•se, WJthout pr'•or w . any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, so
· ry of e0 · ruten p · · . •. . Cbapter 4 Primary Decompositioo • • • • • • • • • • • •
• n&ress Catalog Card N erm•ss•on of thc pubhsher. Pnnted in Great
rs11~ 0-2n 1 "" 0 · 72-79530
55
- "' 3~ 1 -9 . Exercises. • • • • • • • • • • • •
'fNOilnp_,~A-R9A • • • •

V
 vi coNTENTS
D ndence nnd Vnluntions • •
•
Chapter S Integral epe •
59
1nregral dependence . . . . . . . . •
59
he oing-up theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . •
T g Josed integral domains. The g01ng-down theorem 61
11
Integra Y e · • 62
Valuation rings · · · · · · · • 65
• • • • • • •
Exerciscs . • • • • 67

Chapter 6 Chain Conditions • • • • • • • • I11 tro d tl ct.i o n

• 74
• • • •
Exercises . • • • • • • 78

Chapter 7 Nocthcrian Rings · •

• • so
Primary decomposilion in Noctherian rings • •
Commutative algebra is essentially the study of commutative rings. Roughly
• • • 82 speaking, it has developed from two sources : ( l) algebraic geometry and (2)
Exercises . . . . . • • •
84 algebraic number theory. In (1) the prototype of the rings studied is the riog
Chapter 8 Artin Rings • • • • • • •
k[x 1 , . . . , Xn ] of polynomials in severa! \!ariables over a field k; in (2) it is the
• •
89
ring Z of rational integers. Of these two the algebro-geometric case is the more
Exercises . • • • • • • • • • • • • 91 far-reaching and, in its modern development by Grothendieck, it embraces much
of algebraic number theory. Commutative algebra is now one of the foundation
Chapter 9 Discrcte Valuation Rings and Dedckind Domnins • • • • • 93 stones of this new algebraic geometry. lt provides the complete local tools
Discrete valuation rings • • for the subject in much the same way as differential analysis provides the tools
• • • • • • • • 94
Dedekind domains . . • for differential geometry.
• • • • • • • • 95
Fractional ideals • This book grew out of a course of lectures given to third year under-
• • • • • • • • • • 96
Exercises . • • • graduates at Oxford University and it has the modest aim of providing a rapid
• • • • • • 99
introduction to the subject. Jt is designed to be read by students who have hada
Cbapter 10 Completions . • • • • • • • • • • • 100 first elementary course in general algebra. On the other hand, it is not intended
Topologies and completions as a substitute for the more voluminous tracts on commutative algebra such as
Filtrations • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • 101 Zariski-Samuel [4] or Bourbaki [1]. We have concentrated on certain central
• • • • • • • • • • • 105
Graded rings and modules . topics, and Iarge areas, such as field theory, are not touched. In content we
The associated graded ring
• • • • • • • • • • • 106
cover rather more ground than Northcott [3] and our treatment is substantially
Exercises . . •
• • • • • • • • 111
• • • • • • • • 113 different in that, following the modern trend, we put more emphasis on modules
• • • • •

Chapter 11 Dimension Theory . and localization.

. The central notion in commutative algebra is that of a prime ideal. This
• • • • •
• • • • • 116
Hilbert functions provides a common generalization of the primes of arithmetic and the points of
Dimension theory of N. . .. . . . . • • • • • 116 geometry. The geometric notion of concentrating attention "near a point',
ReguJ 1 . oethenan local rings 119
ar ocal nngs . . • • • • • •
has as its algebraic analogue the important process of /ocalizing a ring ata prime
Transcendental dimension . . . . . • 123
• • • • • •
ideal. lt is not surprising, therefore, that results about localization can usefully
Exercises . • • • · · · · . • • • • • 124
• •
• •
be thought of in geometric terms. This is done methodically in Grothcndieck,s
• •
• • • • • • • 125
theory of schemes and, partly as an introduction to Grothendieck's work [2],
Index . • • • • • • • 127 and partly beca use of the geometric insight it provides, we ha ve added schematic
• • • • • • • • •
versions of many results in the form of exercises and remurks .
The lecture-note origin of this book accounts for the rather terse style, with
little general padding, and for the condensed account of many proofs. We have
resisted the temptation to expand it in the hopc that thc brevity of our presenta-
tion will make clearer the mathematical structurc of what is by now an elegant
..
VIl
 ... INTRODUCTION
VIII
•
and attractive theory. Our philosophy has been to build up to the main theorems
in a succession of simple steps and to omit routine verillcations.
Anyone writing now on commutative algebra fa~es a dilemma in ~o nncction
with homological algebra, which plays such an 1mportant part m modern
developments. A proper treatment of homologi~a l. algebra is impossibl.e withi~
the confines of a small book: on the other hand, tt IS hardly sensible to 1gnore 1t
completely. The compromise we have adopted is to use elementary homological Notation and Terminology
methods-exact sequences, diagrams, etc.-but to stop short of any results
requiring a deep study of homology. In this way we hope to prepare the ground
for a systematic course on homological algebra which the reader should under-
take if he wíshes to pursue algebraic geometry in any depth. Rings .an? modules are denoted by capital italic letters, elements of them by
We have provided a substantial num ber of exercises at the end of each smull ttahc letters. A fi eld is often denoted by k. Ideals are denoted by small
chapter. Sorne of them are easy and sorne of them are hard. Us ually we have German characters. Z~ Q, R, C denote respective! y the ring of rational integers,
provided bints, and sometimes complete solutions, to the ha rd ones. We are the field of rational numbers, the field of real numbers and the field of complex
índebted to Mr. R. Y. Sharp, who worked through them all and saved us from numbers.
error more tban once. Mappings are consisten ti y written on the left, thus the image of an element x
We bave made no attempt to describe the contributions of the many under a mapping f is written f(x) and not (x)f. The composition of mappings
mathematicians who bave helped to develop the theory as expounded in this f : X --r Y, g: Y --r Z is therefore g o f, notf o g.
book. We would, however, like to put on record our indebtedness to J .-P. Serre A mappingf: X->- Yis injective iff(x1) = f(x 2 ) implies x 1 = x~; surjective
and J. Tate from whom we learnt the subject, and whose influence was the if f(X) = Y; bijective if both injective and surjective.
determining factor in our choice of material and mode of presentation. The end of a proof (or absence of proof) is marked thus •·
Inclusion of sets is denoted by the sign ~. We reserve the sign e for strict
inclusion . Thus A e B means that A is contained in B and is not equal to B.
REFERENCES

l. N. BotrRBAKI, Algebre Commutative, Hermann, Paris (1961 - 65).

2. A. 0ROTHENDfECK and J. DIEUDONNÉ, Éléments de Géometrie Algébrique,
Pub/ications Mathématiques de 1'/.H.E.S., Nos. 4, 8, 11, .. , Paris (196G- ).
3. D.G. NoRTHcorr, Ideal Theory, Cambridge University Press (1953) .
... o. ZAJUSKJ and P. SAMUEL, Commutative Algebra I, n, Van Nostrand, Princeton
(1958, 1960).

ix
 1

Rings and ldeals

•
~e shall ~egi~ b.y r~viewing rapidly the definition and eleme~ry properties of
nngs. Thts wtll mdtcate how much we are going to assume of the reader and it
will also serve to fix notation and conventions. After this review we pass on
to a discussion of prime and maximal ideals. The remainder of the chapter is
devoted to explaining the various elementary operations which can be performed
on ideals. The Grothendieck language of schemes is dealt with in the exercises
at the end.

RINGS AND RING HOMOMORPHISMS

A ring A is a set with two binary operations· (addition and multiplication) such
that

1) A is an abelian g roup with respect to addition (so that A has a zero element,
denoted by O, and every x E A has an (additive) inverse, - x).
2) Multiplication is associative ((xy)z = x(yz)) and distributive over addition
(x(y + z) = xy + xz, (y + z)x = yx + zx).
We shall consider only rings which are commutative:

3) xy = yx for all x, y E A,
"'' . . . ,~~
and have an identity element (denoted by 1):

4) 31 E A such that xl = lx = x for all x E A.

The identity element is then unique.
Throughout this book the word "ring" sha/1 mean a commutative ring with an
identity e!ement, that is, a ring satisfying axioms (1) to (4) above.
Remark. We do not exclude the possibility in (4) that l might be equal to O.
If so, then for any x E A we have
x = x l = xO = O

and so A has only one element, O. In this case A is the zero ring, denoted by O
(by abuse of notation).
1
•
 2 RINGS ANO IDEALS
A ring homomorplzism is a mapping/ of a ring A into a ring B such that
i) f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) (so that f is a homomorphism of abelian groups,
and therefore alsof(x -y) = f(x) - f(y),f( -x) = -f(x),f(O) = 0),
ii) f(xy) = f(x)f(y),
iii) f(l) = l.
In other words, f respects addition, multiplication and the identity element.
A subset S of a ring A is a subring of A if S is closed under addition and
multiplication and contains the identity element of A. The identity mappíng of
S into A is then a ring homomorphism.
If/: A --* B, g: B --* C are ring homomorphisms then so is their composition
g o f : A--* C.
IDEALS. QUOTIENT RINGS
An ideal a of a ríng A is a subset of A which is an additive subgroup and is such
that Aa s; a (i.e., x E A and y E a imply xy E a). The quotient group A j a
inheríts a uniquely defined multiplication from A which makes it into a ring,
called the quotient ring (or residue-class ring) Aja. The elements of Aja are the
cosets of a in A, and the mapping cf>: A --* A j a which maps each x E A to its
coset x + a is a surjective ring homomorphism.
We shall frequently use the following fact:
Proposition 1.1. There is a one-to-one order-preserving correspondence
between the idea/s ó of A which contain a, and the ideals b of A j a, given by
() = cp -l(b). •
If f: A --* Bis any ring homomorphism, the kernel off(=¡- (0)) is an ideal
1
a of A, and the image off(=f(A)) is a subring C of B ; andfinduces a ring
isomorphism Aj a :::' C.
We shall sometimes use the notation x =y (mod a); this means that
x-y ea.
ZERO-DIVISORS. NILPOTENT ELEMENTS. UNITS
A ~ero-divisor in a ring A is an element x which "divides O", i.e., for which there
CXJ~ts Y :F O i~ A such that xy = O. A ring with no zero-divisors # O (and in
whtch 1 :F O~ Is calle~ an integral domain. For example, z and k[x1 , ••• , Xn]
(k a field, x, mdetermmates) are integral domains.
An ~lement x E A is nilpotent if xn = O for sorne n > O. A nilpotent
element 1.s ~ zero:d'JVIsor
· (unless A = 0), but not conversely (in general).
A Uhlt m A 1s an element x which "divides 1", i.e., an element x such that
xy. = 1 for sorne Y E A. The element y is then uniquely determined by x 1 and is
wntten x - 1 · Th e umts· ·m A form a (multiplicative) abelian group.
PRIME IDEALS ANO MAXIMAL IDEALS 3
Thc multiplcs ax of an element x E A forma pr' · ¡ 'd 1 d
or Ax. x is a unit <=> (x) = A = (1). Thc zero ide:;c(Ó)~ I ea¡'¡ ednoted by (x)
A fi Id . . . lS usua y enoted by O
re .Is a ~mg A m whi~h 1 =/: O and every non-zero element is a unit~
Every field ts an mtegral domam (but not converscly: z is nota field).
Proposition • 1
1.2. Let A be a ring =/: O· Then the fiollow 1•ng are equwa
. ent:
1) A is a field;
ii) the only idea/s in A are O and (1); ·
iii) every homomorphism of A into a non-zero ring Bis injective.
Proof i) => ii). Let a =/: O be an ideal in A . Then a contains a non-zero
element x; x is a unit, hence a 2 (x) = (1), hence a = (l).
. ii) => iii!. Let cp: A --* B be a ring homomorphism. Then Ker ~e/>) is an
1deal =/: (1) m A , hence Ker (cp) = O, hence cp is injective.
iii) => i). Let ~ be an element ?fA which is not a unit. Then (x) =~: (1),
hence B = A j (x) IS not the zero nng. Let cp: A --* B be the natural homo-
morphism of A onto B, with kernel (x). By hypothesis, 4> is injective, hence
(x) = O, hence x = O. •
PRIME IDEALS AND MAXIMAL IDEALS
An ideal lJ in A is prime if ~ =/: (1) and if xy E ~ => x E\:> or y E p.
An ideal m in A is maximal if m =/: (1) and if there is no ideal a such that
m e a e (1) (strict inclusions). Equivalently:
p is prime <=> Afp is an integral domain;
m is maximal <=> Aj m is a field (by (1.1) and (1.2)).
Hence a maximal ideal is prime (but not conversely, in general). The zero ideal
is prime <=> A is an integral domain.
lf f: A --* B is a ring homomorphism and q is a prime ideal in B, then
¡ - 1 ( q) is a prime ideal in A, for A//- 1( q) is isomorphic to a subring of Bfq and
hence has no zero-divisor =/: O. But if n is a maximal ideal of B it is not neces-
sarily tr.ye thatf- 1 (n) is maximal in A; all we can say for sure is that it is prime.
(Example: A = Z, B = Q, n = 0.)
Prime ideals are fundamental to the whole of commutative algebra. The
following theorem and its corollaries ensure that there is always a sufficient
supply of them.
Theorem 1.3. Every ring A =1: Ohas at /east one maximal ideal. (Remember
that "ring" means commutative ring witb l.)
Proof This is a standard application of Zorn's lemma. • Let :E be the set of all
ideals =1: (1) in A. Order :E by inclusion. :E is not empty, since O E :E. To apply
• Let S be a non-empty partially ordered set (i.e., we are given a relation x ~ y on S
which is reflexive and transitive and such that x ~ y and y ~ x together imply
 4 RINGS ANO IOEALS
NILRADICAL ANO JACOBSON RADiCAL 5

Zorn 's lemma we must show that every chain in ~ has an upper bound in ¿:;
Iet then (aa) be a cbain ofideals in L, so that for each pair of índices a, f3 we have
either aa s; a6 or a8 s; aa. Let a = Ua aa. Then a is an ideal (verify this) and
1 f# a because 1 f# aa for all a. Hence a E ~' and a is an upper bound of the chain .
Hence by Zorn's Jemma ~ has a maximal element. •
Coro//ary 1.4. Jf a # (1) is an ideal of A, rhere exists a maximal ideal of A
• •
contammK a.
Proof Apply (1.3) to Aj a, bearing in mind (1.1). Alternatively, modify the
proof of (1.3). •
Corollary 1.5. Every non-unit of A is contained in a max imal ideal. •
Remarks. 1) If A is Noetherian (Chapter 7) we can avoid the use of Zorn's
Jemma: the set of all ideals # (1 ) has a maximal ele men t.
2) There exist rings with exactly one maximal ideal, for example fields.
A ring A with exactly one maximal ideal m is called a local ring. The field
k = A/m is called the residue field of A.
•
it is the kernel of the homomorphism A --7- k which maps / EA t 1''0)) B ·
. . . 1 'd . o \ . ut tf
11 > 1, m ts nota pnnctpa t eal : m fact it requires at Ieast n generators.
. 3). A principal ideal
. domain is an integral domain 1'n which every 1'deal ·ts
pnnct ~al. .rn such a nng every non-zero prime ideal is maximal. For if (x) i= o
is a pnme tdeal and (y) ::;, (x), we have x E (y), say x = yz, so that yz E (x) and
y f# (x), hence z E (x): say z = tx. Then x = yz = ytx, so tbat yt = 1 and
therefore (y) = (1).
'"NILRADICAL ANO JACOBSON RADICAL
Proposition 1.7. The set m of al! nilpotent elements in a ring A is an ideal
ancl Ajm has 110 11ilpotent element :1= O. '
Proof If X E m, clearly ax E m for all a E A. Let X' y E m: say xm = O, yn = o.
By the binomial theorem (which is valid in any commutative ring), (x + y)m+n-1
is a sum of integer multiples of products x'y', where r + s = m + 11 - 1; we
cannot ha ve both r < m and s < 11, hence each of these products vanishes and
therefore (x + y)m+n - l = O. Hence X + y E m aod therefore misan ideal.

Proposition 1.6. i) Let A be a ring and m :/= (l) an ideal of A suclz ~that Let x E Afm be represented by x E A. Then X' is represented by xn, so that
every x E A - m is a unit in A . Then A is a local ring and m its maximal ideal. _xn = o => xn E w => (xn)k = o for sorne k > o => X E m => -~ = O. •
ii) Let A be a ring and m a maximal ideal of A, suclz that every element of The ideal W is called the ni/radical of A. The following proposition gives an
1 + m (i.e., every 1 + x, where x E m) is a unit in A . Tlzen A is a local ring. alternative definition of W:
Proof i) Every ideal # (1) consists of non-units, hence is contained in m. Proposition 1.8. The ni/radical of A is the intersection of al/ the prime ideals
Hence m is the only maximal ideal of A. of A.
ii) Let x E A - m. Sin ce m is maximal, the ideal genera ted by x and m is Proof Let 91' denoté the intersection of all the prime ideals of A. If fE A is
(1), hence there existy E A and t E m such that xy + t = 1; hence xy = 1 - t nilpotent and if .p is a prime ideal, then /" = O E .p for sorne n > O, hence
belongs to 1 + m and therefore is a unit. Now use i). • f e p (because .pis prime). Hence/ E W'.
Conversely, suppose that f is not nilpotent. Let l: be the set of ideals a
A ring with only a finite number of maximal ideals is called semi-local.
with the property
Exa~ples. 1) A = k[x¡, . .. , Xn], k a field. Let f E A be an irreducible poly- · n > O => ¡n rt a.
nom1al. By unique factorizatjon, the ideal (/) is prime.
Then L is not empty because O El:. As in (1.3) Zorn's lemma can be applied
~) A. = Z. Every ideal in Z is of the form (m) for sorne m ~ O. The ideal
to the set l:, ordered by inclusion, and therefore l: has a maximal element. Let
(m) 1s pnme <> m. = Oora prime number. All the ideals (p), where pis a prime
.p be a maximal element of l:. We shall show that .P is a prime ideal. Let
number, are max1mal: Z/(p) is the field of p elements.
x, y rt .p. Then the ideals .p + (x), .p + (y) strictly contain .P and therefore do
The sa~e h~lds in Example 1) for n = 1, but not for n > J. The ideal m of
all polynom1als m A = k[x¡, . .. , Xn] with zero constant term is maximal (since not belong to L; hence
¡ mE .p + (x), /" E .P + (y)
x =.y). A subset T of S is a chain if either x ~ y or y ~ x for every pair of elements . for sorne m, n. It follows thatjm +n E p + (xy), hence the ideal t.> + (xy) is not
~,Y 10 T. Th~n Zo~n's ~emma may be stated as follows: if every chain T of S has an in l: and therefore xy rt .p. Hence we have a prime ideal~ such thatf rt ~.so that
pper bound m ~ (t.e., tf there exists x E S such that r ~ x for all r e T) then S has
at 1east one maxtmal element. frt W'. •
well~~~:ri~roof .or ~he equivalence of Zorn's lemma with the axiom of choice, the . The Jacobson radical mof A is defined to be the intersection of all the maxi-
1 prmciple, etc., see for example P R Halmos Nafve Set Theory mal ideals of A . It can be characterized as follows:
Van Nostrand (1 960). · · ' '
l
 6 RJ NGS ANO IDEALS O PERATIONS ON lDEALS 7
Proposition 1.9. X E m <=> 1 - xy is a unit in A foral/ y E A . Two. ide~ls a, b are said to be coprime (or comaximal) if a + ó = (1). Thus
Proof => : Suppose 1 - xy is nota unit. By (1. 5) it belongs to sorne maximal for copn me
. tdeals we . have a f1 b = aó. Clearly two 1·deals a, 1'.u are copnme
• •
1f
ideal m ; but x E m s m, hence xy E m and therefore 1 E m, which is absurd. and only tf therc cx1st x E a and y E b such that x + y = 1.
<= : Suppose x rF m for sorne maximal ideal m. Then m and x genera te the Let A" . . . , A n be rings. Their direct product
unit ideal {1 ), so that we bave u + xy = 1 for sorne u E m and sorne y E A . n

Hence 1 - xy E m and is tberefore not a unit. • A=TIA, 1 al

•

is thc se~ of all .s~quences x -: <:b ... ,

Xn) with x, E A ( l ~ ¡ ~ n) and com- 1
OPERATIONS ON IDEALS poncntwtse addttwn and multtpllcatwn. A is a commutative ring with identit
If a, ()are ideaJs in a ring A , their sum a + f.l is the set of all x + y where x E a element (1, 1, ... , 1). We have projections p 1: A -+ A , defincd by p(x) = x~
•
they are nng t
110momorp h'1sms. 1 "
and y E ó. It is the smallest ideal containing a and ó. More generally, we may
define the sum 2:1e 1 a, of any family (possibly infinite) of ideals a, of A; its ele- Let A be a ring and o11 ••• , on ideals of A . Define a homomorphism
meots are all sums 2 x 11 where x 1 E a, for all i E 1 and almost all of the x 1 (i.e.,
all but a finite set) are zero. It is the smallest ideal of A which contains all the cp: A --+ n (A ja,)
n

1e 1
ideals a1•
The intersection o[ aoy family (a1) 1e 1 of ideals is an ideal. Thus the ideals of A by the rule cp(x) = (x + a 11 . . • , x + an).
form a complete lattice with respect to inclusion. Proposition 1.10. i) If a" ajare coprime whenever i ::p j, then na, = n ~·
Theproduct of two ideals a, ó in A is the ideal aó generated by all products xy,
ii) cp is surjective <=> o 11 aj are coprime wlzenever i =1= j.
where x E a and y E ó. lt is the set of all finite sums 2: x 1y 1 where each x 1 E a and
each y, E f>. Similarly we define the product of any finite farnily of ideals. In iii) cp is injective <=> n
a, = (0).
particular the powers an (n > O) of an ideal a are defined; conventionally, Proof i) by induction on n. The case n = 2 is dealt with above. Suppose
a0 = (1). Thus an (n > O) is the ideal generated by all products x 1x 2 • · · Xn n > 2and theresulttruefora 11 .•• , an_ 11 andletf> = f1f;} a,= nf;l a,.Since
in whjch each factor x 1 belongs to a. a1 + an = (1) (1 ~ i ~ n 1) we have equations X¡ + y, = 1 (X¡ E a¡, Yt E nn)
and therefore
Examples. 1) If A = Z, a = (m), ó = (n) then a + ó is the ideal generated by
rr x, n (1 -
n-1 n-1
the h.c.f. ofm and n ; a n bis the ideal generated by their l.c.m.; and aó = (mn) . y,) = l (mod an).
1= 1 1= 1
Thus (in this case) af> = a n ó <=> m, n are coprime.
2) A = k[x¡, . .. , Xn], a = (x 11 .•• , Xn) = ideal generated by x 11 •.. , Xn· Hence an + b = (1) and so
Then am is the set of all polynomials with no terms of degree < m.
The three operations so far defined (sum, intersection, product) are all
rr
1
n

..
1
O¡ = Úan = b fl an =
n
n a¡.
fol

commutative and associative. AJso there is the distributive law ii) => : Let us show for example that a 17 a2 are coprime. There exists x E A
a(b + e) = aó + ae.
such that cf>(x) = ( I, O, ... , O); hence x 1 (mod a 1) and x= O(mod a:l), so =
that
In the ring Z, n and + are distributive over each other. This is not the case 1 = (1 - x) + x E a1 + a2.
in general, and the best we have in this direction is the modular law
<= : It is enough to show, for example, that there is an elcment x E A such that
a n (ó + e) = a n ó + a n e if a 2 'ó ora 2 c. c/>(x) = (1 ,0, . .. , O). Since a 1 + o1 = (1) (i > 1) we bave equations u, + v, = 1
(u1 E a 1 , v1 E a 1). Take x = Tif,.. 2 v11 then x = TI(l - u,) = 1 (mod a¡), and
Again, in Z, we have (a + ó)(a n b) = a'ó; but in general we have only x = O (mod o1), i > 1. Hence cf>(x) = (1, O, ... , O) as required.
(a + b)(a n b) 5; al> (since (a + ó)(a n b) = a(a no) + ó(a n b) s; aó).
Clearly aó 5; a n b, hence iii) Clear, since n a is the kernel of e/>.
1 •
The union a u ú of ideals is not in general an ideal.
a n b = aó provided a + ó = ( 1) .
 8 RINGS ANO IDEA L$
EXTENSION ANO CONTRACTION 9
Proposition 1.1 J. i) Let p¡, ... , Pn be prime . ideals ami let a be an ideal Exercise 1.13. i) r(a) 2 a
contained in U~-1 p,. Then o ~ v ,.for some l. ii) r(r(a)) = r(a)
··) Let a ¡ , · • . , 0 n be ideals and /et p be a prime ideal containing
11 •
n~ 1 a,. .. iii) r(aú) = r(a n ú) = r(a) fl r (ó)
Then V 2 O¡ for some i. 1/ p = n
a, then p = a, for som e l . iv) r(a) = (1) <:> a = (1)
Proof i) is proved by induction on n in the form v) r(a + ó) = r(r(a) + r(ó))
11 vi) if +> is prime, r(+> n) = p foral/ n > O.
a $ p1 (1 ~ i ~ n) => o $ ,U
.. 1
p ,.
~ropositi~n 1.1 4• .The radical of an ideal a is the intersection of ·the rime
It ¡5 certainly true for n = 1. If n > 1 and thc result is true for n - 1, then for 1deals wluclz contarn a. p
each ¡ there exists x, E o such that x1 <t .l-11 whenevcr j i= i. If for so me i we ha ve · Proof Apply ( 1. 8) to A fa. •
x, r¡: p" we are through. If not, then x 1 E p, fo r all i. Consider the element
n More generally, we may define the radical r(E) of any subset E of A in the
y= 2 X¡X2 · · · X¡ - ¡X¡+l.XI +2' · ·Xn; same way. lt is not an ideal in general. We have r(Ua Ea) = U r(Ea), for any
1"" 1
family of subsets Ea of A .
we ha ve y E a and y rj: l:J¡ (l ~ i ~ n). Hence o $ 1 Vt· ur. .
ii) Suppose lJ $ a1 for all i. Then there exist x, E O¡, x, rj: v (1 ~ i ~ n), and
Pt·oposition 1.15. D = set of zero-divisors of A = U x ti o r{Ann (x)) .

therefore Ilx, E ITa, ~ n a,; but Ilx, rj: lJ (since p is prime). Hence p ? a,. n Proo.f D = r( D ) = r(Uxt:o Ann (x)) = Ux~o r(Ann (x)). •
Finally, if p = n a" then -l-1 ~ a, and hence p = a, for sorne i. • Examplc. If A = Z , a = (m), Iet p¡ (1 ~ i ~ r) be the distinct prime divisors
If a, 6 are ideals in a ring A, their ideal quotient is ofm . Then r(o) = (pl ··· Pr) = n t=l (p,).
(a:ó) = {x E A :xó ~ a} Proposition 1.16. Let a, ó be ideals in a ring A such rhar r (a), r(&) are
coprime. Then a, ó are coprime.
which is an ideal. In particular, (O: ó) is called the annihilator of ó a nd is al so
denoted by Ann (ó): it is the set of aH x E A such that xó = O. In this notation Proof r(a + ó) = r(r(a) + r(b)) = r( l) = (1), hence o+ ú = (l) by (1.13).
the set of all zero-divisors in A is
D = U Ann (x). EXTENSION ANO CONTRACfiON
x~O

If 6 is a principal idea) (x), we shall write (a: x) in place of (a : (x)). Letf: A - >- B be a ring homomorphism . If a is an ideal in A, the setf(a) is not
necessarily an ideal in B (e.g., let f be the embedding of Z in Q, the field of
Example. If A = Z, a = (m), ó = (n), whcre say m = Op pu,, n = OP pv, , rationals, and take a to be any non-zero ideal in Z.) We define the extension
then (a:b) = (q) Where q = p Yp and np ae of a to be the ideal Bf(a) generated by f(a) in B : explicitly, ae is the set of all
y, = max {p., - vp, O) = f.l..p - min (J-Lp, vP) . sums 2: y,f(x1) where x 1 E a, y, E B: ·
Hence q = m/(m, n), where (m, n) is the h.c.f. of m and n. If ú is an ideal of B, then ¡ - 1 (ó) is always an ideal of A, called the contrac-
tion be of ú. If ó is prime, then óc is prime. If o is prime, at need not be prime
Exercise 1.12. i) a ~ (a:&) 1 (for example, f: Z -+ Q , a # O; then oe = Q, which is nota prime ideal).
ii) (a:b)b ~ a We can factorize fas follows:
~ii) ((a:b):c) = (a:flc) = ((a:c):&)
IV) en,a,:b) = n,
(a1:b) A ~f(A) ~ B
v) (a:¿, b,) = n,
(a:b,). where p is surjective and j is injective. For p the situation is very simple (1.1):
If a is any ideal of A, the radical of a is there is a one-to-one correspondence between ideaJs of f(A) and ideals of A
which contain Ker (j), and prime ideals correspond to prime ideals. For j, on
r(a) = {x E A :x" E a for sornen > O}. the other hand, the general situation is very complicated. The classical exarnple
lf;: A -+ A/a is the standard homomorphism then r(a) = 4>- 1 (W ) and hence is from algebraic number theory.
r(a) is an ideal by {1.7). ' A"'

•
 JO Rl NGS ANO IOEALS EXERCISES 11

Example. Consider Z ->- Z [i], where i = -v=l. A prime ideal (p) of Z mayor i) f is a unit in A[x ] <=> ao is a unit in A and a
h .
m •
.
1, ••• • an are ru 1poten t. (lf
may not stay prime when extended to Z[i]. In fact Z [i] is a principal ideal ho + b 1 x + · · · + bm X IS t e mverse of [, prove by ind t '
,+1 _ H
1
. . ' uc ton on r that
domain (beca use it has a Euclidean algorithm) and the situation is as follows: a~ h.'" _, - . 0 cncc s 1ow that an .•s mlpotent, and then use Ex. l .]
ii) f ts mlpotent <=> ao, a1, ... , a" are ntlpotcnt.
i) (2)e = ((1 + i)2), the square of a prime ideal in Z(i] ; ii i) ¡ is a zcro-divisor <=> thcre exists a :f:. O in A such that arf == 0 [Ch
· 1 b b · oose a
ii) Jf p = 1 (mod 4) then (py is the product of two d istinct prime idcals polynomta g = o + 1x + · · · + bmx'" of lcast degree m such that fg = o.
{for example, (5)e = (2 + i)(2 - i)); Then anbm = O, hence ang = O (because ang annihilates ¡ and h d
h · d · as egree
~ m: ) N b
ow s .o~ . y .m uct10n that an _,g == O (O ~ r ~ n).]
üi) If p = 3 (mod 4) then (p)e is prime in Z(i]. iv)/tssatdtobe prumtwe Jf (ao,al, ... ,an) = {1 ). Provethat if" e A[] h
r. ·
g ts pn· · ·
mJtJve ¡ an d g are pnmthvc.
· .. " g x , t en
Of these, ii) is not a trivial result. It is effec tively equiva len t to a t heorcm of 1 <=>

Fermat which says that a prime p = 1 (mod 4) can be cxpressed , csscn tially 3 • Gencralize the results of Exercise 2 toa polynomial ring A[x 1, ••• ,
x , ] 1·n 5evera1
uniquely, as a sum of two in teger squares (thus 5 = 22 + 12 , 97 = 92 + 4 2 , indcterminates.
etc.). 4. In the ring A[x], thc Jacobson radical is cqual to the nilradical.
In fac t the behavior of prime ideals under extensions of this sort is o ne of the
5. Let A be a ring and Jet A[[x ]] be thc ring of formal power series¡= 2:. 0 anxn
central problems of algebraic number theory. · with coefficients in A . Show that
i) fis a unit in A[[x ]] <=> ao is a unit in A .
Letf: A -+ B, a and ó be as befare. Then
ii) If f is nilpotent, then O n is nilpotcnt for all n ~ O. Is the converse true ?
Proposition 1.17. i) a ~ acc, ó 2 f> Ct; •
(Sec Chapter 7, Exercise 2.)
iii) f belongs to the Jacobson radical of A [[x]] <=> a0 belongs to the Jacobson
ii) OC = DCtC a e = a tCC,
, ' radical of A .
iii) Jje is tlze set of contracted idea/s in A ancl if E is the set of extended icleals · iv) Thc contraction of a maximal ideal m of A[[x]] is a maximal ideal of A and
lll ÍS generated by me and X.
. '
in B, then e = {al aec = a}, E = {új (> C!! = ú}, anda 1-+ ae is a bijective map
v) Every prime ideal of A is the contraction of a prime ideal of A[[x]].
of e onto E, whose inverse is ú ~--+ úc.
Proof i) is trivial, and ii) follows from i). 6. A ringA is such that every ideal not contained in the nilradical contains a non-
zero idempotent (that is, an element e such that e2 = e '# O). Prove that the
iii) If a E e, then a = óc. = ócec = ate; co nverse! y if a = aec then a is the nilradical and Jacobson radical of A are equal.
contraction of a 6 • Similarly for E. • 7. Let A be a ring in which every elernent x satisfies x n = x for sorne 11 > 1
· (depending on x). Show that every prime ideal in A is maximal.
Exercise 1.18. If a 1 , a 2 are idea/s of A and if ó1 , ó2 are iclea/s of B, then
8. Let A be a rii1g ':/; O. Show that the set of prime ideals of A has minimal ele-
(al + a2)e = a~ + a~, (ó 1 + ú2Y 2 ú f + ú~, ments with respect to inclusion.
(al n a2 )c ~ a! n a~, (ó1 n ó2Y = ói n ó2, 9. Let a be an ideal ':/; (1) in a ring A . Show that a = r(a) <=>a is an intersection
(a 1 a 2 )e = a~a~, Có1 ó2Y 2 óió2, of prime ideals.
(a 1 : a 2 )e ~ (a!: a~), (ó1:ú2)c ~ (ó i:ú~),
10. Let A be a ring, ~ its nilradical. Show that the followi ng are equivalent :
r(aY ~ r(ae), r(óY = r(óc). i) A has exactly one prime ideal ;
Tlze set of idea/s E is e/osee/ under sum and product, and C is etosed under ii) every element of A is either a uni t or nilpotent ;
the other tlzree operations. iii) A/W is a field.
11. A ringA is Boo/ean if x 2 = x for all x e A. In a Boolean ringA, show that
i) 2x = O for all x E A;
EXERCISES ii) eve·r y prime ideal l:' is maxi mal, and A/'V is a field with two elements;
iii) every fin itely generated ideal in A is principal.
1 • Let x be a nilpotent element of a ringA. Show th at 1 + x is a unit of A . D educe 12. A local ring contains no idempotent ':/; O, l .
that the sum of a niJpotent element a nd a unit is a unit.
Construction of an algebraic closure of a fteld (E. Artin).
2. L~t A be a ~ing and let A[x ] be the ring of polynomials in a n indeterminate x, 13
Let K be a field and let ~ be the set of a ll irreducible monic polynomials 1 in onc
WJth coefficJents in A. Let f = ao + a1x + · · · + anxn E A[x]. Preve that '

•
 12 RINGS ANO IDEALS
EXERCISES 13
indeterminate with coefficients in K . Let A be the polynomial ring over K 18. For psychological reasons it is sometimes conveoient to d .
. . enote a Pnme ideal
generated by indeterminates x" one for each f e I:. Let a be t~e ideal of A of A by a letter such as x or y when thinkmg ofitas a po·1 t r X _ S
geoerated by the polynomialsf(x1) for alife :E. Show that a ~ (1). When thinking of x as a prime ideal of A, we denote it by p ~ ° 'call- fpec (A).
10
Let m be a maximal ideal of A containing a, and Jet K1 = A /m . Then K 1 is it is the same thing). Show that " g¡ y, 0 course,
ao extension field of K in which each f e :E has a root. Repeat the construction i) the ~et {x} is closed (we say that x is a "closed point") in Spec (A) ~ .
with K 1 in place of K, obtaining a field K2, and so on. Let L = U;'.. t Kn. Then mruomal; P" IS
Lis a field in which each[e I: splits compJetely into linear factors . Let K be the ÍÍ) {x} = V(tJx) ;
set of all elements of L which are algebraic over K. Then K is an algebraic iii)
- <::- Px S P11;
y E {x}
closure of K .
14. In a riog A, let :E be the set of all ideals in which every element is a zero-divisor.
i:
iv) X is a. To-sp~cehb(thihs means that x, y are distinct points of X, theo either
there JS a nc1g or ood of x whtch does not contain y or else th . ·
Show that the set I: has maximal eJements and that every maximal element or::E is . hborh oo d of y wh'te h d oes not contain x).
netg , ere ts a
a prime ideal. Heoce the set of zero-divisors in A is a union of prime ideaJs.
19. A topological space ~ is ~ai d to be irreducible if X ~ 0 and if every pair of
The prime spectrum o[ a ring non-emp.ty open scts m X mtersect, or equivalently if every non-empty open set
15. Let A be a ring and Jet X be the set .of all prime ideals of A. For each subset is dense m X . Show that Spec (A) is irreducible if and only if the nilradical of
E of A, Jet V(E) denote the set of all prime ideaJs of A which contain E . Prove A is a prime ideal.
tbat .
20. Let X be a topological space.
i) if a is the ideal generated by E, then V(E) = V( a) = V(r(a)) .
ii) V(O) = X, V(l) = 0 . i) If Y is an irreducible (Exercise 19) subspace of X, then the closure y of y
iií) íf (E,),er ís any family of subsets of A, then in X is irreducible. ·
ii) Every irreducible subspace of X is contained in a maximal irreducible
V( U
IGI
E,) = n
te/
V(E1) . subspace.
iv) V(a n b) = V(ab) = V(a) u V(ó) for any ideals o, 6 of A . iii) The maximal irreducible subspaces of X are closed and cover X. They are
These results show that the sets V(E) satisfy the axioms for closed sets called the irreducible components of X. What are the irreducible components
in a topolog~cal space. ~he resulting topology is called the Zariski topology. of a Hausdorff space?
The topolog¡caJ space X 1s called the prime spectrum of A, and is written Spec (A). iv) If A is a ring and X = Spec (A), then the irreducible components of X are
the closed sets V(p), where p is a minimal prime ideal of A (Exercise 8).
16. Draw pictures of Spec (Z), Spec (R), Spec (C [x]), Spec (R[x]), Spec (Z[x]).
17. For each fe A, let Xr denote the complement of V([) in X = Spec (A). The 21. Let t/>: A ~ B be a ring homomorphlsm. Let X = Spec (A) and Y = Spec (B).
. sets X, are open. Show that they form a basis of open sets for the Zariski If q e Y, then t/> - l(q) is a prime ideal of A, i.e., a point of X. Hence tf> induces a
topology, aod that mapping tf>* : Y ~ X. Show that
i)x,nxg = 1x g; i) If 1 e A then cp* - 1 (X1) = Y41c1, and hence that tf>* is continuous.
=
ii) Xr 0 ~ f is nilpotent · ii) If a is an ideal of A, then tf>*- 1 (V(a)) = V(a41).
iii) Xr = X~ lis a unit · ' iii) If ó is an ideal of B, then cp*(V(ó)) = V(bc).
i~) ~ . = Xg ~ r((f)) = 'r((g)); · iv) If t/> is surjective, then tf>* is a homeomorphism of Y onto the closed subset
)
15
~uast-compact (that ts, every open covering of X has a finite sub· V(Ker (t/>)) of X. (In particular, Spec (A) and Spec (A/91) (where 91 is the
covenng). \ nilradical of A) are naturaUy homeomorphic.)
~~) More generally, each Xr is quasi-compact. .. v) lf t/> is ínjective, then tf>*( Y) is dense in X. More precisely, ;•( Y) is dense in
vu) An open subset of X is u · · · X~ Ker (t/>) s; VC.
sets X 1• q as1-compact 1f and only if it is .a finite union of
vi) Let r/J: B - >- C be another ring homomorphism. Then (1/J o ; ) • = tt>• o ,p•.
The sets Xr are caiJed basic open sets of X = Spec (A) vii) Let A be an integral domain with just one non-zero prime ideal p, and let K
[T0 prove (v), remark that it is h . ·
•

open sets X (i e /) Sh h enoug to consJder a covering of X by basic be the field of fractions of A. Let B = (A/p) x K. Define;: A--+ B by
,, . ow t at thejj1 generate th 't 'd 1 . t/>(x) = (x, x), where x is the image of x in A jp . Show that ;• is bijective
is an equation of the form e um I ea and hence that therc
but not a homcomorphism.
r
1 L g,Jj
= te/ (g, E A) 22 · Let A = flf.. 1 A, be the direct product of riogs A,. Show that Spec (A) is the
disjoint union of open (and closed) subspaces X, where X, is canonically
where J is some finile subset of 1 Then the X (. J)
· r 1 1 e cover X.] homeomorphic with Spec (A 1).
•
 -
14 RINGS ANO IDEALS EXERCISES 15
Conversely, Jet A be any ring. Show that the following statcmcnts are and multiplyi ng thcir valucs). For each x E X 1 l b
equivalent: sueh that f (x) = O. Thc ideal m_,. ¡5 maxim;l cb mx e ~h: set of all f E C (X)
i) X = Spec (A) is disconnected. . . (surjective) homomorphism C(X) -+ R which' ta~~u;et~t 15 the kernel of the
ií) A ~ A1 x A 2 where ncither of thc rings A1, A2 JS the zcro nng. Mnx ( C(X)), we ha ve therefore dcfincd a mappin . X J<¡>· lf X denotes
iii) A contains an idempotent ~ O, l. Wc shall show that p. is a homeomorphism 0 ; ; · -+ 0 • namely x H mx.
In particular, the spectrum of a local ring is nlways connected (Exercise 1
') Le t m b e any max1ma
. l 'd
1 cal of C( X), and let v =onto A .
V(m)
12). mon zeros of the functions in m: that is, be the sct of com-
23. Let A be a Boolean ring (Excrcise 11), and let X = Spec (A). . V = {x E X :f(x) = O for all f E m }.
i) For each/E A, the set X 1 (Exercise 17) is both open and closed m X.
") Let ¡;lt ·· · t¡, E A · Show that X 11 u· ·· u X 1" = X 1 for sorne / E A. Supposc that Vi s cmpty. Thcn for each x Ex the · f
. . . re ex1sts _,. E m such that
JI n fx(x) ~ O. S1nce fx JS contmuous, there is an open ne·1ghb h d U ·
iii) The sets x, are the only subsets of X which are both open and closed. . X 1. h r d . or oo
m . o n w 11c ; x oes .not vamsh. By compactncss a fim1'te num ber ·of the
:e of x
[Let y ~ X be both open and closed. Since Y is open, it is a union of basic
ne1ghborhoods, say U x 1 , • • • , Ux"' cover X. Let
open sets X 1• Since Y is closed and X is quasi-compact (Exercise 17), Y is
quasi-compact. Hence Y is a finite union of basic open sets; now use (ii) f = ¡; + .. . +
1
f2
X" •

above.]
•
iv) X is a compact Hausdorff space.
24. Let L be a Iattice, in which the sup and inf of two elements a, b are denoted by
a v b and a A b respectively. L is a Boo/ean /attice (or Boo/ean a/gebra) if
i) L has a Ieast element and a greatest element (denoted by O, 1 respectively).
ii) Each of v, A is distributive over the other.
iii) Each a EL has a unique "complement, a' E L such that a v a' = 1 and
a A a' = O.
(For example, the set of aH subsets of a set, ordered by inclusion, is a Boolean
lattice.)
Let L be a Boolean Jattice. Define addition and multiplication in L by the
rules
a + b = (a A b' ) v (a' A b), ab = a A b.
Verify that in this way L becomes a Boolean ring, say A(L).
Conversely, starting from a Boolean ring A, define an ordering on A as
follows: a ~ b means that a = ab. Show that, with respect to this ordering, A
is a Boolean lattice. [The sup and inf are given by a v b = a + b + ab and
27. Let k be an algebraically closed field and let
a A b = ab, and the complement by a' = 1 - a.] In this way we obtain a
one-to-one correspondence between (isomorpbism classes of) Boolean rings and
(isomorphism classes of) Boolean lattices.
lS. From the last two exercises deduce Stone's theorem, that every Boolean lattice
is isomorphic to the lattice of open-and-closed subsets of sorne compact Haus-
dorff topological space.
16. Let A be a riog. The subspace of Spec (A) consisting of the maximal ideals of A,
with the induced topology, is called the maximal spectrum of A and is denoted by
Max (A). For arbitrary commutative rings it does not have the nice functorial
properties of Spec (A) (see Exercise 21), because the inverse image of a maximal
ideal under a ring homomorphism need not be maximal.
Let X be a compact Hausdorff space and let C(X) denote the ring of all
real-valued continuous functions on X (add and multiply functions by adding
Then f ~oes not vanish at any point of X, hence is a unit in C(X). But this
contrad1cts / Em, hence Vis not empty.
Let x be a point of V. Then m s;;: m_,.., hence m = mx because m is
maximal. Hence p. is surjective.
ii) By Urysohn's l.emma (this i.s thc only non-trivial fact required in the argu-
ment) the contmuous funct10ns separate the points of X. Hence x ':f. y =>
m.:c # tn 11 , and therefore p. is injective.
iii) Let f E C( X); let
U1 = {x E X:f(x) ':f. 0}
and let
Ü 1 = {m E X:frt m}
Show that p.( U1 ) = Ü1• The open sets U1 (res p. Ü1) forma basis of the top-
ology of X (resp. X) and therefore 1-' is a homeomorphism.
Thus X can be reconstructed from the ring of functions C(X).
Affine a/gebraic varieties
/a(ll, ... , In) = O
be a set of polynomial equations in n variables with coefficients in k. The set X
of all points x = (x1 , ••• , Xn) E k" which satisfy these equations is an affine
a/gebraic variety.
Consider the set of all polynomials g E k[t 1 , • • • , In] with the. pr~perty th~t
g(x) = O for all x E X . This set is an ideal I(X) in the polynom•al rmg, and IS
called the ideal of tite variety X. The quotient ring
P(X) = k[t11 .. . , l n]/l(X)
is the ring of polynomial functions on X, beca use two polynomials g, h d~fine the
same polynomial function on X if and only if g - Ir vanishes at every pomt of X,
that is, if and only if g - hE J(X ).
 --~ . ' ----,
. ......

J6 RJNGS ANO IDEALS

Le ' be tbe image of t, in P(X). Tbe '' (1 ~ i ~ n) are thc coordinatc

functio~s ~n X: if x E X, then ,,(x) is the ithcoo~dinate ofhx . P(X ). is gcn.c rat(ed
as a k-algebra by the coordinate functions, and ts callcd t e coon1mate r111g or
affine aJgebra) of X. ,
As in Exercise 26, for each x E X 1et m x be the idc~ l of alif e P ( A ) s uch that
f(x) = o; it is a maximal ideal of P(X). Hence, tf X = Ma x ( P ( X)), wc .
have defined a mapping p.: X ~ X, namely x 1-+ m x. lVIodules
It ¡5 easy to sbow that J.L is injective : if -;: ~ y, wc must h~ ve x, -:1: y, for
for sorne ¡ (1 ~ ; ~ n), and hence '' - x, ~~ m m x ?ut n.ot ~n m v, . s~ that
mx -:1: mJI. What is Jess obvious (but still true) ts that p. ts surJectwe. Thts ts o nc
form of Hilbert's NuJisteJiensatz (see Chapter 7).
One of the things which distinguishes the modern approach t e .
28. Leth, . . . , fm be elements of k[th ... , In]. They determine a p oly nomial mapping . . o ommutatlve
Algebra 1s thc grcatcr emphas1s on modules, rather than J·ust 0 'd Th
t/J: k" ~ km: if x E k", the coordina tes. o~~(~) are / 1(x), ... , !m(x). . " lb " h h. . n I ea1s. e
extra e ow-room t at t ts g1ves makes for greater clarity and simpl' 't F
Let X Y be affine algebraic vanettes m k", km respecttvely. A mappmg 'd 1 d· · . 1c1 y. or
instance, an 1. ea a an tts quottent nng Aj a are both examples of modules and
t/J: x ~ y'¡s said to be regular if t/J is the restriction to X of a polynomial map-
so, toa certam extent, can be treated on an equal footing. In this chapter we give
ping from k" to km.
If r¡ is a polynomial function on Y, then r¡ o ~ is a polynomial fun cti on on X.
the definition and elementary .prope.rties of modules. We also give a brief
Hence t/J induces a k-algebra homomorphism P( Y) - >- P(X), namely r¡ H r¡ o ~. treatment of tensor products, mcludmg a discussion of how they behave for
exact sequences.
Sbow that in this way we obtain a one-to-one correspondence between the
regular mappings X ~ Y and the k-algebra homomorphisms P( Y) -+ P ( X ).
MODULES AND MODULE HOMOMORPIDSMS

Let A be a ring (commutative, as always). An A-module is an abelian group M

(written additively) on which A acts linear!y: more precise!y, it is a pair (M,¡.¡.),
where Misan abelian group and fL is a mapping of A x M into M such that, if
we write ax for J.L(a, x)(a E A, x E M), the following axioms are satisfied:
a(x + y) = ax + ay,
(a + b)x = ax + bx,
(ab)x = a(bx),
Ix = x (a, b E A; x, y E M).
'

(Equivalently, M is an abelian group together with a ring homomorphism

A --)- E(M), where E(M) is the ring of endomorphisms of the abelian group M.)
The notion of a module is a common generalization of severa! familiar
concepts, as the following examples show:
Examples. 1) An ideal a of A is an A-module. In particular A itself is an
A-module.
2) If A is a field k, then A-module = k-vector space.
3) A = Z, then Z-module = abelian group (define nx to be x+ · · · + x).
4) A = k[x] where k is a field; anA-module is a k-vector space with a linear
transformation .
. 5) G = finite group, A = k[G] = group-algebra of G over the fiel~ k (thus
A 15 not commutative, unless G is). Then A-module = k-representatlon of G.
17
 18 MODULES OPERATIONS ON SUilMODULES
19
Let M, N be A-modules. A mapping f: M -r N is an A-module homo~ and ¡5 a submodule of N . The cokerne/ of ¡ is
morphism (or is A -linear) if Coker (J) = N/Im (J)
f(x +y) = f(x) + f(y)
which is a quoticnt module of N .
f(ax) = af(x)
Jf M ' is a submodule of M such that M ' s; Ker (f) th f . .
for all a E A and aH x, y E M. Thus f is a homomorp~1ism of abelian groups homomorphJsm . . ¡""· M/ M ' N d ' en gtves n se to a
->- , efined as follows · if x E M/ M , ·15 th .
. h commutes with the action of each a E A. If A ts a ficld, an A-module x E M, th en J(x) = f(x). The kernel ofJ is Kcr cfJ¡M' The 110 e tm~?e of
h f
W lC •
homomorphism is the same thing as a linear trans~orma~ton o . vector spaces. Ís said to be induced by f In particular, taking M' "= Ke (Jm)omorhp tsmJ
The composition of A-module homomorphtsms ts agam an A-module isomorphtsm·
o f A -mod ules r ' we ave an
•
homomorphism. . M/ Ker (f) ~ l m (J) .
The set of all A-module homomorphisms from Jvf toN can be turned mto an
A-module as follows: we define/+ g and afby the rules
(j + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x), OPERATIONS ON SUBMODULES
(af)(x) = af(x) Most of the operations on ideals considcred in Chapter 1 have their counter-
for all x E M. It is a trivial matter to check that the axioms for anA-mod ule are parts for modules . .Let M be at~ A-module and let (M,),e1 be a family of sub-
satisfied. Tlús A-module is denoted by HomA (M, N) ( or just Hom (M, N) if module~ of Jvf. Thetr sum L M , 1s the set ?f all (finite) sums ¿: x" wbere x, E M,
there is no ambiguity about the ringA). for all 1 E / , and almost all the x, (that IS, all but a finite number) are zero.
Homomorphisms u: M' -r M and v: N -r N" induce mappings ¿ M1 is the smallest submodule of M which contains ali the M,.
ü: Hom (M, N) -r Hom (M', N) and v: Hom (M, N) - >- Hom (M, N ")
The intersection n M , is again a submodule of M . Thus the submodules of
M form a complete lattice with rcspect to inclusion.
defined as follows : Proposition 2.1. i) If L ;2 M ;2 N are A-modules, tlzen
ü(f) =J o U, D(f) = V of
(L/N)/(M/N) ~ LfM .
These mappings :tre A-module homomorphisms.
For any module M there is a natural isomorphism Hom (A, M) ~ M: any ii) If M 1 , N/2 are submoclules of M, tlzen
A-module homomorplllsm f: A -r M is uniquely determined by /(1), which
(M1 + M2)/ M1 ~ M'J j(Jv/1 () M 2) .
can be any element of M .
Proof i) Define O: L/ N ---:,.. L/ M by O(x + N) = x + M . Tben 8 is a well-
•

SUBMODULES AND QUOTIENT MODULES
A submodule M' of Mis a subgroup of M which is el o sed under multiplication by
elements of A. The abelian group M /M ' then inherits anA-module structure
from M, defined by a(x + M ') = ax + M '. The A-module lvf/M' is the
quotient of M by M'. The natural map of Monto M / M' is anA-module homo-
morphism. There is a one-to-one order-preserving correspondence between
submodules of M which contain M', and submodules of M " Uust as for ideals ;
the statement for ideals is a special case).
Iff: M -r Nis anA-module homomorphism, the kernel offis the set
Ker (f) = {x E M :f(x) = O}
and is a submodule of M. The image off is the set
Im (f) = f(M)
defined A-module homomorphism of L/N onto L/ M, and its kernel is M/N ;
hence (i).
ii) The composite homomorphism M 2 --+ M 1 + /vf 2 ~ (M1 + M2)/ Nf1 is
surjective, and its kernel is M 1 () lv/2 ; hence (ii). •
We cannot in general define the product of two submodules, but we can
define the product aM, where a is an ideal and ManA-module; it is the set ofall
finite sums 2: a1x 1 with a1 E a, x, E M, and is a submodule of M.
If N, Pare submodules of M, we define (N:P) to be the set ofall a E A such
that aP S N; it is an ideal of A. In particular, (0: M) is the set of all a E A such
that a M = O; this ideal is called the annihilator of M and is also denoted by
~nn (M). If a s Ann (M), we may regard M as an A/a-modu~e,. a~ follows:
Jf x E Aja is represented by x E A, define .~Ym to be xm(m E lv/): thts ts mdepend-
ent of the choice of the representative x of i, since aM = O.
 20 MODULES
FINITELY GENERATED MODULES
21
An A-module is faitliful if Ann (M) = O. If Ann (M) = a, thcn M is FJNITELY GENERATED MODULES
faithful as an Aj a-module.
A free A-module is one which is isomorphic to an A-mod
Exercise 2.2. i) Ann (M + N) = Ann (M) 1\ Ann (N) . Ef1tor 1~,;¡, where each Mt ~ A (as an A-module). The notation ~~> ?f the ~orm
15
ii) (N:P) = Ann ((N+ P)/N ). uscd. A finitely generated free A-module is therefore isom h" somettmes
h ~ A
· }1 1·s denote d by A n . (Conventionall OArpo . IC hto A (i) ... w
( 11 sumrnan d s) , w 1c
If x is an element of M, the set of all multiplcs ax(a E A) is a submodule of y, IS t e zero module
deno ted bY · O) •
Al, denoted by Ax or (x). If M = Í:ter Ax" the X¡ are snid to be a set of ge11•
erators of M; tbis means that every element of NI can be exprcsscd (not ncces. Proposition 2.3. M is a finitely generated A-module <:> M is iso .
sarily uniquely) as a finite linear combination of the X¡ with cocfficien ts in A. a quotient of A" for some integer n > o. morphrc to
An A-module Mis said to be fin itely generated if it has a finite set of genera. Proof => : Let X 1, • . . , X n genera te M . Define <P : A n -+ M b -l.(
tors. TI -J. • A d 1 y 't' a lt • . . , an) =
x + · · · L
-r
'
a"x". len 't' IS an -mo u e homomorphism 0 1 M d
n ° •an there-
01 1
fore M ~ A"/ Ker (4>).

DIRECT SUM AND PRODUCf <= : We ha ve an A-module homomorphism 4> of A" t0 M

(0, ... , O, 1, O, . . . , O) (the 1 being in the ith place), then t~e e1 (Í ~ i ~ n)
0 l f e1 =
lf M, N are A-modules, their direct sum 1\1 ® N is the set of all pairs (x, y) with generate A", hence the cp(e1) generate M. •
x E M, y E N. This is an A-module if we define addition and scalar multiplica-
tion in the obvious way : Proposition 2.4. Let M be a finitely generated A-module, Jet a be an ideal of
A, and /et 4> be anA-module endomorphism of M such that -L(M) s a M ,.,.,
,r ¡ r. • .1 rren
(X¡, Yt) + (x2, J'2) = (xt + X2, Yt + Y2) -J. • , ¡; •
't' sattspes an equatiOfl o1 t ze 1 orm
't'

a(x, y) = (ax, ay).

More generally, if (M1) 1G1 is any family of A-modules, we can define their direct
sum Ef),&1 M 1; its elements are fami lies (x1) 1Gr su eh that x, E M 1 fo r ea eh i E l and wlzere tlze a 1 are in a.
almost all x1 are O. If we drop the restriction on the number of non-zcro x's wc Proof Let X¡, ••. , x" be a set of generators of M. Then each cp(x1) E aM, so that
have the direct product Titer M 1• Direct sum and di rect product are therefore the we ha ve say <f>(x1) = 27 . . 1 a11x 1 (l ~ i ~ n; a11 E a), i.e.,
same if the index set 1 is finite, but not otherwise, in general.
Suppose that the ringA is·a direct product Of.. 1 A 1 (Chapter 1). Then the n

set of all elements of A of the form ¿

Jal
(8 1¡/> - a11)x1 = o
(0, . . . ' O, a¡, O, ... , O) o,,
where is the Kronecker delta. By multiplying on the left by the adjoint of the
with a, E A, is an ideal a1 of A (it is nota subring of A except in trivial cases- matrix (o,fl> - alf) it follows that det (o1fl> - a11) annihilates each X¡, hence is the
because it does not contain the identity element of A). The ringA , considered as zero endomorphism of M . Expanding out the determinant, we have an equation
an A-module, is the direct su m of the ideals a¡, .. . , an. Conversely, given a of the required form. •
module decomposition Corollary 2.5. Let M be a finitely generated A-module and Jet a be an ideal
A = O¡ EB· · · Ef) On of A suclz tlzat a M = M . Tlzen there exists x =
l(mod a) suclr that x M = O.

of A as a direct sum of ideals, we have Proof. Take 4> = identity, x = 1 + a 1 + · · · + a" in (2.4). •
Proposition 2.6. (Nakayama's /emma). Let M be a finitely generated
A-module anda an ideal of A contained in the Jacobson radical mofA . Then
aM = M imp/ies M = O.
where b, • (±), .. ,a,. Each ideal a, is a ring (isomorphic to A/ b1). The identity Fi~st.Proof By (2.5) we have xM = O for sorne x = 1 (mod m). By (1 .9) x is a
element e, of a, is an idempotent in A, and a, = (e1). unit In A, hence M = x- 1x M = O. •
 >
-
22 MODULES
EXACT SEQUENCES
23
Second Proof. Suppose M :F O, and Iet u11 ••• , u~ be a minimal set of gene . ii) Ler
ators of M. Then un e aM, bence we ha ve an equatwn of the form un == a1u1 ~ O -r N ' ~ N~ N "
· · · + anun, with the a, E a. Hence (S)
{J - Gn)Un = a1U1 + ' ' ' + Gn - llln - 1; be a sequence of A -modules and homomorphisms. TI zen tlze sequence (S) is
exact <:>foral/ A-modu1es M, the sequence
since an E ffl, it folJows from (1.9) that 1 - an is a unit in ~ ..Hence Un belongs lo
the submodule of M generated by u1 , •.• , un-1: contrad1ctwn. • O - >- Hom (M, N ') ~ Hom (M, N)~ Hom (M, N ")
(5')
Corollllry 2.7. Let M be a.finitely generated A-module, N a submodule of M is exact.
a s; man ideal. Then M = aM + N => M = N. ' All four parts of this proposition are easy exercises. For exam le
Proof. Apply (2.6) to M /N, observing tha t a(lvf/N) = (a ¡\tf + N)/N. • that (4') 1·s exac t 10r
r
a11 N . F'trst o f a 11 , smce
· · · P ' suppose
iJ 1s mjective for all N it foil tha
. N t l - - O h . ows t
Let. A be a local ring, m its maximal id.eal, k .~ A/ m its residue field. Let M vis surjcctive. e':, we 1ave u o v =:= , ~ at ts v o u o¡= o for allj: M "-+ N.
be a .fimtely generated A -module. M / mlvf JS anmh1lated by m, hence is natural! , Taking N to be M and f to be the 1dent1ty mapping, it follows that v o u = 0
an A/ rn-module, i.e., a k-vector space, and as such is fini te-dimensional. } hence Im (u) s; Ker (v). Next take N = M flm (u) and 1et e/> : M -r N b th'
projection. Then e/> E Ker (ü), hence there exists t/J: M " -r N such that e/> = ~ o :
Proposition 2.8. L et x, ( 1 ~ i ~ n) be elements of M whose images in Consequently Im (u) = Ker (~) 2 Ker (v) . • ·
Mfmlvf forma basis of this vector space. Then the x, genera te M .
Proposition 2.10. Let
Proof. Let N be the submodule of M generated b;r the x,. Then the composite
map N -r M -r M f mM maps N onto M fmM, hence N + mM = M, hence 0-+ M ' ~M ~ M "-rO
N= M by (2.7). • r t q. {,r
O -r N ' u' >- N ;¡;+ N" -r O
EXACf SEQUENCES be a commutative diagram of A-modules and lzomomorphisms, with the rows
A sequence of A-mod ules and A-homomorphisms exact. Then there exists an exact sequence

··· Mt- 1
1
' M,
1
'•
1
M, +1 · • · (O) O-r Ker (/') ~ Ker (f) ~ Ker (f) ~
a· o·
Coker (/')-+ Coker (f)-+ Coker (j")-+ O (6)
is said to be exact at M , if Im (¡;) = Ker u;+ 1) . The sequen ce is exact if it is •
exact at each M,. In particular : in which ü, o are restrictions of u, v, and ü', ü' are induced by u', v'.
O -r M ' 4 M is exact <:> f is injective; (1) The boundary hom omorphism d is defined as follows: if x" E Ker (j"), we have
M !.., M " -r O is exact <:> g is surjective; (2) x" = v(x) for sorne x E M, and v'(f(x) ) = f "(v(x)) = O, hencef(x) E Ker (v') =
Im (u'), so thatf(x) = u'(y') for sorne y' E N '. Then d(x") is defined to be the
?-r M ' 4 . M 9
? M " -r O is exact <:> f is injective, g is surjective and g
image of y' in Coker (/'). The verification that d is well-defined, and that the
mduces an Jsomorphism of Coker (/) = M /f(M ') onto M ". (3)
sequence (6) is exact, is a straightforward exercise in diagram-chasing which we
A sequence of type (3) is caBed a slzort exact sequence. Any long exact
leave to the reader. •
sequence (O) can be split up into short exact sequences: if N, = Im UD==
Ker if. u ), we have short exact sequences O-+ N,-+ M , -+ N, +1 -+ o for each i. Remark . (2.1O) is a special case of the exact homology sequence of homological
Proposition 2.9. i) Let
algebra.
Let C be a class of A-modules and let .\be a function on C with values in~
M ' ">- M 2+ M " -r O (4) t
(or, more generally, with values in an abelian group G). The function Á ts
be a sequence of A-modules and lzomomorplzisms. Then the sequence (4) is additive if, for each short exact sequence (3) in which all the terms belong to C,
' exact <:> foral/ A-modules N, tlze sequence we have A(M' ) - A(M) + .\(M") = O.
O-+ Hom (M ", N) .!r Hom (M, N ) a? Hom (M ', N ) (4') ' Example. Let A be a field k and let C be the class of all finite-dimensional
•
1s exact. k-vector spaces V. Then V r-:.
dim Vis an additive function on C.
2+ I.C.A•

•
 24 MODULES
TENSOR PROOUcr OF MODULES
25
Proposition 2.1J. Let O ~ M o - >- M1 - >- · · · - >- lvln -+- O be an exacr Let T = e¡ D. For each basis element (x, y) of e, let x ®Y denot .
quence of A-modules in whiclz al/ the modules A1, ancl the kerne/s 0¡ al/ ~e. . e in T. Then T is generated by the elements of the form x 10. d e tts
homomorphisms be long to c. Then for any additive fimction ,\ on e We ha:: unag
our definitions we have
'CI Y, an from
n
L (- 1)1A(M1) = O. (X + x') @ y = X @ y
(ax ) ® y
+ x'
=
@ y' X @(y + y ' ) =
x ® (ay) = a(x ® y)
X ®y + X ® '
Y'
f "' o

Proof. SpJit up the sequence into short exact sequences
O ~ N, ->- A1, ~ N, +1 -+ O
(No = Nn+I = 0). Then we have ,\(M,) = ,\(N,) + ,\(N,+¡). Now takc the
alternating sum of the ,\(M,), and everything cancels out. •
TENSOR PRODUCI' OF MODULES
Let M, N, P be three A-modules. A mapping f : A1 x N ->- P is said to be
A-hilinear if for each x E M the mapping y 1->- f(x, y) of N into Pis A-linear, and
for each y E N tl1e mapping x H- f(x, y) of M into Pis A-linear.
We shall construct an A-module T, called the tensor product of lvf and N
wíth the property that the A-bilinear mappings Jrf x N~ P are in a natural'
one-to-one correspondence with the A-linear mappings T ~ P, for all A-
modules P. More precise!y:
Proposition 2.12. Let M, N be A-modules. Tiren there exists a pair (T, g)
consisting of anA-module T andan A-bilinear mapping g: M x N -+ T, with '
tite fo/lowing property:
Given any A-module P and any A-bilinear mapping f: M x N~ P,
there exists a unique A-linear mapping f ' : T ->- P sueh that f = f ' o g (in
other words, every bilinear function on M x N factors tlzrouglz T) .
Moreover, if(T, g) and (T', g') are two pairs witlz this property, titen there
exists a unique isomorphism j: T ~ T ' such tlzat j o g = g'.
Proof. i) Uniqueness. Replacing (P,f) by (T', g') we get a unique j: T ~ T'
such that g' = j o g. Interchanging the roles of Tand T ', we getj': T ' -+ T such
thatg =j' og'. Each ofthe compositionsj oj ',j' oj must be the identity, and
therefore j is an isomorphism.
ii) Existence. Let e denote the free A-module A <M N>. The elements of e
X
Equivalently, the mapping g: M x N ~ T defined by g(x, y) = x ®Y is
A-bilincar. .
Any map f of M_ x ~ mto an A-module. P extends by linearity to an A-
module homomorphtsm j: C - >- P. Suppose tn particular that J is A-bilinea
Then, from the definitions, J ~anishes on all the geoerators of D, hence 00 t:;
whole of D, and therefore mduces a well-defined A-homomorphism f ' of
T = C/ D int? P su7~ that f '(x ® y) = f(x, ~). The m~ppiog f' is uniquely
defincd by thts condtt!On, and therefore the pa1r (T, g) sahsfy the conditions of
the proposition. •
Remarks. i) Thc module T constructed above is called the tensor product of M
and N, and is denoted by M ® A N , or just M ® N if there is no ambiguity
about the ringA . It is generated as an A-module by the "products" x ®y. If
(x,),e¡, (y1) 1e 1 are families of generators of M, N rcspectively, then the elements
x, ® y, generate M ® N . In particular, if A1 and N are finitely generated, sois
M ® N.
ii) The notation x ® y is inherently ambiguous unless we specify the tensor
product to which it belongs. Let M', N' be submodules of M, N respectively,
and let x E M ' and y E N ' . Then it can happen that x ®y as an element of
M ® N is zero whilst x ® y as an e/ement of M' ® N' is non-zero. For
example, take A = Z , M = Z, N = Z f2Z, and let M ' be the submodule 2Z of Z,
- · whilst N ' = N . Let x be the non-zero element of N and consider 2 ® x. Asan
, element of NI ® N, it is zero because 2 ® x = 1 ® 2x = 1 ® O = O. But as
an element of M' ® N' it is non-zero. See the example after (2.18).
However, there is the following result :
Corollary 2.13. Let x , E A1, y 1 E N he such that :L x, ® y, = O in Af ® N.
Tiren there exist .finitely generated submodules Mo of M and No of N such that
L x, ® y, = O in M 0 ® No.

are formal linear combinations of elements of M x N with coefficients in A, Proof If ¿ x, ® y, = O in M ® N, then in the notation of the proof of (2.11)
i.e. they are expressions of the forro 2:~- 1 a,· (x 11 y,)(a, E A, x, E M, y 1 E N). we have ¿ (x11 y,) E D, and therefore 2: (x11 y,) is a finite sum of generators of
0~ ~
Di
. Let D be the submodule of e generated by all elements of e of the follow-
Let Mo be the submodule of M generated by the x, and all the elements
mg types: which occur as first coordinates in these generators of D, and define No suru-
(x + x', y) - (x, y) - (x', y) larly. Then 2: x, ® y, = O as an element of Mo ® No. •
(x, y + y') - (x, y) - (x, y') m) We shall never again need to use the construction of the tens~r prod~ctl
(ax, y) - a·(x, y) · m
glven . (2.12), and the reader may safely forget 1t. 1·r he prec.ers
Jl •
Wnat 1s essent1a
(x, ay) - a · (x, y). to keep in mjnd is the defining property of the tensor product.

•
 p

26 MODULES RESTRICTlON ANO EXTENSlON OF

SCALARs 27
iv) lnstcad of starting with bilinear mappings we c.ould have started With AJ N~ M ® N ® P such that f.::(x ®y) = x 0 y ® z N
.o. .
Ir: ;rJ '<>' f ( ) f (M tO. N) . . ext, constder
muJtiiinear mappings f: A11 x · · · x Mr -+ P defined m the same way (i.e. Íte mnpping (t, z ) 1->- z t. o '<.)1 x p mt~ M ® N ® P. This is bili
linear in eaoh variable). Following through the proof of (2.12) we should end u~ ~ nd z and therefore mduccs a homomorplusm near
10 ta
with a "muJti-tensor product'' T = M1 ® · · · ® Mn generated by all products
x 1 ®· .. ® Xr (x, E M, 1 ~ i ~ r). The details may safely be left to the readcr · f : (M ® N) ® P -'?- M ® N ® p
1

the result corresponding to (2.12) is

uch that/((x 0 y) ® z) = x ® y ® z.
Proposition 2.12*. Let M¡, . . . , A-fr be A-modules. Then there exists a pair s To construct g, consider .th.e ~appi~g (x, y, z) r->- (x 0 y) ® z of M x N
(T, g) consisting of anA-module T andan A-multilinear mapping g: M 1 x .. . x pinto (M ® N) ® P. Thts ts lmear m each variable and therefore induces a
x Mr-+ T witlz thefollowing property: homomorphism
Given any A-module P and any A-multilinear rnapping f: M 1 x ...
g: M ® N ® P -+ (!vf ® N) ® P
x Mr-+ T, tlzere exists a unique A-homomorphism f ': T -+ P such that
!'o g =f. such that g(x ®Y ® z) = (x ® y) ® z.
Moreover, if(T, g) and (T', g') are two pairs with tlzis property, tlzen there Clearly ¡ og and g o fa re identity maps, hcnce.fand g are isomorphisms. •
exists a unique isomorphism j: T -+ T ' sueh that j o g = g' . •
There are various so-called "canon ical isomorphisms" sorne of which we
1
Exercise 2.15. Let A, B be rings, let M be an A-module, P a E-module and N an
state here : (A, B)-bimodule (that is, N is simultaneously anA-module anda E-module and
the two structures are compatible in tlze sense that a(xb) = (ax)b fo ral/ a E A,
Proposition 2.14. Let M, N, P be A-modules. Then there exist unique b E B, x E N). Then M ®A . N is natural/y a E-module, N ®n Pan A-module,
isomorphisms and we have
i) M ®N-+N® M
ii) (M ® N) ® P -+ M ® (N ® P) -+ M ® N ® P
Let f : M -+ M ', g: N -+ N ' be homomorphisms of A-modules. Define
iií) (M EB N)® P-+ (M® P) EB (N® P)
h: M x N - >- M ' ® N ' by h(x, y) = /(x) ® g(y). It is easily checked that Iris
iv) A ® M -+ M A-bilinear and therefore induces an A-module homomorphism
such that, respective/y,
f ® g: M ® N-+ 1\1 ' ® N ' •

a) X ® y H- y ® X
such that
b) (x ® y) ® z H- x ® (y ® z) H- x ®y ® z
e) (x, y) ® z H- (x ® z, y ® z) (/ ® g)(x ® y) = f(x) ® g(y) (x E M, y E N).

d) a® x H- ax.
Proof. In each case the point is to show that the mappings so described are well
defined. The technique is to construct suitable bilinear or multilinear mappings,
and use the defining property (2.12) or (2.12*) to infer tbe existence of bomo-
morphisms of tensor products. We shall pro ve half of ii) asan example of the
method, and leave the rest to the reader.
We shall construct homomorphisms
Let f ': M ' -+M" and g ' : N '-+ N" be homomorphisms of A-modules.
Then clearly the homomorphisms (J' o f) ® (g' o g) and (/' ® g') o (f ® g)
agree on all elements of the form x ® y in M ® N. Since these elements
generate M ® N, it follows that
(J' o f) ® (g' o g) = (f' ® g') o (J ® g).

(M ® N) ® P 4 M ® N ® P 4 (M ® N) ® P RESTRICfiON AND EXTENSION OF SCALARS

such thatf((x ®y)® z) = x ®y® z and g(x ® y ® z) = (x ®y) ® z for Let f: A -+ B be a homomorphism of rings and let N be a E-module. Th:n N
all x E M, y E N, z E P. has an A-module structure defined as follows: if a E A and x E N, then ax ~s ~e­
To construct f, fix the element z E P. The mapping (x, y) r+ x ®y ® z fined to be f(a)x. This A-module is said to be obtained from N by restnctwn
(x E M, Y E N) is bilinear in x and y and therefore induces a homomorphism of scalars. In particular, f defines in this way an A-module structure on B.
 28 MODULES ALGEBRAS 29
Proposition 2.16. Suppose N is jinitely ge~zera~ed as a B-module and tizar Bis .. ft is nol in general true that, if M ' -+ M -+ M" is an exact sequ
jinitely generated asan A-module. Then N ¡sfimtely generated asan A -module. 11) and l ·
homomorp11tsms, th e sequence M ' ® N-+ M 10. N M" ence of
d 1eS
A- . d by tensoring with an arb'ttrary A-module N is exact '<:::1 ~
rno u ® N
Proof. Let Y1t .. . , Yn genera te N over B, and let X1 , . . . , X m genera te B as an obtatnc ·
A-module. Then the mn products x 1y 1 generate N ovcr A. • Take A = Z and consider the exact sequence o-+ z 4 z h
exaDIP1c. . , w ere
Now Jet M be an A-module. Since, as we ha ve j ust secn, B can be rcgarded (~) ::::: 2x for all x E z. If we tensor w1th N = Z/2Z, the sequence 0 -+ z ®
asan A-module, we can form the A-module A1n = B ® A At/. In fact M 8 carries
-1 ~ 1 _.,.. z ® N ¡5 not exact, because for any x ® y E z ® N we have
a E-module structure such that b(b' ® x) = bb' ® x for all b, b' E B and aU
x E M . The E-module Mn is said to be obtained from M by extension of scalars. (f ® l)(x ® y) = 2x ® y = x ® 2y = x ® O = o,
Proposition 2.17. Jf M is finitely generated as an A-module, then M n is
50
that/ ® 1 is the zero mapping, whereas Z ® N =F o.
finitely generated as a E-module.
The functor T N: M 1-+ M ® A N on the category of A-modules and homo-
Proof. Jf x 17 •• • , Xm genera te Mover A, then the l ® X¡ genera te /vi n over B. •
morphisms is therefore not in general exact. 1~ TN is exact, that is to say if
tensoring with N transforms all exact sequences mto exact sequences, then N is
EXACfNESS PROPERTIES OF THE TENSOR PRODUCT said to be a jlat A-module.
Let f: M x N~ P be an A-bilinear mapping. For each x E A1 the mapping Proposition 2.19. The following are equivalen/, for an A-module N:
y r-r f(x, y) of N into P is A-linear, hence f gives rise to a mapping M --+ .
i) N is flat.
Hom (N, P) whjch is A-linear beca use f is linear in the variable x. Converse}y
any A-homomorphism 4>: M - >- HomA (N, P) defines a bilinear map, namely ii) Jf O -+ M '-+ M-+ M H-+ O is any exact sequence of A-modules, the
(x, y) r+ 4>(x)(y). Hence the set S of A-bilinear mappings M x N -+ P is in tensored sequence O -+ M' ® N-+ M ® N~ M" ®N~ O is exact.
natural one-to-one correspondence with Hom (M, Hom (N, P )) . On the other iii) Jf f: M ' -+ M is injective, then f ® 1: M ' ® N~ M ® N is injective.
hand S is in one-to-one correspondence with Hom (M ® N , P), by the de- iv) Jf f : M ' ~ Mis injective and M, M ' arefinilely generated, then
fining property of the tensor product. Hence we ha ve a canonical isomorphism f ® 1: M ' ® N -+ M ® N is injective.
Hom (M ® N, P) ~ Hom (M, Hom (N, P) ). (l ) Proof i) <=> ii) by splitting up a long exact sequence into short exact sequences.
Proposition 2.18. Let ii) <=> iii) by (2. 18).
M' 4 A1 4 M "-+ O iii) => iv): clear.
(2)
be an exact sequence of A-modules and lzomomorphisms, and /et N be any iv) => iii). Letf: M ' -+ M be injective and let u = 2 x, ® y 1 E Ker (f ® 1),
A-module. Tlzen tlze sequence so that 2./(x;) ® y 1 = Oin M ® N. Let M~ be the submodule of M' generated
by the x; and let u0 denote¿ x; ® y, asan element of M~ ® N. By (2.14) there
1 1
M' ® N ® ) M ® N 9
®
1
:.- M " ® N -+ O (3) exists a fi nitely generated submodule M 0 of M containiogf(M~) aod such that
(where 1 denotes the identity mapping on N) is exact. 2. /(x;) ® y, = O asan element of M 0 ®N. If f 0 : M~~ M 0 is the restriction
off, this means that Uo Q9 1)(u0) = O. Since M 0 and M~ are finitely generated,
Proof. Let E denote the sequence (2), and let E ® N denote the sequence (3).
fo ® 1 is injective and therefore u 0 = O, hence u = O. •
~t P be any A-module. Since (2) is exact, the sequence Hom (E, Hom (N, P))
15 e~c~ by {2.9); hence by (1) the sequence Hom (E ® N, P) is exact. By (2.9)
Exercise 2.20. Jff· A -+ B is a ring homomorphism and Mis aflat A-module,
agam, 1t follows that E ® N is exact. • . then Ms = B ®~t Mis aflat E-module. (Use the canonical isomorphisms
Remarks. i) Let T(M) = Af ® N and let U(P) = Hom (N, P). Then (1) (2.14), (2.15).)
takes the form Hom (T(M), P) = Hom (M, U(P)) for all A-modules Jvf and P.
~n the l~nguage of abstract nonsense, the functor T is the left adjoint of U and U ALGEBRAS
Is ftthed.r1ght adjoint of T Th f f( '. .
1 8 . . . · e proo o 2.18) shows that any functor whtch IS a
Letf: A ->- B be a ring homomorphism. lf a E A and b E B, define a product
e JOmt IS nght exact. Likewise any functor which is a right adJ'oint is Jeft
exact.
ab = f(a)b.
 30 MODULES EXERCISES 31
This definition of scalar multiplication makes the ring B into an A-module Ct . • • turn by (2.1 1) corresponds to an A-bilinear mapping
1 18 and thlS 111
a particular example ofrestriction ofscalars). Thus B has anA-module struct p.: D X D ~ D
as well as a nng . structure, and t hese two struct ures are compatt'b le .111 a seUre
which the reader wiJI be a~Ie t~ formula te for himself. The ring B, equipped w~:~ which is such thnt
this A-module structure, rs sard to be an A-algebra. Thus an A-algebra is b p.(b ® e, b' ® e') = bb' ®ce'.
de.finition, a ring B together with a ring homomorphism f; A -)- B. , Y
orcou rse, we could have written
. down
h
this formula directly' but wt'thout some
Remarks. i) In particular, if A is a field K (and B :f: O) then f is injective b such argument as we have g1ven t ere would be no guarantee. that
· fL w · MWe- 11
(1.2) and therefore K can be canonically identified with its image in B. Thus Y dcfined. . . .
K-algebra (K a field) is effectively a ring containing K as a subring. a We have therefore defined a multrp~t~atr~n on the tensor product D =
ii) Let A be any ring. Since A has an identity element there is a unique B ®AC: for elements of the form b ® e 1t IS g1vcn by
homomorphism of the ring of integers Z into A, namely n t-7 n.l. Thus every (b ® c)(b' ®e') = bb' ® ce' ,
ring is automaticaily a Z-algebra.
and in general by
Let f: A~ B, g: A ~ e be two ring homomorphisms. An A-algebra
homomorphism h : B ~ e is a ring homomorphism which is also an A-module
homomorphism. The reader should verify that Jz is an A-algebra homomor-
(2 (b, ® C¡)) ( 2 (bj ® cí)) = 2: (b bj ® c cj).
1 J f,J
1 1

phism if and only if lz o f = g. The reade~ should check that with this multiplic~tion D is a commutative ring,
A ring homomorphismf: A-)- B isfinite, and Bis afinite A-algebra, if B with identity clement 1 ® l . Furthermore, D 1s an A-algebra: the mapping
is finitely generated as an A-module. The homomorphism f is offinite type, and a r+ f(a) ® g(a) is a ring homomorphism A --+ D.
Bis afinitely-generated A-algebra, if there exists a finite set of elements x 11 ••• xn In fact there is a commutative diagram of ring homomorphisms
in B such that every element of B can be written as a polynomial in x 11 •• • , xn B
with coefficients inf(A); or equivalently if there is an A-algebra homomorphism
/1/ "'".u
from a polynomial ring A[t11 • • • , tn] onto B.
A ring A is said to be finitely generated if it is finitely generated as a z- A/ ""' n
algebra. Thls means that there exist finitely many elements x 1 , .. • , Xn in A such "'g~
that every element of A can be written as a polynomial in the x 1 with rational e
integer coefficients.
in which u, for example, is defined by u(b) = b ® l.

TENSOR PRODUCf OF ALGEBRAS

EXEROSES
Let B,. C be t~o A-algebras, f: A ~ B, g: A --+ e the corresponding homo-
l. Show that (Z/mZ) fi!;z(Z/nZ) = O if m, n are coprime.
ntorphisms. Smce. B ~nd e are A-modules we may form their tensor product
D = B ®A C, whtch ts an A-module. We shall now define a multiplication 2. Let A be a ring, a an ideal, ManA-module. Show that (Afa) ® .. Mis isomor-
on D. ph.ic to M/aM.
Consider the mapping B X e X B X e --+ D defined by [Tensor the exact sequence O-r a -r A ->- A/a _ .. O with M .]
3· Let A be a local ring, M and N finitely generated A-modules. Prove 'that if
(b, e, b', e') t-7 bb' ® ce'.
M ® N = O, then M = O or N = O.
This is A-lin~ar in each factor and therefore, by (2.12*) induces an A-module [Let m be the maximal ideal, k = Af m the residue field. Let M" = k ®.. M .~
homomorph1sm ' M/mM by Exercise 2. By Nakayama's lemma, M" = O => M = O. But
B ® e ® B ® e -)- D, A!®A N = O => (M ®A N)" = o => M" ®" N ~e = o => M ~e = O or N~c = O,
smce Mk, N" are vector spaces over a field.]
hence by (2.14) anA-module homomorphism 4
' :;:t
M¡ (i E/) be any family of A-modules, and let M be their direct sum. Prove
D®D~D • at Mis flat <=> each M 1 is flat.
2
•
 EXERCISES 33
32 MODULE$

5. Let A(x] be the ring of poJynomials in onc indctcrminate over a ring A . p

l) JL is thc identity mappi n ~ of .M.. for all i E / :
rove ( 11
_ o ). whencver 1 ~ J ~ k .
( 2) /J.Ik - I'Jk 1
11
that A(x] is a flat A-algebra. [Use Excrcise 4.] h' .
the modules M, an? homomorp tsms JL tJ are satd to form a direct system
6. For any A-module, Jet M[x] denote thc set of all polynornials in x with e íhen U ) ovcr the dtrcctcd set /.
efficients in M, that is to say expressions of thc form o. M == ( 5'h''';~ construct an A-module M caltcd the direct limit of the direct
m0 + m1x + · · · + m,x' (m, E M).
Wcrvt aLet e be the dtrect · su m o f t h e M h an d 1'd enttfy
· cach module M with
systern .'al imagc in c. Let D be the subrnodule of e generated by all ele~ents
Defining the product of an clcmcnt of A[x] andan elcmcnt of M[x ] in thc obviou 1'ts canontc · · d M · ·
the form X¡ - 1-'IJ(X¡) where l ~ J an . ~1 E 1· Lct M = e¡ D, let JL: e - ). M
way, sbow tbat M[x] is an A[x]-modulc. s of ·ection and Jet JLt be thc restnchon of JL to M 1•
Sbow that M[x] ~ A[x] ® A M . be the prOJ 1 h · · ·
Thc module M, or more co~rect y t e patr. const ~tt~g of M and the fa mil y of
1. L.et V be a prime ideal in A. Show that V[x ] is a prime ideal in A[x ]. If m is a hisms JLt: M 1 - > M, ts called thc d1rect luna of the direct system M
homomor P . . . . •
maximal ideal in A, is m[x ] a maximal ideal in A[x ] ? and ts . \-."rt'tten -+lt m M 1• From the construct10n tt 1s clear that JLt = JL1 o JL,,

8. i) If M and N are flat A-modules, then so is M ® A N. whenevcr i ~ j.

ií) If Bis a flat A-algebra and N is a flat E-module, thcn N ís flat asan A-module.
9. Let o-+ M ' -+ M -+ M " - >- O be an exact sequence of A-modules. If M ' anct
M" are finitely generated, then so is M .
- in M,.
10. Let A be a ring, a an ideal con tained in the Jacobson radical of A ; let M be an
A-module and N a finitely generated A-module, and lct u : M - ¡.. N be a horno.
morpbism. If the induced homomorphism M /aM - )o- N /aN is surjectivc, then
u is surjective.
11. Let A be a ring :;!; O. Show that Am ~ An => m = n.
[Let m be a maximal ideal of A and let if¡ : Am _ ,.. An be an isomorphism. Then
1 ® ,¡,: (A/nt) ® A m - r (A /m) ® An is an isomorphism between vector spaces
of dimensions m and n over the field k = A / m. Hence m = n.] (Cf. Chaptcr 3,
Exercise 15.)
the situation of Exercise 14, show that every elernent of M can be written in
J5. In form p.,(x,) for sorne 1· E ¡ an d sorne x , E M ,.
1
t lC Show also that íf ¡.t 1(x,) = O then thcre exists j ~ i such that JLt¡(x,) = o
. Show thnt the direct limit is characterized (up to isomorphisrn) by the following
16
roperty. Let N be an A-module and for each i E 1 let a 1 : M1 ~ N be an A-
~odule homomorphism such that a, = a1 o JLtJ whenever i ~ j . Then there exists
a uníquc homomorphism a: M -+ N such that a, = a o JLt for all i E /.
11• Lct (M ,)ter be a famil y of submodules of an A-module, such that for each pair of
índices i, j in 1 thcre exists k E 1 sueh that M, + M 1 S M". Define i ~ j to
mean M, s; M 1 and let JLt t: M, _,.. M, be the embedding of M, in M 1• Show that
lim M, = ¿ M, = U M,.
)o

If ,¡,: Am -+ An is surjective, then m ~ n. In particular, any A-module is the d irect limit of its finitely generated sub-
If ,¡,: A m -+ An is injective, is it always the case that m ~ n? modules.
12. Let M be a finitely generated A-module and 4>: M - )o- An a surjectivc homo- 18. Let M = (M., ¡.t11), N = (N, v,
be direct systems of A-modules over the same
1)
morphism. Show that Ker (cp) is finitely generated. directed set. Let M, N be the direct limits and JLt: M, -1- M, v,: N, .- N the
[Let e¡, .. . , en oc a basis of An and eh o ose u, E M sueh that if>(u1) = e1 associated homomorphisms.
(1 ~ i ~ n). Show that M is the direct sum of Ker (if>) and the submodule A homomorpliism <P : M _ ,.. N is by definition a fa mil y of A-module homo-
generated by u11 ••• , Un.] morphisms ,¡,,: M 1 -+ N, sueh that ,¡,, o JLtJ = v 11 o ,P1 wbenever i ~ f. Show that
<P defines a unique homomorphism 4> = lim) ,¡,,: M -+ N su eh that 1> o llt =
13. Letf: A -1- B be a ring homomorphism, and let N be a B-module. Regarding N
as an A-module by restriction of scalars, form the B-module N 8 = B ®..t N.
v, o ,p, for all i E / .
Show that the homomorphism g: N-+ N 8 which inaps y to 1 ® y is injective 19. A sequence of direct systems and bomomorphisms
and that g(N) is a direct summand of N 8 •
M -+ N -+ P
[Definep: Ns -+ N by p(b ® y) = by, and show that N 8 = Im (g) Ef) Ker (p). ]
is exact if the corresponding sequence of modules and module homomorphisms
Direct limits
is exact for each i E / . Show that the sequence M N - >- P of direct limits is
14. A partially ordered set 1 is said to be a directed set if for ea eh pair í, j in 1 thcre then exact. [Use Exercise 15.]
exists k E 1 such that 1 ~ k and j ~ k.
Le~ A be a ring, let 1 be a directed set and let (M1)1f:I be a fa mil y of A-modules 1 Tensor products commute witlt direct limits
indexed by /. For each pair ;, j in 1 su eh that ¡ ~ j, let ,.,.,, : M 1 -+ M 1 be an 20· Keeping the same notation as in Exercise 14, let N be any A-module. :h~n
A-homomorphism, and suppose tbat the following axioms are satisfied: (M, ® N, JLtJ ® 1) is a direct system; let P = lin;
(M, ® N) be its direct hmtt.
 EXERCISES 35
34 MODULES

b an A-module. Then N is fiat .;:;. Tor 1 (A/a N) = o for all fi .

For eaeh i E 1 we ha ve a homomorphism JL' ® 1: M, ® N - >- M ® N, hcnce b 6 Let N e . ' nttely
Exercise J 6 a homomorphism ,P: p -+ M ® N. Show that t/J is an isomorphis: Z• eratcd idcals a sn A. . ,
1 gen first that N is flat ¡f Torl (M, N) = O for allfinite/y generated A-m dul
so that [ShoW · ti · 1 d l ·O
M by using (2. 19). lf M l S m te y genera te , et X¡, . •. , Xn be a set of generat es
lim (M , ® N) ~ (lim)o M,) ® N .
__.,.
or' NI, and Jet M, ~e the subrnodule gen~rated by. X¡, .•. , x,. By conside:~;
[For each ¡E/, Jet g,: M, x N -+ M, ®. N be the canonical bmnear mapping Successive quot1cnts M ,/ M1 - 1 and usmg Exerc1se 25, deduce that N . fi
Passing to the Jimit we obtain a mappmg g: M x N -+ P. Show that g . · t tle
if Torl (M, N) = O for
all t A d 1 M .
cyc l e -m o u es ' ~ .e., all M generated by a single
ts at
A-bilinear and hence define a hornornorphisrn ~ : M ® N - >- P. Verify tb~~ e1cment , and therefore of the form
. A / a for sorne 1deal a. Finally use (2 19)
. · .
agam
t/1 o ,p and ,p o ,p are identity mappings.] to reduce to the case where a l S a fimte1y generated ideal.]
21. Let (A,),er be a farnily of rings indexed by a .di recte~ se~ 1, and f~~ cach pair ¡ ~ . A ringA is absolutely fiar if every A-module is Oat. Prove that the foUowing are
1 27
in /Jet a,,:
A, -+ A1 be a ring homomorph1srn, satlsfymg cond1hons {1) and (2) equivalent:
of Exercise 14. Regarding each A1 as a Z-rnodule we can thcn form the direct i) A is absolutely ~at. . .
Jimit A = lim A,. Show that A inherits a ring structure from the A1 so that the ") Every principal 1deal 1s 1dempotent.
)> 11
mappings A, -+ A are ring homomorphisrns. The ring A is the direct limit of the iii) Every fini tely genera te d 1'd ea.1 1s
. a d1rect
. surnrnand of A .
system (A, au). [i) => ii). Lct x e A. Then A / (x) 1s a ftat A-module, hence in the diagram
If A = O prove that A, = O for sorne i E / . [Remember that all rings ha ve
(x) ® A !!._,. (x) ® A /(x)
identity elements !]
t ta
22. Let (A, a 11) be a direct systern of rings and let 91, be the nilradica1 of A1• Show A -+ A /(x)
that lim 9l1 is the nilradical of lirn A,.
-+; )o
the mapping a is injective. Hence Im (fi) = O, hence (x) = (x2). ii) => iii). Let
If each A, is an integral dornain, then lim A, is an integral domain.
) x e A . Then x = ax 2 for sorne a E A, hence e = axis idempotent and we have
23. Let (BJAu. be a family of A-algebras. For each finite subset of A Jet B1 denote (e) = (x) . Now if e, f are idempotents, then (e, f) = (e + f - ef). Hence every
the tensor product (over A) of the B }. for ,\e J. If J ' is another finite subset of A finitely generated ideal is principal, and generated by an idernpotent e, hence is a
and J s J ', there is a canonical A-algebra homomorphlsm B, -+ B,.. Let B direct summand because A = (e) G:> (1 - e). iii) => i). Use the criterion of
denote the djrect lirnit of the rings B, as J runs through all finite subsets of A. Exercise 26.] ·
The ring B has a natural A-algebra structure for which the homomorphisms
28. A Boolean ring is absolutely flat. The ring of Chapter 1, Exercise 7 is absolutely
B,-+ B are A-algebra homomorphisms. The A-algebra B is the tensor product
flat. Every homomorphic image of an absolutely fiat ring is absolutely ftat. lf a
of the family (B}.)A.Eh·
local ring is absolutely ftat, then it is a field.
Flatness and Tor If A is absolutely ftat, every non-unit in A is a zero-divisor.
In these Exercises it will be assumed that the reader is famiHar with the definition
aod basic properties of the Tor functor.
24. H Mis an A-module, the following are equivalent :
i) Mis fiat;
ii) Tor: (M, N) = O for all n > O and all A-modules N·
iii) Torf (M, N) = O for all A-modules N. '
[To show that (i) => (ii), take a free resolution of N and tensor it with M . Since
M is flat, the resulting sequence is exact and therefore its homology groups,
which are the Tor: (M, N), are zero for n > O. To show that (iii) => (i), Jet
O -+ N ' -+ N-+ N" -+ O be an exact sequence. Then, from the Tor exact
sequence,
Tor1 (M, N") -+ M ® N' -+ M ® N -+ M ® N" ~ O
•
as exact. Since Tor1 (M, N") = O it follows that Mis fiat.]

25. Let O -+ N' -+ N-+ N" ~ O be an exact sequence with N" fiat Then N
1 •
IS
ftat ~ N is fiat. [Use Bxercise 24 and the Tor exac~ sequence.] .
 RJ NGS ANO MODULES OF FRACflONS
37

3 .
ExcrclS •
e Veri'Y
'J •
that rhese definitions
d .
are
_1
independent
.
of rhe choices if
o rep-
(a( ives (a s) anci (b, t), an t1zat S A sa11sjies tlze axioms 0 r a
resell ' . . 'J com-
mutative ring with zdenllty.
We also have a ri.n~ h~momorphism f: A -+ S - A defined by /(x) = xf l.
1

in general mJecttve.
Rings and Modules of Fractions . • 1101
ThtS 15

Remar ·k If A is an integral doma in and S = A - {O}, then S -1 A is the field

of fractions of A.
The formation of rings of fractions and the associatcd process of localizar The ring S - 1 A is called the ring offraetions of A with respect tos. lt has a
. 1 1 . . IOn
are perhaps the most important techmca
. •
too s 111 commutatJve
.
algcbra. Thcy· universal property:
correspond in the algebro-geometnc p1cture to conccntratmg • attention on an Proposition 3.1. Let g: A -+ B be a ring homomorphism suclz that g(s)
open set or ncar a point, and the importancc o f t 11cse not10ns should be sclf.
is a unil in B for al/ s E S. Tlzen there exists a unique ring Jzomomorplzism
evident. This chapter gives the defini tions and simple properties ofthe formation
11 : s - lA -+ B such tlzat g = lz o f.
of fructions.
Proof i) Uniqueness. If h satisfies the conditions, then h(a/ 1) = lif(a) = g(a)
The proccdurc by which .one constructs tl~e rational. field Q from the ring for all a E A; hence, if sE S,
of integers Z (and embeds Z tn Q) extends castly to any Integral domain A and
produces the jield of fraetions of A. Thc construction consists in taking all lz(l /s) = lz((s/ 1) - 1 ) = h(s/ 1)- 1 = g(s) - 1
ordcred pairs (a, s) where a, s E A and s ::P O, and sctting up an equivalcnce
relation between such pairs: and therefore lz(afs) = lz(af l )·h(l fs) = g(a)g(s) - 1 , so that lz is uniquely
determined by g.
(a, s) = (b, t ) ~ at - bs = O.
ii) Existence. Let Jz(afs) = g(a)g(s) - 1• Then lz will clearly be a ring homo-
This works only if A is an integral domain, because the verification that the morphism provided that it is well-defined. Suppose then that afs = a'js'; then
relation is transitive involves canceling, i.e. the fact that A has no zero-divisor thcre exists t E S such that (as' - a's)t = O, hence
::P O. However, it can be generalized as follows: •

Let A be any ring. A multiplieatively closed subset of A is a subset S of A (g(a)g(s') - g(a')g(s))g(t ) = O;

such that 1 E S and S is closed under multiplication: in other words Sisa sub·
now g(t) is a unit in B, hence g(a)g(s) - 1 = g(a')g(s')- 1 • •
semigroup of the multiplicative semigroup of A . Define a relation = on A x S
as follows: The ring S - 1 A and the homomorphism f: A -+ S - 1A ha ve the following
properties:
(a, s) = (b, t ) ~ (at - bs)u = O for some u E S.
1) s E S ~ f(s) is a unit in S- 1 A ;
Clearly this relation is reflexive and symmetric. To show tbat it is transitive,
2) f(a) = O ~ as = O for sornes E S;
suppose (a, s) = (b, t ) and (b, 1) =
(e, u). Thcn there exist v, w in S su eh tbat
3) Every element of S - 1 A is of the form f(a)f(s )- 1 for so me a E A and so me
(at - bs)v = O and (bu - ct)w = O. Eliminate b from these two equations
S E S.
and we have (au - cs)tvw = O. Since S is closed under multiplication, we have
tvw E S, hence (a, s) = (e, u). Thus we ha ve an equivalence relation. Let afs Conversely, these three conditions determine the ring S - A up to iso- 1

denote the equivalence class of (a, s), and let S - 1A denote the set of equivaleoce morphism. Precisely:
classes. We puta ring structure on S - lA by defining addition and multiplication
of these "fractions" ajs in the same way as in elementary algebra: that is, Corollary· 3.2. If g: A - > Bis a ring Jwmomorphism sueh tlzat
i) sE S ~ g(s) is a unir in B;
(afs) + (b/t) = (at + bs)fst,
(afs}(bft) = abfst. ii) g(a) = O => as = Ofor sorne sE S;
36 1
 RINGS AND MODULES Of FRACTIONS RlNGS ANO MODULES OF FRACTIONS 39
38
1
is exact, i.e., if M ' ~ M~ M" .
•
iii) Every element of B is of tite form g(a)g(s) - ,· then there IS a .. The operation S - 1
Ullique 3
propOSIIIOn 3• • s- l f s -lg lS
isomorpltism h: S -1 A -+ B suclz tltat g = lt o f. Jvf then s - M '-
1 ). s - M1 1
). s - M" is exact at s-1M.
1 1 '
Proof. By (3.1) we ha ve to show that h : S - A -+ B, defined by exact a
\Ve ha ve g o¡ = O, hencc
S - 1go .
S - lf
:= S - l(O)
= O, hence Im (S -1[)
h(afs) = g(a)g(s) - 1 proof S -lg). To prove the rever.se mclus10n, let mfs E Ker (S -1g), then
(this defioition uses i)) is an isomo.rphism. By iii), h is surjective. To show h . ~ J(:r ~ o in s -1M ", hence there extsts t E S such ~hat tg(m) = o in M". But
inJ'ective look at the kernel of h: tf h(afs) = O, then g(a) = O, hence by 11..) rs g(m)/ _ . (tn) since g is an A-module homomorphtsm, hcnce tm e Ker (g) =
have at ,=o for sorne t E S, hence (a, s ) -= (O, 1) , t.e.,
' f
as= · s -1A. • We
O 10 g 1therefore tm = f( m ') rtOr sorne m ' E M ' . H ence m
tg(m) - and · s - 1M we have
Jm CJ_}f( ')/st = (S - 1f)(m' fst) E Im (S - 1[). Hencc Ker (S - 1g) s; Im (S -1f).
Examples. 1) Let p be a prime ideal of A. Then S = A - pis multiplicar m/s - 111
. u1 . 1' . 1 1 d . . )
closed (in fact A - p ts m ttp tcattve y e ose <=> P ts pnme . We write A r
·h r 'd 1 .
1ve!y
ll tOr
•
1 wbt/t .a E p 1?r.mAan 1 e~ m m A¡¡. If bft ~ nt particular, it follows from (3.3) that if M ' is a submodule of M, the map-
1
s - lA in this case. The elements as
tben b r1 p, hence bE S and therefore . t 1s a umt . 1~ - 1M ' -+ s - 1M is injective and therefore S - l M ' can be regarded as a
. md . ¡¡. h t tollows that if a IS
· an'
ideal in Ap and a $ m, then a contams a umt an ts t erefore the whole ri ~~~~odule of S - 1 M . With this conven~ion,
Hence mis the only maximal ideal in A¡¡; in other words, A¡¡ is a local ring. ng.
Corollary 3.4. Formation of fractions commutes with formation of finite
The process of passing from A to Av is called localization at p. sums, finite intersections and quotients. Precise/y, if N, P are submodules
2) S - 1 A is the zero ring <=>O E S. of anA-module M, then
3) Let/E A and let S= {f"}n~o· We write A1 for s - A in this case.
1
i) s - 1(N + P) = s - 1 (N) + s - (P)
1

4) Let a be any ideal in A, and let S = 1 + a = set of all 1 + x where ii) s- (N n P) = s - (N} () s- (P)
1 1 1

x E a. Clearly S is multiplicatively closed.

iii) the s - 1 A-modules s - 1(M/N) and (S - 1 M)/(S- 1N) are isomorphic.
5) Special cases of 1) and 3):
i) A = Z, p = (p), p a prime number; Av = set of all rational numbers
Proof i) follows readily from the definitions and ii) is easy to verify:
if yfs = z/t (y e N, z E P , s, t E S) then u(ty - sz) = O for sorne u E S, hence
mfn where n is prime to p; if f e Z and f # O, then A 1 is the set of all rational
w = uty = usz e N() P and therefore yfs = wfstu e S - 1(N n P). Consequently
numbers whose denominator is a power off
s-1N n S - l P s S - 1 (N () P), and the reverse inclusion is obvious.
ii) A = k[t1 , ••• , tn], where k is a field and the t1 are independent indeter-
minates, p a prime ideal in A. Then Al> is the ring of all rational functionsflg, iij) Apply S -l to the exact sequence O~ N~ M~ M/N~ O. •
where g ~p. If Vis the variety defined by the ideal.p, that is to say the set of all Proposition 3.5. Let M be anA-module. Then the s - A modules s - M and
1 1

~ = .<xh .. . , Xn) e k"'

such that f(x) = O whenever f e .p, then (provided k is s- 1A ®A M are isomorphic; more precise/y, tlzere exists a unique iso-
mfimte) Atl can be identified with the ring of all rational functions on k" which morphism f: S -lA ®A M --r S - l M for which
are. d~fined at almost all points of V; it is the local ring of kn along the variety V.
Thts JS the prototype of the local rings which arise in algebraic geometry. f((a fs) ® m) = amfsfor al/ a e A, m e M, se S. (1)

The cons~ction of s - A can be carried through with anA-module M in

1 Proaf. The mapping S - 1 A x M ~ S- 1 M defined by
place of the rmg A. Define a relation =
on M x S as follows: (afs, m) H- amfs
(m, s) =(m', s') <=> 3t e S such that t(sm' -
s'm) = O. ~s A-bilinear, and therefore by the universal property (2.12) ofthe tensor product
As befor~, this is an equivalence relation. Let m/s denote the equivalence class Induces an A-homomorphism
1
?f the pau (m, s ), let S -l M denote the set of such fractions and make S- M f: s -lA ®A M~ s - 1M
mto .a~ s.- A-module with the obvious definitions of addition and scalar
1
satisfying (1). Clearly f is surjective, and is uniquely defined by (1).
multtphcatiOn. As in Examples 1) and 3) above,·we write M-p instead of s- 1M
Let ¿:, (a,Js,) ® m 1 be any element of S - lA ® M. If s = flc s, E S,
whenLet
S= A- P (p prime) and M h S- frn}
M 1 w en - V n>O•
S _1A- u: -+N be an ~-module homomorphism. Then it gives rise to an
ni"l
l¡ == sil we have

module homomorphtsm s-lu: s - 1M~ s-1N namely s - lu maps m/s

to u(m)/s. We have S - 1(v o u) = (S -lv) o (S -lu). '
 RINGS ANO MODULES OF FRACTJONS EXTEN DED AND CONTRACTED IDEALS IN RINGS OF FRACfiONS 41
40

so that every element of s - lA ® Jvf is of thc form (1 /s ) ® m. Supposc that .

proof l)
__ •.).
-:- 11 0 ~ /vi - >- N is exact, hence O~ M'() - > Np ís exact
• .e.,1·
J((l fs) ® m) = 0. Thcn mfs = O, hence tm = O for somc 1 E S, and thcrcfore
~~~ is injccuvc. . . .
1 1 1 1 .. ...) becausc a maxímal tdcal 1s pnme.
- ® m = - ® m = - ® tm = - ® O
s si st SI
= O. 11) ::> 111
... ') Lct M ' = Kcr (~). thcn the sequence O ~ M ' ~ M-+ N is
1
Hl)h=> c. 0 >- k!' m- >- M m _,,.. N m is exact by (3.3) and thercfore M ' ,..,
Hence J is injcctive and thcrcforc an isomorphism. • act ene - ct =
ex (~ ) :::: 0 sincc cp 111 is injcctivc. Hcnce M ' = O by (3.8), hence cp is injective.
Kcr For '~''" thc othcr part of thc propos1t1on,
·· ·
JUSt rcversc a11 t he arrows. •
Corollary 3.6. S - lA is a j/at A-module.
Proof (3.3), (3.5). • Flatncss is a local property :
Proposition 3.7. Jf Jvl, N are A-modules, tltere ls a uniquc isomorphism of
1 Propositio 11 3.10. For any A-module M, the following statements are
s-lA-modulesf: s- M ®s- l..t s - N - >- s - (/ll ® 11 N) such tltat
1 1
equivalen!:
f((m/s) ® (nft)) = (m ® n)fst.
i) /VI is a jlat A-module:
In particular, if p is auy prime ideal, titen ii) /11v is a flat A.,-module for each prime ideal p;
M"' ®...tp N., ~ (!vi ®.. t N)p iii) /11m is a flat A m-module f or ca eh maximal ideal m.
Proof i) => ii) by (3.5) and (2.20).
as A.,-modules.
ii) ~ iii) O .K .
Proof Use (3.5) and the canonical isomorphisms of Chaptcr 2. •
iii) ~ i). If N - > P is a homomorphism of A-modules, and m is any
LOCAL PROPERTIES maximal ideal of A, then
A property p of a ring A (or of an A-module Af) is said to be a local property N-+ P injcctive => Nm ~ Pm injcctive, by (3.9)
if the following is true : => Nm ® Am lvlm - >- Pm ®Am M m injective, by (2.19)
A (or Al) has P <=> A., (or A1p) has P, for each prime ideal P of A. The => (N ® 11 M) m -r (P ®A M)m injective, by (3.7)
following propositions give cxamples of local properties: ~ N ®A M -r P ®A Jvf injective, by (3.9).
Proposition 3.8. Let M be an A-module. Tlzen t/ze fol/owing are equivalen!:
Hence M is fiat by (2.19). •
i) M = O;
ii) M., = Ofor al! prime ideals p of A;
EXTENDED ANO CONTRACfED IDEALS IN RINGS OF FRACfiONS
iii) Mm = Ofor al/ maximal ideals m of A.
Proof Clcarly i) => ii) => iii). Suppose iii) satisfied and M '# O. Let x be .a Let A be a ring, S a multiplicatively el osed subset of A and f: A -)o S-lA the
non-zero clement of NI, and let a = Ann (x); a is an ideal '# (1), hence !S natural homomorphism, defined by f(a) = af l. Let e be the set of contracted
contained in a maximal ideal m by (1.4). Consider :xf 1 E Mm . Sin ce M m = o. we ideals in A, and let E be the set of extended ideals in S - 1A ( cf. (1.17) ). If a is an
ha ve x/1 = O, hence x is killed by sorne element of A - m; but this is impossible ideal in A, its extension ae in S - lA is S -la (for any y E ae is of the form 2 aJs¡,
since Ann (x) ~ m. • where a, E a and s1 E S; bring this fraction to a common denominator).
•

Proposition 3.9. Let 4>: M -)o N be an A-module homomorp/Jism. Tiren rhe Proposition 3.11. i) Every ideal in S - lA is an extended ideal.
following are equivalen!: íi) !f a is an ideal in A, then acc = Uses (a:s). Hence ae = (1) ifandonly
i) 4> is injective; if a meets S.
ii) c/>v: M., -> Np is injective for each prime ideal -\'; e
iii) n E <=> no element of S is a zero-divisor in Aja.
iii) c/>m: Mm -> Nm is injective for each maximal ideal m. iv! Tlze prime ideals of S-lA are in one-to-one correspondence (.P ...-. S -lp)
Similar/y with "injective" replaced by "surjective" througltout. Wll/z the prime ideals of A whz'ch don't meet S.
 RINGS ANO MODULES OF FRACTIONS
42
v) The operar ion S commutes witlz formar ion of finire sums
. .
-t
' produc
inlersectrons and radrcals. ~~.
Proof i) Lct b be an ideal in S-tA, and 1et xfs E ú. Thcn x / 1 E b 1
x e b e and therefore x fs E fi c 41 • Since ó => óce in any case (1.17), it follo' tcnee
b = f>C41.
=
ws that
x fl = afs for sorne a E a, sE S .:;:. (xs _ a)t ~
ii) x E 0 tc (S - la)c <:>
for sorne r E S<=> xst E a<=> x E UsGs (a:s).
0 Proof lf
iii) 0 E e<=> ate s; a <=> (sx E a for sorne s E S ==> x E o) ·=> no sE S is
. . . A/a. a ·
zero-dIVJSor m = Ann (S - 1 M) n Ann (S - 1 N) by hypothesis
iv) If q is. a prime ideal in. S - lA, then qc is a. pri~e ide~l in .A (tltis much is
true for aoy nng h omo~o~ph2~m). ~onvcrsely, .1f .P IS a pnrnc Ideal in A, thcn
Aj p is an integral domam; 1f S 1s the 1mage of S m A/v, wc ha ve S - 1A/ s - 1v "'
S - 1 (A/'fJ) which is either Oor else is contained in the field of fractions of A/p and
is therefore an integral domain, and therefore S - 1 .P is eithcr prime or is the un·t1
ideal; by i) the latter possibility occurs if and only if 'p meets S.
v) For sums and products, this follows from (1. 18); for intersections
from (3.4). Asto radicals, we have s- 1r (a) S r(S - 1 a) from (1.1 8), and th;
proof of the reverse inclusion is a routine verification which we leave to the
reader. •
Remarks. 1) lf a, ú are ideals of A, the formula
s - 1 (a:ú) = (S- 1 a:S- 1 ó)
is true provided the ideal ó is finitely generated: see (3.15).
2) The proof in (1.8) that if f e A is not nilpotent there is a prime ideal
of A which does oot contain f can be expressed more concisely in the language
of dngs of fractions. Since the set S = (fn)n >0 does not contain O, the ring
s- 1 A = A1 is not the zero ring and therefore by (1.3) has a maximal ideal,
whose contraction in A is a prime ideal .p which does not meet S by (3. 11);
hencef~ 'p.
Coro/lary 3.12. lfW is the ni/radical of A, the ni/radical of S - lA is S - 1m.
Coro/lary 3.13. lf 'p is a prime ideal of A, the prime ideals of the local ring
Apare in one-to-one correspondence wit/z tlze prime ideals of A contained in p.
Proof Take S = A - 'p in (3. 11) (iv). •
Remark. Thus the passage from A to A p cuts out all prime ideals except those
contained in 'p. In the other direction, the passage from A to A/'fJ cuts out all
prime ideals except those containing p. Hence if v, q a re prime ideals such that
V 2 q, then by localizing with respect to p and taking the quotient mod q
(in either order : these two operations commute, by (3.4)), we restrict our atten·
tion to thosc prime ideals which lie between .p and q. In particular, if 'fJ == q we
EXERCISES 43
.fi Id called thc residue field at P. which can be obtaincd eithcr as
w1th a 1C • ' . f
end up of fractions of the integral domam A P or as the residuc field of the
the field
local ring A IJ ·
osition 3.14. Let M be afinitely genera red A-module, S a multiplicative/y
::a~d subset of A.
Then S - l (Ann (!vi)) = Ann (S- 1 M).
this ¡5 truc for two A-modules, 1\1, N, it is true for M + N :
s - l(Ann(M +N)) = s - 1 (Ann(M)nAnn(N))by(2.2)
= s - 1 (Ann (M)) n S - 1 (Ann (N)) by (3.4)
= Ann (S - 1 M+ s - 1 N) = Ann (S- 1 (M +N)).
f-1ence
.t ¡5 cnough to provc (3.14) for M generated by a single element · then
J ·
M~ A/n (as A-modu 1c), whcrc:_ a = A~~ (M); s - /v/ ~ (S - A)/(S-ln) by
1
1
1
(J.4), so that Ann (S - M) = S o = S (Ann (M)). •
1
Corollary 3.15. If N, P are submodules of an A-module M and ;¡ p is
finitely generated, then s - 1 (N:P) = (S- 1 N:S - 1 P).
Proof (N:P) = Ann ((N + P)/N) by (2.2); now apply (3.14). •
Proposition 3.16. Let A -+ B be a ring homomorphism and let .p be a prime
ideal of A. Then ~ is the contraer ion of a prime ideal of B if and only ;¡
p'C = ~ ·
Proof If p = qc then 'ptc = ~ by ( 1.17). Conversely, if ~ec = ~. let S be the
image of A - V in B. Thcn Ve does not meet S, therefore by (3.1 1) its extension
in S -lB is a proper ideal and hence is contained in a maximal ideal m of S-lB.
Jf q is the contraction of m in B, then q is prime, q 2 .pe and q r'l S = 0.
Hence qc = ~ . •
EXERCISES
• l. Let S be a multiplicatively closed subset of a ring A, and let M be a finitely
generated A-module. Pro ve that S - 1 M = Oif and only if there exists sE S such
that s/vf = O.
2• Let o be an ideal of a ringA, and Jet S = 1 + a. Show that s - 1o is contni ned
in the Jacobson radical of s- 1 A.
Use this result and Nakayama's lemma to give a proof of (2.5) which does
not depend on determinants. [If M = aM, then S - t M = (S - 1a)(S - t M),
hence by Nakayama we ha ve S - 1 M = O. Now use Exercise l.]
3· Let A be a ring, let S and T be two multiplicatively closed subsets of A, and Jet
.u be the image of T in S - 1 A. Show that the rings (ST) - 1A and U - I(S - t A) are
Jsomorphic.
 EXERClSES 45
44 RINGS AND MODULES OF FRACTIONS
. ce (i.e. cvery subset consisting of a single point is closed).
4 Lct !" A -+ B be n homomorphism of rings and Jet S be a multiplicnti v 1 (;1) 1s n T1-spa '
¡¡i) spcc ) 1·s Hnusdorff. .
• closed subset of A. Let T = f(S). Show that S -1 B and r - 1 B are isomorp~¡~ •v) Spcc (;1 d' . ns are satisfied, show that Spcc (A) 1s compact and totally
1
as S - 1 A-modules. If t hese con . ttiO • conncctcd subsets o f Spec ( A ) are those conststmg
h , only . . of a
nn cctcd (1.e. t e
S. Let A be a ring. Suppose that, for each prim~ ideal IJ, thc local ring A¡¡ has diSCO
110
. t t elemcnt ::fi o. Show that A has no mlpotent clemcn t ;t O. If cach 51·ngle point).. .
, 1domain und lvJ an A-module. An element x E M 1s a rorslon
m1po en . 1 d · ? "1n
• egra 1 domn 1
· an m
IS 'n, is A necessarily an mtcgra omnm A be nn tntegra . . . . db
1 12· Lct ' M if Ann (x) ,¡; O, that JS 1f x JS kJlle Y sorne non-zero element of A.
Let A be a ring # o and Jet :E be the set of all. multiplicativcly closcd subscts S element of s'aon elcments of M form a submodule of M . This submodule
6 thnt t 11e 1or .
· O f A SUC11 tllnt
<
o¿ s Show that
'F • •
:E • has
•
max1mal
• •
elemcnts, and that sE t .IS Sho\V d thc torsion submodulc of lvf and lS dcnoted by T (lvl ). If T(M) = o,
maximal if and only if A - SISa mJmmal pnmc 1dcal of A . is calle M ·s snid to be torsio n-free. Show that
1 1
thc modu. e A-module thcn M /T(lvl) is torsion-fre.e.
. A multiplicatively closed subset S of n ring A is snid to be saturated if ·) If M ts any ' . ( )
1 .~ . lvf - )- N is a module homomorph1sm, thcn 1 T(M) s T(N).
xy E S <=> x E S and y E S. u) Jf 1· M ' - :.- M _ ,.. Jo.;!" is an exact scqucnce, then the sequcnce O - T(M' )
'") If 0 -
111
Prove ti1at . . _. T(M) _,.. T(M") is cxact. . .
') s is saturated =- A - S is a un ion of pnme 1dcals. ·v) If Mi s any A-module, then T(M) ts the kernel . of the mappmg x H 1 0 x
.~) If S ¡5 any multiplicatively closed subset of A, there is a uniquc smallcst
11 1
1 f lvf into K ®A M, whcre K is the field of fracttons of A .
saturated multiplicatively closed subset S contatntng
. . S , an d that S ¡5 thc
f
0
. ) show that K may be regarded as the direct limit of its submodules
~~ ~/~ K); using Chaptcr 1.' Excrcise 15 and Exercise 20, show that if 1 0 x ~ O
0
complement in A of the union of the prime ideals which do not mcct S.
(S is caBed tbe saturatlon of S.) in K ® ft1then 1 0 x = Om A~ 0 Mfor sorne~ =fi O. Deduce that ~- 1 x = O.]
lf S = 1 + a, where a is an ideal of A, find S.
• Let s be a multiplicatively closcd subset of an integral domain A . In the n~tation
8. Let s, Tbe multiplicatively closcd subsets of A, such that S s T. Lct cp: s - 1A 13
of Excrcise 12, show that T(S - l M) = S - l(TM). Deduce that the followmg are
-+ r -1 A be the homomorphism which maps each a/s E S - tA to afs considercd
equivalent:
asan elemcnt of r - 1 A. Show that the following statcments are cquivalent :
i) Mi s torsion-free.
i) 4> is bijective. ii) Mv is torsion-(rec for all prime ideals l>·
ii) For each 1 E T, t/ 1 is a unit in S - 1 A. iii) Mm is torsion-free for all maximal ideals m.
iii) Por each 1 E T there exists x E A such that xt E S .
iv) T is contained in the saturation of S (Exercise 7). 14. Lct M be an A-module and a an ideal of A. Suppose that lv/m = O for all
v) Every prime ideal which meets T also meets S . rnaximal ideals m 2 n. Prove that !vi = o/11. [Pass to the Afa-module M /oM
and use (3.8).]
9. The set So of all non-zero-divisors in A is a saturated multiplicatively closed
subset of A. Hence the set D of zero-divisors in A is a union of prime ideals (sce 15. Lct A be a ring, and lct F be the A-module A". Show that every set of n gen-
Chaptcr 1, Exercisc 14). Show tbat every mini mal prime ideal of A is contained erators ofF is a basis ofF. [Let x 1 , ••• , Xn be a set of generators and e1, ... , en
in D . [Use Exercise 6.] the canonical basis of F. Define 4>: F - )- F by 4>Ce1) = x 1• Then 4> is surjective
The ring So 1 A is called the total ring offractions of A . Prove that and we have to prove that it is an isornorphism. By (3.9) we may assumc that A
i) So is the Iargest rnultiplicatively closed subset of A for which the hamo· is a local ring. Let N be the kernel of 4> and let k = A/m be the residue field of A.
morphism A -+ So 1 A is injective. Sincc F is a flat A-module, the exact sequence O-+ N-+ F-+ F-+ O gives an
ii) Every element in So 1A is either a zero-divisor or a u ni t. exact sequence O ;:.- k 0 N ;;. k ® F 10Q >k ® F ;:.- O. Now k ® F = k'"
iii) Every ring in which every non-unit is a zero-divisor is equal to its total ring •
1s an n-dimensional vector space o ver k; 1 ® 4> is surjective, hence bijective,
of fractions (i.e., A - )- So 1 A is bijective). hcnce k ® N = o.
1
10. Let A be a ring. Also N is finitely generated, by Chapter 2, Exercise 12, hcnce N = O by
i) U A is absolutely flat (Chapter 2, Exercise 27) and S is any multiplicativeiY 1 Nakayama's lemma. Hencc 4> is an isomorphism.]
closed subset of A, then s- 1 A is absolutely flat. Deduce that every set of generators ofF has at least n elemcnts.
ii) A is absolutely flat <=> Am is a field for each maximal ideal m. 16
· L~t B be a flat A-algebra. Then the following conditions are equivalent :
11. Let A be a ring. Prove that the following are equivalent: .~) a cc = a for all ideals a of A.
i) A/~ is absolutely flat (in being the nilradical of A). .~~) Spec (B) -- Spec (A) is surjective.
ii) Every prime ideal of A is maximal. 111) For every maximal ideal m of A wc ha ve me ,¡; (1).
 ..
46 RlNGS AND MODULES OF FRACTIONS EXERCl SES 47

iv) If Mis any non-zcro A-module, then M n ::¡:. O. .A _. 8 be a ring homomhorphis~. Let ~ =dSp~ch(/.A) and y =
v) For ev~ry A-module J.!• the. ~a.pping x 1-+ 1 ® x of M into M . . . ¡i) Lel l · d t ¡• : y -~> X be t e mappmg assoctate w1t . Identifying
1
[For i) ~ u), use (3.16). u) ~ m) IS clear. 18
n 10Jcctive spec (B)~ 1an c' th its canonical image S - l X in X, and Spec (S -1 B)
iii) ~ iv): Let x be a non-zero element of M and let M ' = Ax s· · Spec (S (;~S;-\ B)) with ¡ts canonical image S - 1Y in show that s -1¡•:
Y,
, · tncc 13 ·
over A it is enough to show t h at Mo ::¡:. O. We ha ve M ' ~ A j a f
, j N or som .
ts fiat · es-
( == Sp;~ 1B ) _ ,. . Spcc 1 A) is the rcstriction of ¡• to s- Y, and that
1

a ~ (1), hence Mn ~ B a•. ow a s; m for sorne maximal ideal e Idea) Spec ( - ¡• -1(S -1 X).
a' s; m' ::¡:. (1 ). Hence M~ ~ O. lll, hcnee S -l y - .de al of A and let b = a e be its extension in B . Let J: A ja ~ B[b
iv) ~ v): Let M ' be the kernel of M ~ M n. Sincc Bis flat ovcr A th iii) Let a bcha~omorphism induced by f If Spec (A ja) is identified with its
O -+ M~~ M s -~> (M o)o is exact. But (Chaptcr 2, Excrcise 13 ,~itl e~equcnce be th~ ~ ·mage V( a) in X, and Spec (B[ó) with its image V(b ) in Y, show
the mapping M 8 ~ (Mn)o is injective, hence M~ = O and thcr~forc ~' : M,) canontca 1
t ¡• is thc restriction o
r¡• t vf1~)
o \u •
v) ~ i): Take M = A j a.] - O. . th~ be a prime ideal of A. Take S = A - ~ in ii) and then reduce
Bis said to be fait!tfully flat over A. 1v) Le d\Js - 1+> as in iii). Deduce that the subspace¡• - 1 (~) of Y is naturally
mo omorphic to Spec (Bp/lJBv) = Spec (k(~) ® ..t B), where k(~) is the
17. Let A f.... B ~ C be ring homomorphisms. If g o 1 is flat and g is faithfull fi bomc .
Y at, 'due ficld of thc local nng Av.
then 1 is fiat. resl fi
Spec (k(tJ) ®..t B) is called the 1ber o
r¡• over f>.
18. Let/: A ~ B be a ftat homomorphism of rings, let q be a prime ideal of B a d A be a ring and lJ a prime ideal of A . Then the canonical image of Spec (A~)
lJ = qc. Thenj• : Spec (Bq) -+ Spec (A~) is surjective. [For B p is flat over ~ ~~
1
22• ~e~pec (A) ¡ equal to the intersection of all the open neighborhoods of ~ in
5
(3.10), and Bq is a local ring of Bv, hence is ftat over Bp. H ence Bq is flat ov/}
and satisfies condition (3) of Exercise 16.] r P Spec (A).
Let A be a ring, let X = Spec (A) and let U be a basic open set in X (i.e., U = X 1
19. Let A be a rin~, M_ an A-module. The support of M is dcfined to be the sct 23
· for so me fE A: Chapter 1, Exercise 17).
Supp (M) of pnme tdeals lJ of A such that M~ ~ O. Pro ve the following results· i) If u = x,, show that the ring A ( U) = At depends only on U and not on f
i) M ~ O ~ Supp (M) ~ 0. .
ii) Let U' = X 9 be another basic open set such tha t U ' S U. Show that there
ii) V(a) = Supp (A j a). ¡5 an cquation of the form gn = uf for sorne integer n > O and sorne u E A,
iii) If O-+ M ' ~ M -+ M " ~ O is an exact sequence, then Supp (M) = 1
and use this to define a homomorphism p: A( U) -~o A( U' ) (i.e., A1 ~ A 9 ) by
Supp (M') u Supp (M"). mapping aff"' to au"'fg"'n. Show tha t p depends only on U and U'. This
iv) If M = L: M, then Supp (M ) = U Supp (M ,). homomorphism is caUed the restriction homomorphism.
v) If Mis finitely generated, then Supp (M) = V(Ann (M)) (and is therefore iii) If U = U' , then p is the identity map.
a closed subset of Spec (A)). iv) lf U 2 U' 2 u~~ a re basic open sets in X, show that the diagram
vi) If M, N are finitely generated, then Supp (M ®" N) = Supp (M) n
Supp (N). [Use Chapter 2, Exercise 3.] A(U) A(U")
~ /
vii) lf Mis finitely generated and a is an ideal of A, then Supp (M/aM ) = A( U ')
V(a + Ann (M)).
viii) If /: A ~ B is a ring homomorphism and M is a finitely generated A· (in which the arrows are restriction homomorphisms) is commutative.
module, then Supp (B ®A M) = f* - 1 (Supp (M>). v) Let x ( = tJ) be a point of X. Show that
lim A( U) ~ A.,.
lO. Let /: A -+ B be a ring homomorphism, ¡•: Spec (B) -+ Spec (A) the associated )
Uax
mapping. Show that
i) Every prime ideal of A is a contracted ideal <:> f* is surjective. The assignment of the ring A( U) to each basic open set U of X, and the
ii) Every prime ideal of B is an extended ideal ~ f* is injective. restri~tion homomorphisms p, satisfying the conditions iii) and iv) above,
ls the converse of ii) true? conshtutes a presheaf of rings on the basis of open sets (X1) 1e..t· v) says that the
stalk of this presheaf at x e X is the corresponding local ring Av.
i) Let A be a ring, S a multiplicatively closed subset of A, and cp: A ~ S~ A
1
21.
24• Show that the presheaf of Exercise 23 has the following property. Let ( U,),.r be a
the canonical homomorphism. Show that cp*: Spec (S - A) ~ Spec (A) ~
1 1
51
homeomorphism of Spec (S - A) onto its image in X = Spec (A}. Let t
1 covering of X by basic open sets. For each i E 1 let se E A( Uc) be such that, for
image be denoted by S - t X. X1 each pair of in dices i, j, the images of s, and s1 in A( U, " U1) are equal. Then
In particular, if /E A, the image of Spec (A,) in X is the basic open set tbe~e exists a unique sE A ( = A( X)) whose image in A(Uc) is s,, for all i E/.
(Chapter 1, Exercise 17). (Th•s essent·ta11 Y ·•mplies
· that the presheaf ts
· a sheaf.)
 EXERCISES 49
48 RJ NGS ANO MOD ULES OF FRACTIONS
. homomorphism. Show that ¡• : Spec ( 8 ) - Spec (A) is
)>

.A B g · A _. e be ring homomorphisms nnd Jet lt : A - ¡.. n J?. C : A _.,. B be 3 nn~ ing (i.e., maps closed sets to closed sets) for the con-
25 Let f - t ' ) • "-" A be 29· [...el / . us closed maPP
• fi ·d b h( ) - f(x) ® g(x) Let X, Y. Z, T be t 1c pnmc spcctra of "' lJ continuo
de ne Y x - · • •(Z) ' • C' a tibie topology.
B ®..e e respectively. Thcn ¡,•(T) = f .y rl C · . • struc . k 1' t0 pology and the constructible topology on Spec (A) are
[Let ~ e X, and Jet k = k(lJ) be the restduc fi~d at l-J. ~Y Excrctsc 21, the fiber ShoW tha t the Zansl .r Af~Jl ¡5 absolutely flat (wherc 91 is the nilradical of A).
¡,• -x(p) is the spectrum of (B ®.;~e) ® ,.k = (B 0 ,. k) ®~e (e ® ... k) . Hcncc JO. nlc if and on Y 1
~eh•(T) ~ (B ®,.k) ®~e (C ®,.k) :1: O ~ B ® ,.k ~ O nnd C ® ;~k :;é 0 ~ the sa ]
[Use Exercisc 11 .
~ e f• ( Y) f"\ c •(Z). ]

26. Let (B11 , C~~H) be a direct system of ~ings nnd B thc dircct li mit. For cach a, lct
lc . A -+ B11 be a ring homomorphtsm such thnt Can o l a = In whencvcr a ~ fl
(J.C.
~· the B11 form a direct systcm of A-algebras). Thc la induce 1: A - >- B. Sl;oW
that
¡•(Spcc ( B)) = n /a*(S pcc (Ba)).
a
'
[Let ~ E Spec (A). Then ¡• - l(p) is the spectrum of
B ® ,.k(~) ~ Iim (Ba ® ,. k(l-!))
)

(since tensor products commute with direct li mits : Chaptcr 2, Excrcisc 20). ,
By Exercise 21 of Chapter 2 it follows that 1* - l (~) = 0 if and only if ¡
0 11 ® ... k(~) = O for some a, i.e., if and only if l a* - 1 (p) = 0 .]
1
!

27. i) Let fa : A - >- Ba be any family of A-algebras and lct / : A - >- B be thcir j
tensor product over A (Chapter 2, Exercise 23). Then

j•(Spec (B)) = na /a*(Spcc (Ba)).

[Use Examples 25 and 26.]
ii) Let la : A -+ Ba be any finite family of A-algebras and Jet B = rla Ba.
Define/: A -+ B by /(x) = (fa(x)). Thenf•(Spec ( B)) = Uala*(Spec (Ba)).
iii) Hence the subsets of X = Spec (A) of the formf•(Spec (B)), wheref: A -4 B
is a ring homomorphism, satisfy the axioms for closed sets in a topological
space. The associated topology is the constructible topology on X. It is fincr 1
than the Zariski topology (i.e., there are more open sets, or equivalently more
closed sets).
1
iv) Let X e denote the set X endowed with the constructible topology. Show that 1
Xc is quasi-compact.

28. (Continuatjon of Exercise 27.)

i) For each K E A, the set X., (Chapter 1, Exercise 17) is both open and closcd 1
in the constructible topology.
ii) Let C' denote the smallest topology on X for which the sets X 9 are both open
and closed, and let Xc' denote tbe set X endowed with this topology. Show
that Xc, is Hausdorff.
lli) Deduce that the identity mapping X e ~ X0 , is a homeomorphism. Hence a
~ubset E of X is of tbe form /*(Spec (B)) for sorne/: A ->- B if and only if it
as closed in the topology C'.
iv) The topological space Xo is compact, Hausdorff and totally disconnected.
 4 PRIMARY DECOMPOSffiON 51

(11) then . s.aid to be lJ-primary.

q JS . .
If !J == ' ' 'd ls in z are (O) and (p"), whcre p JS pnme. For
pnm~ry~
•
Thc.1dcals m :th prime radical, and it is immediately checked
ExamPJcs.thcJ)only
thcse are . ary
Primary D ecomposition 1
. t they are pnm · _ (x • y:~). Then A / q ~ k[y]f (y 2 ), in which the zero-
'" k(< y] q - • • d
2) Lct A == · ' '. 1 of y hence are nilpotent. Hence q JS pnmary, an
.. ors· are
dJVIS
J p all
• (x
IS
thc
, ·
We ave ,...h2' e q e ~ (strict inclusions), so that a primary
y)multiphes
"ts ra d¡ca ·¡y a prime-powcr.
The
h decomposition
1 ofan ideal into primary ideaJs is a tract·t · J . t necessan . . lh 1 .
t eory. t provtdcs thc algcbraic foundation for dccompt tonal . Pilla r f Idea¡ ;dcal" no rime power p• is not necessanly pnmary, a t oug 1 tts
~onvers~~~ ~d~al
. .
vanety mto Jts trreductble components-although it is only ~ ·
. . . . . . osmg an :'>.
0 b
alg
. e taic p. For cxample, let A = k[x, y, zJ/(xy : and. let
of x y z rcspcctively m A . Then ~ = (x, z) JS pnme
J)
th at the Falgebraic picture is more complicated than narv "" to POtnt oo¡ radicalJs thet pn .
· tcgral domain) · WC ha ve Xji = Z E p Ut X 'F ~ an
e thc tmages ' ' -2 2 b - J: :1 d
suggest. ro m anothcr pomt . of vtew
. pnmary
. '
decomposition . wou d
e gcometry f j Í den o 10
1 · ' ' 2A/ P "' k[y] ' an 2 • not primary. ' Howcver, there 1 · 1 r Il · ult·
era .
tza ·
t10n o f t¡1e r. · · •
••ctonzatton of an .
tnteger as a product af priProvtdes a ge 1
n. _~ (p = V; hence p IS
(since ) = s t 1e .10 owmg res .
h
t e modern treatment, Wttb . Jts
. emphasis on localization primary me-powcrs
d : .¡n
. . 4. 2· ¡.1r ' (a) is maximal, then a is primary. In particular, the
y 'p oposrtwn
. no 1onger such a central too! 111
ts . the theory. It ts. stiJJ,, howcver ecomposltJon
of · t . r 0if a maximal ideal m are m-primary.
· lf an d tn
ttse · tus
1 · chaptcr we cstabbsh · the classical uniqucness thcorcm ' In erest Jn
S. Let r(a) -_ m. The image of m in A ja is the nilradical
powers
.r ¡ of h hence ·A fa
· A·ja,
The prototypcs or. commutative rings are Z a?d thc ring of polynom;,¡, hProo; . one pnme
s only . 1·dea1, by (1.8). Hence
. every
. 'lelement of A a 1s ett era umt or
k[x,, ... , x.] where k ts a field; both these are untque factorization domai nilpotent,
a an d so every zero-divisor m A j a JS m potent. •
Th is is no t true ofa rbi tra ry eo mm uta tive ri ngs, even if they a re integral doma~~ We are gomg
· t o study presentations of an ideal as an intersection ofprimary
(the classical example is the ring zrv -5], in which the element 6 has two idea/s. First, a couple of lemmas :
essentially distinct factorizations, 2·3 and (1 + V::S)(I - V::S)). Howcvor,
Lemma .,, ,¿ 3• ¡rr
J q1 (1 -..:: S: n) are p-primary, then q = nr.¡ q, is fi),J-primary.·
S: i -..::
there is a generalized form of "unique factorization" of idea/s (not of elcmcnts)
in a wíde class of rings (the Noetherian rings). Proo1.r• r(q) -- r(n"1 • 1 q)
1 = n r(q,) = p.• Let •xy E • q, y '1 q. Then or sorne ,
we have xy E q1 and y rt q, hence x E p, smce q, lS pnmary. •
A prime ideal in a ringA is in sorne sense a generaliza tia o of a prime num.
ber. The corresponding generalization of a power of a prime number is a Lemma 4.4. Let q be a p-primary ideal, x an element of A . Then
primary ideaL An ideal q in a ring A is primary if q =1: A and if i) ifxEq then (q:x) = (1);
xy E q => either x E q or y" E q for sorne 11 > O. ii) if x rt q tlzen (q: x) is 'p-primary, and therefore r(q: x) = P;
In other words, iii) ifx'lp tlzen (q:x) = q.

q is primary ~ Af q =1: O and every zero-divisor in A/ q is nilpotent.

Proof. i) and iii) follow immediateJy from the defin itions.
ii): if y E (q:x) then xy E q, hence (as x rt q) we have y E 'p. Hence cr s;
C!early every prime ideal is primary. Also the contraction of a prima? (q :x) s p; taking radicals, we get r( q: x) = p. Let yz E ( q: x) with y f# P; then
ideal is primary, for if f: A --)- B and if q is a primary ideal in B, then A/q' Js xyz e qt hence xz E q, hence z E ( q: .:r). •
isomorphic to a subring of Bfq.
A primary decomposition of an ideal o in A is an expression of o as a finite
Proposition 4.1. L et q be a primary ideal in a nirg A . Then r(q) is the smal/esr intersection of primary ideals, say
prline ideal coll/aining q. tb
Proof. By (1.8) it_is enough to show that 1> = r(q) is prime. Let xy E r(q), •; (1)
(xy)m e q for sorne m > O, and therefore ett. her x m E q or ymn
· E q for som
n > O; i.e., either x E r(q) or y E r(q). • (In general such a primary dccomposition need not exist ; in this chapter we shall
restrict our attention to ideals which ha ve a primary decomposition.) If more-
50

•
 PRIMARY OECOMPOSITION PRIMAR y DECOMPOSITION 53
52
all distinct and (ii) we ha ve q, ~ n,~ 1 q, (1 ~ i ~ 11) .e varietics embedded in the irreducible e
over (i) the r(q,) ar.e. n (') is sa,id to be minbnal (or irrcdundant, or red: lhe of the~~· ~~f~rc (4.6) thc varicty dcfined by a is the 1ine :m!o;e:~ Thus in the
· ary decomposJtiO . . Ccd 0 exnrnP _ (x y) corrcsponds to thc origin (O O) ' the embedded
pnm By ( .3) we can achieve (1) and then w~ .can om1t any superfiu~ r
4 ¡den1 P:l - ' . ' ·
normal, ··. ).. (") · thus any primary decompos1t10n can be rcduccd Us ) lt is not true that all the pnmary componcnts are inde
. . to achJevc
terms W ub 11 , say that a is decomposable 1·r 1t
. has a pnmary. dccon to .1a 2 osition. For cxamplc (x2 , xy) = (x) n (x y) 2 = pe~dent of tbe
OllmmaJ onc. es a 1Pos •
d~c~rnf rninimal primary decompositions. Howev~r there ~) n (x , y) .are two
tion. dJsttnC . (4 1O) ' re sorne umqueness
_¿ (l st uniqueness theorem). Let o be a decomposable ideal propcrtJCS : scc . .
Theorem •·5• d .. .r and
/et a -
_ ()" q be a minimal primary ecomposzttoll o1 o. Lct \J :::::: (
1• 1 1 • . 'd ¡. ¡ . ' r q,) proposition 4.7. Let o b~ .a decomposable ideal, ler a = nr
. ~ ) ""hen the .p 1 are precrsely the prmze 1 ea .s w ueh occur in th mínima/ primary decomposttiOil, and let r(q 1) = Vt· Then
1 1
• q be a
( 1 ~ z ---= n . .l 1 • d e~ •r e set
o1.r zuea
•.1 ls r(a·· ,..v) e~· E A) • and lzence are l/1 epellCICll f O; the particular e1e. , n

composition of o. U .p,
1• 1
= {x E A : (a: x) -1-
r
a}.
Proof. For any xEA we have (a:x) = ((') q,:x) ~ (') ~q,:x), hcncc r(n: .\") :::
nr-1 IS
r(q,:x) = nx~Q¡VJ by (4.4). Suppos~ r(a_:x) pnmc ; thcn by (1.11) We 1 particular, if tlze zero
111 •
ideal
•
is decomposab/e
• '
rhe ser D 0'Jrzero• d'IVISOTS
. o1.r A
ha ve r(a :x) = p, for somej. Hence every.pnmc 1dcal of the form r(o.: x) is one of is tite 1mion of rlze pnme rdeals belongmg to o.
tho ~,. Converse!y, for each i there exJsts x, fj: Q¡, x, E n," 1 q,, smcc the de. 1 Proof _I~ 0 is ?ecomposa?Ic, thcn O i.s dc~omposablc in. ~fa: namely 0 = n c¡1
composition is minimal ; and we have r(a:x1) = .p,. • where q, JS the Jmage of <11m Af o, and ts pnmary. Hence tt.ts enough to prove the
Remarks. 1) Tbe abo ve proof, coupled with. the la~t part of (4.4), shows that Iast statement of(4.7). By(l.lS)wehaveD = Uxlio r(O:x); fromtheproofof
for each i there exists x, in A sueh that (a: x,) IS .P1-pnmary. (4.5), we ha ve r(O: x) .= rtx~q1 .p, ~ l-J, for sorne j, hence D ~ U r. 1 .\>,. But
also from (4.5) each p11s ofthe form r(O :x) for sorne x E A, hence U .p, ~ D. •
2) Considering Afa asan A-module, (4.5) is equivalent to saying that the p,
are precisely the prime ideals which occur as radicals of annihilators of clements Thus (the zero ideal being dccomposable)
D = set of zcro-divisors
of Afa.
= U of all prime ideals belonging to O;
Example. Let a = (x 2 , xy) in A = k[x, y] . Then a = l'1 n l-J~ wherc p1 = (x),
9~ = set of nilpotent elements
p = (x, y). The ideal lJ~ is primary by (4.2). So the prime ideals are p11 h
2
In this example .p 1 e .p 2 ; we have r(a) = .P 1 n P2 = P1, but o is not a primary
= n of all minimal primes belonging to o.

ideal. Next wc investigate the behavior of primary ideals under localization.

The prime ideals .p, in (4.5) are said to belong toa, orto be associatedwith a.
The ideal a is primary if and ooly if it has only one associated prime ideal. The
mini mal elements of the set {p 1, ••• , .Pn} are called the minimal or isolated prime
ideals belonging to a. The others are called embedded prime ideals. In the
example above, p 2 = (x, y) is embedded.
Proposition 4.6. Let a be a decomposab/e ideal. Then any prime ideal
.P 2 a contains a mínima/ prime ideal belonging to a, and tlzus the minimal
prime ideals of a are precise/y the minimal elements in the set of al/ prime
ideals containing a.
Proof. lf p 2 a = n~. 1 q., tben .p = r(p) 2 (1 r(q 1) = (1 .p 1• Hence by
(1.11) we ha ve .P 2 .p, for sorne i; hence p contaios a minimal prime ideal of a. 1
· ~hat S -lq is primary is straightforward . Finally, the contraction of a primary
Remarks. 1) The na mes iso/ated and embedded come from geometry. Tbus if
A = k[xl, · · ·, Xn] where k is a field, the ideal a gives rise to a variety X S k~
(see. Chapter 1, Exercise 25). The minimal primes .p, correspond to the ir~e·
duc1ble components of X, and the embedded primes correspond to subvariet1es
Proposition 4.8. Let S be a nwltiplicative/y closed subset of A, and /et q
be a 'p-primary ideal.
i) If S n .P ::1 0, tiren S - lq = S -lA.
ii) Jf S n lJ = 0 , tlzen S - 1 q is S - 1 ~-primary and its contraerion in A is q.
Hence primary idea/s correspond to primary ideals in the correspondence
(3. 11) betu:een ideals in S -lA and contracted ideals in A .
Proof. i) If s E S n p, then s" E S n q for so me n > O; hence S -lq contains
sn/1, which is a unit in S - 1 A. -
ii) lf S n p = 0 , then s E S andas E q imply a E q, hence qec = q by (3.1 1).
Alsofrom(3.11)wehaver(qe) = r(S - lq) = s-lr(q) = s- 1p. Theverificatioo
Ideal is primary. •
. For any ideal n and a ny multiplicatively closed subset S in A, the contraction
10
A of the ideal S -In is denoted by S(a).
 p

54 PRIMARY D ECOMPOSITION

EXERCISES
Proposition 4.9. Let S be a multiplicarively closed subset of A and 55
1
decomposable ideal. Let a = nf
•1 q, be a mínima/ primary deconzln er. ~ be a
rOSlllOt¡
eXERCISES
a. Let .p 1 = r (q 1) and suppose tlze q, numbered so that S meets .p o¡ 'deal 0 has a primary decomposition then S (
'T'I m + 1, . . P J. Jf an 1 'blc components. , pec A/a) has only fin.itely
b ut not p¡, ... , .Pm· .1 rzen ·, 11 irreduct many
z. If 0 == r(a), then a has no emb~dded prime ideals.
s - lo = n
f- 1
m
s - lq., S(a) - nm

f- 1
qt. If A is absolutcly flat, every pnmary ideal ¡5 maximal.
3
' I the polynomial ring Z[t], the ideal m == c2 t ) . .
and tlzese are minimal primary decomposirions. 4. n== (4, 1) is m-pnma. ry, b ut 1s
· not a powcr of m.· ts maxtmal and the .tdeal
Proof ~ -l a = nr~1 s - tq, by (3. 1~ ) = nr-1
s - tq,. b~ (4.8), a!1d s -1q, is 1

5
11
In the polynomial ring K[x, y , z] where K is a ficld and .
S - 1.p 1-pnmary for 1 = 1, ... , m. S mee the .p, are dtstmct, so are thc S _1 . indeterminates, Jet.\:)¡ = (x , y), .\.'2 == (x, z), m = (x Y x): ~· z are mdependent
(1 ~ ¡ ~ m), hence we have a minimal primary decomposition. Contracti:' , and m is maxtma. 1 L t h
. e a = ,..t.P::~. h , , z , ,..1 and P2 are .
S ow that 0 == h n h • Pnme,
both sides, we get g .
primary decompos1·rton o f o. Wh'tch components are ,..1 . ,..2 n m2 IS a red uced
embeddcd ? 1
ISO ated and which are

S(a) = n
m

f •l
es -lq,y = m
n q,
f• l 6. Let x
be an infinite compact Hausdorff space C(X) th .
f . X (CI , e nng of real-valued
continuous uncttons on 1apter 1, Exercise 26). Is th .
by (4.8) again. • composable in this ring ? e zero 1deal de-

A set :E of prime ideals belonging to a is said to be isolated if it satisfies the 7 Let A be a ring and let A[x ] denote the ring of polynomials 1·n 0 . d .
· · ne m etermmate
ovcr A. For each Ideal a of A, let a [x] denote the set of all pol .1.
following condition: if p' is a prime ideal belonging to a and p' s; .p for sorne with coefficients in a. ynom~a s m A[x]
1
.p E :E, then .p' E :E. i) a[x] is the extension of a to A[x].
Let :E be an isolated set of prime ideals belonging to a, and let S = A - ii) 1f pis a prime ideal in A, thcn p[x] is a prime ideal in A[x].
U*'&D .p. Then S is multiplicatively closed and, for any prime ideal .p' belonging ! iii) If q is a .\J-primary ideal in A , then q[x] is a p[x]-primary ideal in A[ l
toa, we have [Use Chapter 1, Exercise 2.] x·
iv) Ifna = nr~ 1 q, i~ .a mini~al primary de~~mp~sition in A, then a[x] =
.p' E :E => .p' (\ S = 0 ;
n,..1 q,[x] IS a mtntmal pnmary decompOSltlOn m A[x].

.p' !1 :E => .p' $ U .P (by (I.ll)) => .p' n S :1= 0 . v) lf .P is a mini mal prime ideal of a, then p[x] is a mini mal prime ideal of a[x].
.,Et
8. Let k be a fiel d. Show that in the polynornial ring k [x1, •• • , Xn ] the ideals
Hence, from (4.9), we deduce ~~ = (x1, .. . , x,) (1 ~ i ~ n) are prime and all their powers are primary.
[Use Exercise 7.]
Theorem 4.10. (2nd uniqueness theorem). Let a be a decomposable ideal, let
a = nr.l q, be a mínima[ primary decomposition of a, and let {.p,l, ... 'tJ, ..} 9. In a ringA, let D(A) denote the set of prime ideals p which satisfy the following
be an isolated set of prime ideals of a. Then q11 n · · · n q,"' is independent of condition: there exists a E A su eh that .p is minimal in the set of prime ideals
containing (O: a). Show that x E A is a zero divisor <:> x E ~ for sorne~ e D(A).
the decomposition . ,
Let S be a multiplicatively closed subset of A, and identify Spec (S - 1A)
In particular: with its image in Spec (A) (Chapter 3, Exercise 21). Show that
Corollt1ry 4.11. The isolated primary components (i.e., the primary com· D(S - 1 A) = D(A) n Spec (S - 1 A).
ponents q, corresponding to mínima/ prime ideals .p,) are uniquely determined If the zero ideal has a primary decomposition, show that D(A) is the set of
by a. associated prime ideals of O.
10
Proof of (4.10). We have q11 n · · · n q,. = S(a) where S = A - .p,l u· ·· u tJ,,., · For any prime ideal .p in a ring A let Sp(O) denote the kernel of the homo-
hence depends only on a (since the .p, depend only on a). • ~orphism A ~ A.,. Prove that '
· neral .~) S4>(0) s; .p.
Remark. On the other hand, the embedded primary components are m ~e f: .~~) r(Sp(O)) = .p -<:> .p is a mínima! prime ideal of A .
1
not uniquely determined by a. lf A is a Noetherian ring, there are ~ ~~ 1 1
.u) lf P 2 p', then S4J(O) s; Sp, (O).
infinitely many choices for each embedded component (see Chapter 8, Exerctse · 3 IV) nP.D(A) s.,(O) = o, where D(A) is defined in Exercise 9.
+I.C.A.
 56 PRfMAR y DECOMPOSlTION •
EXERCISES
57
. . . al prime ideal of a ring A, show that Sv(O) (Excrcise lO) . ction start ing with O¡, and so on. At the nth sta
J t. If .p JS a m1mm 1s the nstru · 'd ge we ha ve a == Q¡ " · ..
smallcst v-primary ideal. . e0 n 0 wherc the q 1 are pnmary 1 eals, a" ¡5 maximal
r _ b the 1·ntersection of the tdeals Sv(O) as V runs through thc min· r. q ~ " == On n q 11 such that a = q 1 f\ .. ·f\ q f\ b among the ideals b con-
. J.Nt'da 1e fA Show that a is contame . dm t e m'lra d 1' ca 1 of A.
. h una¡ rainJnSOnl~~vc o,.= ( 1), the proccss stops and"a 1.5• anfid~" $ Pn. lfatany
pnme 1 ea s o · . bl p h · '. we'dcals. If not, contm
stase · ue by transfinite
'
inducr a bmte .inte rsechon· of
Suppose that the zero ideal JS decomposa c . rovc t ato = O lf and onJy if
pnmnrY 1 • • ] Jon, o servmg that each
every prime ideal of O is isolated. . tly contmns On- t·
stnc 0 11

12. Let A be a rm · g, S a multiplicatively

. el osed .subset of A. . For any ideal a • let S ,o
t) 'd r thc following condition on a ring A.
8 ConSI C , • •
denote the contraction of S - la m A. Thc Ideal S(o) l S called the saturarían of a 1• ) Given an tdea l o and a descendmg chain S ==> S
(L 2 d b t - 2 ~ . . . ==> S ::::>
with respect to S. Prove that ·lultiplicatively close su sets of A, therc exists an inteaer' h -h " - ...
f
o n h h f 11 . . zsuc t at S (a) -
i) S(o) n S(b ) = S(o n ó) (a) == • • • • Pro ve t at t e o owmg are equ 1valent :
o
" -
ii) S(r(a)) = r(S(a)) ~}+Evcry ideal in A has a primary decomposition ;
iii) S(o) = (1) <=> a meets S ii) A sa tis~~s (Ll) and ~L2) . .. .
iv) S 1 (S2(o)) = (S1S2)(a). . . . [Fo r i) => u), use Exerc1scs 12 and 15. For 11) ==· 1) show with th .
If a has a primary dccomposJtJOn, prove that the ~et o~ Jdcals S(a) (where s runs roof of Excrc1se ·r s n = S v f\ · · . n Su thcn
· 17 , t h at 1 · S e notatton of
through all multiplicatively closed subsets of A) 1s fimte. t11e P 1
" " meets a" hence
Sn(a11) == ( 1) ' . and thercfore• S n(o) = (lt f\ · •· · f\ q11 ' Now use (L2) t O Sh'OW that
JJ. Let A be a ring and p a prime ideal of A . The ntlt symbolic power o['p is defined thc constructJ on must termmate after a fimte number of steps.]
to be thc ideal (in the notation of Exercise 12)
19. Let A be a ri ng and P a prime ideal .of A. Show that every lJ-primary ideal
· p<n> = Sv(P") conta ins Sp(O), the kernel o f the canomcal homomorphism A - ,. A p.
where Sp = A - p. Show that Suppose that A sati.sfies th.e following :ondition : for every prime ideal p, the
i) p<n>is a p-primary ideal ; intersection of a.ll. p-pnmary 1deals of A 1s equal to Sv(O). (Noetherian rings
ii) if V" has a primary decomposition, then .p<n>is its V-primary component ; satisfy this cond1t10n: see Chapter 10.) Let lJ 1 , ••. , 'fJn be distinct prime ideals
iii) jf p<m>p<n>has a primary decomposition, then p<m + n) is its p-primary compo. none of which is a mini mal prime ideal of A . Then there exists an ideal a in A
whose associated prime ideals are l->1. ... , Vn·
nent;
iv) p<n> = P" <=> p<n> is p-primary. [Proof by ind uction on n. The case n = l is trivial (take a = lJ 1). Suppose
11 > l and let l3n be maximal in the set {V1 , ... , Pn}. By the inductive hypothesis
14. Let a be a decomposable ideal in a ringA and let V be a maximal element of the there exists an ideal ó and a mini mal primary decomposition ú = q1 r'l· . .
set of ideals (a : x), where x e A and x rf: a . Show that p is a prime ideal belonging r'l Qn - t, where each q, is p,-primary. If ó S Sv"(O), lct lJ be a minimal prime
to a. ideal of A contained in Vn · Then Sv"(O) S Sp(O), hence b s; Sp(O). Taking
15. Let a be a decomposable id~al in a ringA, let :E be an isolated set of prime idcals radicals and using Exercise 10, we have Pt r'l ···r'l 'fJn - 1 s; p, hencc sorne
belonging to a, and let q!: be the intersection of the corresponding prim~ry ~~ s;; p, hence p, = p since p is minimal. This is a contradiction since no p, is
components. Letfbe an element of A such that, for each prime ideal P belongmg minimal. Hence ó $ S p (0) and therefore there exists a l'n·Primary ideal qn
11

toa, we have f e p <=> p rf: :E, and let S 1 be the set of all powers off Show that
qt = S,(a) = (a :f") for all large 11.
16. lf A is a ring in which every ideal has a primary decomposition, show that every
ring of fractions S -t A has the same property.
17. Let A be a ring with the following property.
(Lt) For every ideal a -:/; (1) in A and every prime ideal .p, there exists x rf: l' suc
that Sll(a) = (a: x), where Sv = A - .p. . ,
Then every ideal in A is an intersection of (possibly infinitely many) pnman
ideals. ·me
[Let a be an ideal # (1) in A, and let p 1 be a minimal element of the set of pn _
ideals containing a. Then q1 = Sp 1 (a) is p 1 -primary (by Exercise 11), and q1 -
(a: x) for sorne x rt V1· Sbow that a = q 1 n (a + (x)) . h that
Now let a 1 be a maximal element of the set of ideals b 2 a suc t the
ql n () = a, and choose a1 so that x e ah and therefore a1 $ .P1 · Repea
such that ú $ ll n· Show that a = q 1 n · · · n qn has the required properties.]
Primary decomposition of modules
Practically the whole of this chapter can be transposed to the context of
modules over a ring A. The foJlowing exercises indicatc how this is done.
h ZO. Let M be a fixed A-module, N a submodule of M . The radical of N in M is
defincd to be
r,.,(N) = {x e A :xqM s; N for some q > O}.
Show that r"'(N) = r(N: M) = r(Ann (M/ N)). In particular, '~'t(N) is an
ideal.
State and prove the formulas for rM analogous to ( 1.13).
li. An element x E A defines an endomorphism 4>x of M, namely m ~-+ xm: ~he
element x is said to be a zero-divisor (resp. nilpotent) in M if 4>..: is not inJectwe
58 PRIMARY DECOMPOSITION

(resp. ¡5 nilpotent). A submodule Q of Mis primary in M if Q ~ M a

zero-divisor in M/ Q is nilpotcnt. nd evcr~ 5
Show that if Q is primary in M, then ( Q : M) is a primary idcrtl d
r,( Q) is a prime ideal ~· We say that Q is '!¡)-primar y (in M ). an hcn~
•

Prove the analogues of (4.3) and (4.4).

21.
A primary decomposition o[ N in M is a rcprescntation of N as an interscctlon
. Integral Dependence and
N = Q¡ il•••tl Q n

of primary submodules of M ; it is. a minimal

Valuations
f primary decomposition if the .d
t cal
"' _ r
,..., - "'
(Q,) are all distinct and 1f none o the componcnts Q, can be 0 • \
. . ( . lnltled
from the intersection, that JS 1f Q, ~ (), '~' Q, 1 ~ ' ~ n).
Prove thc analogue of (4.5), that the prime idcals '!¡), dcpcnd only 0 ,
(and M). They are callcd the pr!'me idea~s belonging to N in M . Show that ~~~­ In
classical algebraic
· d geometry
d' curves
h were frequently studied bY proJectmg
. .
are also the prime ideals belongmg to O m t.11N . them onto a hoe an regar mg t e curve as a (ramified) covering of th 1'
· ana 1ogous t o the re1a t 'tonsh'1p between a number field ed me.
This is qutte . . an t he
State and prove the analogues of (4.6)- (4. 11 ) inclusive. (There is no loss of rational field- or· rat her between t hetr rmgs of integers-and tbe
23. h · f· common
generality in taking N = 0.) algebraic fea tu re JS t e n ~t10n o mtegral dependence. In this chapter we provea
number of results about mtegral dependence. In particular we prove the theo-
rems of Co~en-~eiden?erg ~the "going-u~, and "going-down" theorems)
coocerning pnme tdeals m an mtegral extens10n. In the exercises at the end we
discuss the algebro-geometric situation and in particular the Normalization
Lemma.
We also give a brief treatment of valuations.

INTEGRAL DEPENDENCE
Let B be a ring, A a subring of B (so that 1 E A). An clement x of B is said to
be integral over A if x is a root of a monic polynomial with coefficients in A, that
is if x satisfies an equation of the form
(1)

where the a1 are elements of A. Clearly every element of A is integral over A.

Examplc 5.0. A = Z, B = Q . If a rational number x = r/s is integral over Z,
where r, s have no common factor, we have from (1)
,n + alrn -ls + .. . + ansn = o
the a, being rational integers. Hence s divides rn, hence s = ±1, hence x E Z.
Proposition 5.l. The fol/owing are equivalent:
i) x e Bis integral over A;
ii) A[x] is afinitely generated A-module; d
iii) A[x] is contained in a subring C of B sueh that C is a finitely genera te
A-module· 1

59
 E ANO VALVA TIONS THE GOING· U p THEOR
INTEGRAL DEPENDENC . EM 61
60 ated A-module by (2.16) and thercfore . .
. . rfi 1 A[x]-module M which is finitely generared asan ·telY
l
fi n ) •
gener x ts tntegral over A by ...)
iv) There exzsts a f01th u 111
A-module. of (S.l · ar S.5. Let A s;; B be rings and let e be the
..) F m (1) we have
Proof. i) => u · ro ') ~o;lt rtenC is integrally closed in B. 111
tegra/ closure of A
x"+r = - ( a 1X n+r - 1 + ... + a"x zn ~et x E B be integral over C. By (5.4) x is inte ral
. d t. all positive powers of x lie in the A-modul proof. g over A, hence
O
for all r ~ ; le '
1 nce by m uc wn, . d (
"_1 Hence A [x ] is genera te as an A-module) by
e \'E:
·
c. • xt proposJtton
. . s11ows tl1at .mtegral dependence is p
generated by 1, x, · · ·' x · Th~ ne d to rings of fractions: reserved on passing
l,x, . . . ,xn -1 · to qUouents an
e
ii) => iü). Take = A[x]. .
propoSition 5.6. Let A S B be rings, B integral over A ·
. _
iii) => IV). Take M - ' w
e hich is a faithful A[x]-module (smce y C = O :::.
i) JjfJ is an ideal of Banda = úc = A f\ b, then Bf b is integral over A/a.
y·! = O). JI ti m (2 4) · take .J. to be multiplication by x and ..) ¡r¡ S is a multiplicatively closed subset of A then s - 1B 1·s · 1
. ) 1·) Th's1 fo ows ro · · ~ ' 11 ' ll1 egra1 over
s - lA.
bave x M S M SI·nce Misan A[x)-module); since Mis faithful , we
=> •
- IVA (we
a - "_1 + ... + a = o for suitable a, E A. • .r i) If x EB we have, say, x" + alxn-1 +···+ a" = O, with a.EA.
have x" + a1x " ProOJ· . d r~ •
Reduce this equatwn mo . u .
Coro/huy 5.2. Le1 .x,, (1 ~ ~
i~
~
n) be elements of B, each
d ¡ integral over A. ii) Let xfs E S - 1 B(x E B, sE S). Then the equation above gives
. A[X¡, . · ·, x n ] is afinitely-generated A-mo u e.
Then the rmg
B · d
Proof. y m uc Jon t. 0011 . The casen . = 1 is part of (5. 1). Assume n > 1, let
. . fi . 1 (xfs)n + (a¡Js )(xfs )" - 1 + ... + anfs" = o
_ [ ] . then by the inducttve hypothes1s An- 1 1s a m te y generated
A - A X¡, •.. , x, ' d 1 (b h which shows that x fs is integral over s- 1 A. •
A:module. A"= An_ 1[xn] is a finitely generated An)-1-m.ofiu~ Y t e case •
·
n = 1, SJDCC · 1·ntegral
Xn IS 1
. over A n - 1 ) · Hence by (2.16 A n JS m te y generatcd
as an A-module. • THE GOING·UP THEOREM
Corolltuy 5.3. The set e of elements of B which are integral over A is a Proposition 5.7. Let A s; B be integral domains, B inregra/ over A. Then B
subring of B containing A. is a field if and only if A is a fiel d.
Proof. If x, y E C then A[x, y] is a finitely generated A-module by (5.2). Hence Proof Suppose A is a field; let y E B, y # O. Let
x ± y and xy are integral over A, by iii) of (5.1). •
y 11
+ a 1 y" - 1 + · · · + an = 0 (a, E A)
The ring e in (5.3) is called the integral c/osure of A in B. If e = A, then A
be an equation of integral dependence for y of smallest possible degree. Since B
i~ said to be integral/y closed in B. If e = B, the ring B is said to be integral
isanintegral domain we have an =fi O, hencey - 1 = -a; 1(y11 - 1 + a1y"- 2 + · · ·
over A.
. +an- 1) E B. Hence B is a field .
Remark. Let f: A ~ B be a ring homomorphism, so that B is an A-al~ebr~. Conversely, suppose B is a field; let x E A, x # O. Then x- 1 E B, hence is
Then f is said to be integral, and B is said to be an integral A-algebra, tf B Js integral over A, so that we have an equation
integral over its subringf(A). In this terminology, the above results show that
. x - m + a~x - m+ 1 + ··· + a~= O (a;EA) .
finite type + integral = finite. lt follows that x- 1 = _(a~ + a;x + . .. + a~xm -1) E A, hence A is a field. •
Coro/huy 5.4. If A 5; B 5; e are rings and if Bis integral over A, and C is
integral over B, then C is integral over A (transitivity of integral dependence). Corollary S.S. Let A s B be rings, B integral over A: let q be a ~rime ~deal
ofB and let .p = qc = q n A . Tlzen q is maximal if and only if'V zs maxmzal.
Proof. Let x e e, then we havean equation
Proof.. By (5.6), Bfq is integral over A/~, and both these rings are integral
+ b1x"- + · · · + bn domams. ~ow use (5.7). •
1
x" = O (b, E B).
The ring B' = A[blt ... , b"] is a finitely generated A-module by (5.2), and B~[x] C l''-·· A . ¡ 1 1 q' be prime
.doro ""Y 5.9. Let A 5; B be rings, B integral over ' e ':
Íl a finitely generated B'-module (since x is integral o ver B'). Hence B' [x 115 a 1
eals of B suclz that q s q' and qc = q'c = V say. Tiren q = q ·
 NTEORALLY CLOSED INTEGRAL DOMAlNS G
62 INTEGRAL DEPENDENCE ANO VALVA TIONS 1 • OING-DOWN T
HEOREM 63
.r 8 ( 5 6) B is integral over Ap. Lct m be the extension of pinA., and 1 ed (see (5.0)). Thc same argu_ment shows that any un·
PfOOJ. y . , p • • TI . 1 . Cl cloS . ·s intcgrally closed. In particular a polynom· 1 . •que factorization
n n' be the cxtcnsioos of q, q' respcctJvcly m !lP·
1en m JS t 1c maximal idea) doJlllllO J 1 d
d is intcgrally e ose .
, Ja nng k(x
1• • • • , Xn1 over
' A . e , and 11o = n'c = m. By (5.8) 1t follows that n, n' are maximal
of p, n - tt, . , , a fiel ral closurc is a local property ·
hence n = n', beoce by (3. 11)(Jv) q = q · • Integ ·
Tlu!orem 5.10. Let A s; B be rings, B integral over A, and let p be a prime proposition 5.13. Let A be an integral domain. Then the follow ·
ideal of A. Then there exists a prime ideal q of B such that q f1 A = p. equivalen/: mg are
Proof By (5.6), Bp is integral over A~, and thc diagram i) A is integral/y closed;
A--7-B ii) Av is integrally closed, for eaeh prime ideallJ;
at f p iii) An, is integral/y closed, for eaeh maxima/ ideal m.
A., --7- Bp
Let K be the field of fra ctions of A, Jet C be thc intcg l l
Prooif.· 'd . . ra e osure of A · K
(in which the horizontal arrows are injection~) is ~ommutative. Le~ n be a m_axi- d Jet f: A --7- e be the 1 CDtJty mappmg of A into c. Th . . m 1

mal ideal of Bp; then m = . n ti A., IS max1m;(t )byh(5.8), . hen~e JS the untquc an . . . d b (5 12) en A rs mtegrally
closcd <=> f lS s~rJe.cttve, an y . A P (resp. A m) is integraUy closed <>
maximal ideal of the local ringA.,. If q = {3- n , t en q 1s pr11ne and we ha ve (resp.J;n) is surjecttve. Now use (3.9). • f~
q ti A = a- 1 (m) = p. •
Let A s; B be rings and let a be an ideal of A . An element of B · 'd
Theorem 5.11. ("Going-up theorem"). Let A s; B be rings, B integral ·f · · fi · . . JS sa1 to be
integral over a 1 1t satiS es an equat10n of Integral dependence over A . h" h
over A,· /el p1 s; .. · s; Pn be a chain of prime ideals of A and q s; · · · s qm . ¡· . Th . 1 1 m w •e
all the coefficten_ts te m a. e mtegra e osure of a in Bis the set of all elements
(m < n) a chain of prime ideals of B suclz tlzat q, fl A = p, (1 ~ i ~ m). of B which are mtegral over a.
Tiren the clrain q 1 s; · · · s; CJm can be extended lo a chain ql e · · · s; Cln such
tlrat q1 t1 A = p1 for 1 ~ i ~ n. Lemma 5.14. Let C be the integral c/osure of A in B and let ae denote the
Proof By induction we reduce immedi~ tely to the case_m = l , n = 2. Let extension of a in C. Tlzen tlze integral c/osure of a in B is the radical of ae
A = A/th, Jj = Bjq 1 ; then A s; 13, and Bis integral ove_:_ A by (5.6). Hence, by (and is t/zerefore c/osed under addition and multiplication).
(5.10), there exists a prime ideal q2 of B such that q2 f1 A = ~2, the imagc of P2 Proof If x E Bis integral over a, we havean equation of the form
in A. Lift back q2 to B and we have a prime ideal q2 with the required pro-
perties. •
with ah ... , an in a. Hence X E e and x" E ae, that is X E r(ae). Conversely, if
INTEGRALLY CLOSED INTEGRAL DOMAINS. x e r(a') then x" = .2 a1x 1 for sornen > O, wbere tbe a1 are elements of a and the
TIIE GOING-DOWN THEOREM x, are elements of C. Since each x1 is integral over A it follows from (5.2) that
Proposition (5.6)(ii) can be sharpened: M= A[x¡, ... , Xn ] is a finitely generated A-module, and we have xnM S aM.
Hence by (2.4) (taking 4> there to be multiplication by x") we see that xn is
Proposition 5.12. Let A s; B be rings, C the integral closure of A in B. Let S
integral over a, hence x is integral over a. •
be a multiplicalively closed subset of A . Then S -le ;s the integral closure of •
S-lA in S - 1B. Proposition 5.15. Let A s; B be integral domains, A integral/y closed, and
Proof By (5.6), S - le is integral o ver S - lA. Conversely, if b/s E S -l B is let x E B be integral over an ideal a of A. Then x is algebraic over the field of
1
integral over S - 1 A, then we havean equation of the form fractions K of A, and if its minimal polynomial over K is t" + a1t" - + · · ·
(bfs )" + (at /S¡)(bjs )" - 1
+ · ·· + an/Sn = 0
+ an, then al, ... 'an /ie in r(a). •

Proof: Clearly x is algebraic over K. Let L be an extension field of K wh!ch

where a, E A, s1 E S {1 ~ i ~ n). Let t = s 1 ••• sn and multiply this equation by ~~~tams all the conjuga tes x 11 ••• , Xn of x. Eacb x1 satisfies the same eq~atton
(st)" throughout. Then it becomes an equation of integral dependence for bt 1
~tegral dependence as x does hence each x1 is integral over a. T e co·
over A. Hence bl E e and therefore bfs = btfst E s - le. • effic1ents 0 f ' · 1 · the x hence
b the minimal polynomial of x over K are polynonua s 10 . . " 1' b
An integral domain is said to be integral/y closed (without qualification)
(J (S.I 4) are integral over a. Since A is integrally closed, they must he 10 r(a), y
if it is integrally closcd in its ficld of fractions. For example, Z is integrnllY -14) again •
3• .
 64 INTEGRAL DEPENDENCE ANO VALU ATIONS
V ALUATlON RlNGs
Tlleorem 5.16. ("Going-down thcorem.,). Let A s; B be integral tl . 65
. 1 over A . L e 1 ,.,1 :::> \' b
ATJON RINGS
A integra!ly c!osed, B mtegra h :::>
- • •• - ,.,n e a chain Ollla¡,IS
'.! ' vALtJ
idea/s of A, and /et ql 2 . .. 2 qm (m < n) be a ch~in of prime ide~¡::ln,e be an integral domain, K its ficld of fractions.
suclt that q, fl A = p, (1 ~ i ~ m). Then the cham <h ~ ... ~ <1m ca!b/3 Let B ~ O either x E B or x - t E B (or both) 8 is a ualuarion ring of K ·r
for each x , . ''
extended lo a chain q1 2 . .. 2 <ln sueh that q, fl A = p, ( l ~ i ~ n). e • ¡011
propos 1
1
5.18. i) Bis a local ring.
Proor. As ¡0 (5.11) we reduce immediately to the case m = 1, n = 2. TI ..) 1/ B' is a ring such titar B S B ' S K, then 8' is a 1 .
'J . • f . 'd 1 . 1Cn Wc 11 // tosed (,.,, K) · ua uarton ring o· r K.
have to show that p2 is the contract10n o a pnmc 1 ea m thc ring B ...) B ls integra Y e 'J

B A " qt, or 111

equivalentJy (3.16) that q 1 P2 fl = f-'2· . ') Let m be the set of non-units of B • so th at x E m
Every x E Bq p2 is of the form yfs, where y E B>;J2 and s E B - q1 . By (S 1 Pr00J.·f. 1 .h
. (ax)-t<=>Eett er x == o 0 r
If a E B and x E m we ha ve ax E m for othe rwase
1 ( 5) . . . 1 . . 4) t - 1 'f 8 • 1

y is integral ove~ >¡J2 , and hence by 5.1 tts mm1mo equat10n ovcr K, thc fie}d of • _ 1 == a· (ax) -1 e B. Next let x, y be non-zcro elements of m
8 .and thercfore
fractions of A, JS of the form X _ 1 e B. If xy - 1 e B then x +y== (1 + xy - t) · Then etther xy - te B
or x y . 'd l d t hercfore B ¡ a loY E Bm e m a d . .
) 1' + u y' - 1
+ ... + u = o _ 1 E B Hcnce m JS an 1 ea an 5 1 . - n sunllarly 1

• 1 r (1) if x Y · .. ca nng by (1.6).

with uh . . . , u, 10 P 2· ii) Clear from the defimt1ons.
1
Now suppose tbat x E Bq¡p 2 fl A. Then s = yx - wi th x - 1 E K, so that ti iii) Let x E K be integral over B . Thcn we have, say,
minimal equation for s over K is obtained by dividing (1) by x', and is thcrefor~e x" + b1x" - 1 + .. . +
b,. = 0
1

say,
s' + v1 s'- 1 + ··· + v, =O (2) witb the b, E B. If x E B there is nothing to prove. If not1 then x- 1
x == -(b 1 + b2 x - 1 + · · · + b,.x 1 -") E 8 . E Bl hence
where v1 = u1/x'. Consequently
Let K be a field, n an algebraically closed field Let ¿ be h
1
x v1 = u1 E p 2 (1 ~ i ~ r ). (3) . b . fK df . . t e set of all pairs
(A.f), where A ts a su nng o an ts a homomorphism of A into n \ .
But s is integral over A, hence by (5.15) (with a - (1)) each v, is in A. order the set :E as follows: · "''e parttally
Suppose x rt p2 • Then (3) shows that each v, E P2, hence (2) shows that s' E Bp2 ( A, f) ~ ( A' ,/') <=> A s; A' and /' lA = f.
s; Bp 1 s; q11 and therefore s E q11 which is a contradiction. Hence x E p2 and
therefore Bq1 p2 n A = l3 2 as required. • The condition.s of Zorn's lemma are clearly satisfied and therefore the set E has at
Jeast one max1mal element.
The proof of the next proposition assumes sorne standard facts from field
theory. . Let (B, g) be a maximal
. element of
. L . We want to prove that B ·15· a val ua t'ton
nng of K. The first step m the proof 1s
Proposition 5.17. Let A be an integral/y elosee/ domain, K its field offractions,
L afinite separable algebraic extension of K, B the integral closure of A in L. Lemma 5.19. Bis a local ring and m == Ker (g) is its maximal ideal.
Then there exists a basis v1 , • •• , Vn ofL over K sueh that B ~ 21 ... 1 Av1• Proof. Since g(B) is a subring of a field and therefore an integral domain the ideal
~~ = Ker (g) is prime. We can extend g toa homomorphism g: Bm n by putting -)o
Proof. If vis any element of L, then vis algebraic over K and thereforc satisfies g(b/s) = g(b)fg(s ) for all b E B and all s E B - m, since g(s) will not be zero. Since
an equation of the form the pair (B, g) is maximal it follows that B = Bm, hence B is a local ring and nt is its
a0 v' + a 1 v' - 1 + · · · + an = O (a1 E A). maximal ideal. •
Multiplying this equation by a~- 1 , we see that a0 v = u is integral over A, and Lemma 5.20. Let x be a non-zero element of K . Let B[x] be the subring of K
hence is in B. Thus, given any basis of L over K we may multiply the basis ele· generated by x over B, and let m[x] be tire extension of m in B[x]. Then either
ments by suitable elements of A to get a basis u11 • •• , un such that each u, E B. m[x] ~ B[x]orm[x - 1 ] -:1= B[x- 1 ] .
Let T denote trace (from L to K). Since L/ K is separable, the bilinear form Proof: Suppose that m[x] = B[x] and m[x - 1 ] = B[x- 1 ] . Then we shall ha ve
(x, y) H- T(xy) on L (considered as a vector space over K) is non-degenerate, equations
and hence we ha ve a dual basis v1 , • •. , vn of L o ver K, defined by T (u,v¡) = 811. Uo + U1X + · · · + UmX" = 1 (u, E m) (l)
Let x E B, say x = ¿, x1v1 (x1 E K). We have xu1 E B (since u1 E B) and therefore . Vo + v1x- 1 +···+ Vnx-" = 1 (v1 E m) (2)
T(xu¡) e A by (5.15) (for the trace of an element is a multiple of one of the co· tn Whicb We · ¡ S
"' ~ n may assume that the degrees m, n are as small as posstb e. uppose that
efficients in the minimal polynomial). But T(xu,) = ¿1 T(x1u1v1) = L-1 X¡T(u,vJ)
, and multiply (2) through by xn:
• ¿, x 1 8,1 = X¡, hence x, E A. Consequently B s ¿1 Av1. •
( 1 - Vo)x n = v1 x" - 1 + · · · + Vn• (J)
 66 JNTEGRAL DEPENDENCE AND VALUATIONS
EXERCISE.s
Since v0 E m, it follows from (5. J9) that 1 - vo is a unit in B, and (3) may h ' and let f: A - n be su eh that /(u) ~ O Th 67
be written in thc form t ercrore - ooao.
~,.Ct" - morphism 1:
¡; A [11 - 1] - )- 0 ( Wtthf1(u-
. 1) == ·/( ) en¡
-t)
ca be
n extended fi .
+ •• • + Wn (w1 E tll). tO11 bOlll~r hislll lt : e - 0, whcrc e is a valuation rinu , a.n~ thcn by (S 2llrst
A
11 horno~nt:gral over [u -1 ], hencc by (5.22) x E e sog t~ontammg A[u -11.. F:to
lat e contains D ando~
Hcnce wc can replacc x"' in (1 ) by WtX"' - + · · · + w"x"' - \ and this contract· 1
t (1). X ls E e On thc othcr han d, from (2) V- 1 is ¡'nt
the minimaHty of Lhe exponcnt m. • lcts ticulnr v . . . C Th r . ' cgra over A [ - 1 • In
pnr (5.22) again JS JO • ere¡ ore v ts a unit in e, and he u ], and thcre-
Tlreorem 5.11. Let (B, g) be a maximal element o[ :E. Titen B ¡ forc bY 1 rcstriction of lz to B . • ncc h(v) -:¡; O. Now tak
s a Valuation K to be t 1e e
ring of tite field K .
l' arl} 5 24. Let k be a fteld ami B a /inite/y "'e
Proof. We havc to show that if x ::/; O is an e1em~nt of K, th~n cithcr x e B '
Coro ,, " • . 1ge b ratc
. o nerateci k-a/o b
en il is a fimte a extension of k (>e ra. Jf Bis a
x - 1 En. By (5.20) we mayas well assume that m[x ] ts not the untt ideal of ti .or jiek1t1t ·
. contame . d m. a maxtma . 1 1' dea 1 m of B' , and wc1C hnng. .r Takc A := k, V == 1 and n = algcbraic closurc of k
B' = B[x]. Then m[x ] JS 1
PrOOJ· • • •
m ' n n = m (because m n B· ts
1
. a prope: 1'd ea 1 o f B an d contams
· m). Hcncc <he thc . nc form of Hilbcrt's Nullstcllensatz. For anoth
(5.24) tS o cr proof, sce (7 .9).
embedding of B in B ' induces an embeddmg of the fie1d k = B/m in thc ficld k' _
B'jm'; al so k ' = k [x ] wherc x is the image of x in k ' , hence ..vis algebraico ver k -
therefore k' is a fimte . a1geb ratc
. extenston
. of k . • and
EXERCISES
Now thc homomor~hism g_ induces ?n embedding_if of k in n, sincc by (S.! )
9
m is thc kernel of g . Smce n JS algebratcally closed, g can be extended to an e . l. Let/: A -:->- B be an integ~al h~momo~phism of rings. Show that¡t : S ec
bedding ¡¡' of k' into n. Composi ng g' with the natural homomorphism B ' ~ k' : Spcc.(A) 1s a closed mappmg, J.c. that tt maps closcd scts 10 closed s P (~).-
ha ve, say, g ' : B ' - >- n which extends g. Sin ce thc pair (B, g) is maximal, it foll~w: 'geometrical equivalcnt of (5. 10).) ets. (Thts ts a
that B' = B and therefore x E B . •
2. Let A be a subri ng
.
of a riog B such that B is integral over A d
f A .
•
, an et f A - n
1
Corol/ary 5.22. Let A be a subring of a fie/d K . Then the integral c/osure ;¡ 0¡ A be a homomorphtsm o mto an algcbraically closcd ficld n Sh h.
. . · ow t at f can
in K is tite intersection of al/tite valuation rings of K which contain A . be extended to a homomorp 1sm of B mto n. [Use (5.10).]
h
Proof Let B be a valuation riog of K such tha t A s; B . Since Bis integrally closed, J. Let f: B - > B ' be a homomorphism of A-algebras, and let e be an A-algcbra
by (5.18) iii), it follows that As; B. . Ufis integral, prove thatf ® 1: B ® _. C-. B' ® ..t e is integral (Tb' · l d .
•
Conversely, let x rt A. Then x is not in the ringA ' = A[x- 1 ] . Hence x-1 is a . · Js me u es
(5.6) ii) as a specJal case.)
non-unit in A' and is therefore contained in a maximal ideal m ' of A'. Let n be an
4. Lct A be a subring of a ring B such that Bis integral over A. Let n be a maximal
algebraic closure of the field k' = A'/m'. Then the restrictioo to A of the natural
ideal of B and let m = n n A be the corrcspond ing maximal ideal of A. Is B
homomorphism A' -- k' defines a homomorphism of A into n. By (5.21 ) this can necessarily integral over A m? n
be extended to sorne valuation ring B 2 A . Since x - 1 maps to zero, it follows that
[Consider the subring k[x 2 - 1] of k [x ], where k is a field, and let n = (x _ 1).
x;B. • Can the clement 1/(x + 1) be integral ?]
Proposltlon 5.23. Let A s; B be integral domains, B finitely generaled over A.
5. Lct A s B be rings, B integral over A .
Let v be a non-zero e/ement of B . Tiren there exists u ::f: O in A wilh the fol/owing
i) If x E A is a unit in B then it is a unit io A .
property: tmy lrom omorphism fofA in lo an algebraically c/osed fie/d .O suclz that
ii) The Jacobson radical of A is the contraction of the Jacobson radical of B.
f (u) ::f: O can be extended to a lwmomorphism g of B inlo n suclz that g(v) ::! O.
Proof By induction on the number of generators of B over A we reduce immediately 6. Let B¡, ... , Bn be in tegral A-algebras. Show that n~. 1 B1 is an integral A-
algebra.
to the case where Bis generated over A by a single element x .
i) Suppose x is transcendental ovcr A, i.e., that no non-zero polyoomial with 7. Let A be a subring of a ring B, such that the set B - A is closed under multi-
coefficients in A has x as a roo t. Let v = a0 x" + a 1 x" - l + · · · + an, and take plication. Show that A is integrally closed in B.
e
u = U o. Then if ! =A -- n is sueh that f (u) ::f: o, there exists E n su eh that /(~o)f' 8· i) Let A be a subring of an integral domain B, and let C be the integral closure -
+ /(a1){" - 1 + · · · + f(an) ::f: O, because íl is infinite. Define g; B --+ n extendmg/ of A in B. Let /, g be monic polynomials in B[x ] such that fg E C[x). Thcn
by putting g(x) = { . Then g(v) ::f: O, as required. Th l. g are in C [x] . [Take a field containing B in which thc polynomials l. g
jj) Now suppose x is algebraic o ver A (i.e. o ver the field of fractions of A). en split into linear factors: say ¡ = rr (x - ~ 1 ), g = II (x - rJJ). Ea~h l1and
sois v- 1 , because vis a polynomial in x. Hence we ha ve equations of the form eacb "11 is a root of fg, hence is integral over C. Hcnce the cocffic•ents of 1
(1)
+ a 1 x"' - l + · · · + am = O
a 0 x"' (a, E A ) .. and g are integral over C.] .
aóv-n + aív 1 - " + · · · + dn = O (ajE A).
(2) u) Prove the s~me result without assuming that B (or A) is an integral domam.
•
•
 68 INTEGRAL DEPENDENCE ANO VALUATIONS

9. Let A be a .su brin~ of a ri ng B and Jet C be. thc integral closure or . EXERCISES 69
that C[x] ts thc mtegral closure of A[x] m B[x ] . [Tf / E B[x ] isA· 10 B. Prov~ :3 e p and let X E ~1 · Then n o o(x) E l>l n A G - e::
A[x], then tntcgra) over (Let P1V u E G. Deduce that ~ 1 is contained in U- ~ - P2, hence o(x)ep
{ot somed (5.9). ] aao o(p2), and then ap 1:~
(g¡ E A[x]). (t.tn nn . PY
A be an intcgrally closed domam, K its field of f .
Let r be an integer Iarger than m and the dcgrecs of g 1 J4. ¡,et 1 separable extension of K . Let G be the Galois racttons and L a finite
f - x", so that ' · · · ' g ,., and let ¡1 "' orma fA . L group of L ov K
n h integral closure o m . Show that o(B) = 8 f er and let
(ft + xr)m + l!t(f + xr)'"- 1 + · · · + Cm = O B be t oe or aH o e G• and that
or say A ::::: B .
/;" + lrtflm - 1
+ ' •· + hm = O, t A, K be as in Exercise ~ 4, let L be any finite extension field of
tS. Le 'ntegral closurc of A m L . Show that if ~ ¡5 any P . 'd K, and let B
be t 1te 1 f h' h ' nme 1 eal of A th
where lrm = (xr)m + C1Cxr)m- t + · · · + Cm E A [x ]. Now apply Exercisc of prime ideals q o B :' te contract to p ¡5 finitc (in oth • · en the
8 10 sct (B) -+ Spec (A) has fimte fibers). cr words, that
polynomials - / 1 and Jr - l + htfr - 2 + · · · + Ir m _ 1 . ] the
Spec
R duce to the two cases a ( ) L separable ovcr K and (b) L pu 1 .
10. A ring homomorphism !=A -~ Bis said to ha ve thc going-up property (
·
gomg-down properly) 1·r t he conc 1usJon
· o f t 11c gomg-up
· rcsp. the
theorcm (5.11) (res
[ e K In case (a), embed L in a finite normal separable cxtcnsi~c Y fmKseparable
over . d 14 1 (b) ·r . . . no ,anduse
l
going-down theorem (5. 16)) holds for B and its subringf(A). p. the.
Exercises 13 an . n case ' J q ts a pnme Ideal of B such that q n A - . {
"that q is the set of all x E B such that x P"' e .p for sorne m >- 0 h .- P. .
Let/* = Spec (B ) -~ Spec (A) be the mapping associatcd wi th f slto\-. . ,. . . • w ere p ts the '
characteristtc of K, and hence that Spec ( B) - >- Spec (A) is bijective in this case.] ,
i) Consider the following three statements :
(a) ¡• is a closed mapping.
(b) f has the going-up property.
Noether's normaliza/ion lemma -
16• Let k
be a field and let A '#• O be a fini tely. generated
.
k-algebra · Then there eXJst
.
(e) Let q be any prime ideal of B and let ~ = qc. Then ¡• : Spec (Bfq) _ elements y¡, . .. , y, E A whtch are algebraJcally mdependent over k and such that
Spec (A/~) is surjective. A is integral over k [y¡, ... , y.,] .
Prove that (a) => (b) ~ (e). (See also Chapter 6. Excrcise 11 .) We shall assume that k is infinite. (The result is still true if k is finite, but a
ii) Consider the following three statements : different proof is needed.) Let X¡, ... , Xn generate A as a k-algebra. \Ve can
(a') ¡• is an open mapping. renumber the x, so that x1o . .. , x , are algebraically indcpendent over k and each
(b') f has the going-down .property. of Xr+ 1 , ••• , Xn is algebraic over k[x1, ... • x .,]. Now proceed by induction on n.
(e') For any prime ideal q of B, if ~ = qc, then ¡• : Spec (Bq) _ , Spec (A¡¡) is If 11 = r there is nothing to do, so suppose n > r and the result true for 11 - 1
surjective. generators. The generator Xn is algebraic over k[x¡, ... , X 11 - 1], hence there
Prove that (a') => (b') ~(e'). (See also Chapter 7, Exercise 23.) exists a polynomial f '# O in n variables sueh that /(X¡, . .. , X 11 - 1, X11) = O. Let
[To prove that (a') = (e'), observe that Bq is the direct Iimit of the rings B, F be the homogeneous part of highest degree in f. Since k is infinite, therc exist
where t E B - q; hence, by Chapter 3, Exercise 26, we ha ve /*(Spec (Bq)) = .\1, •• • , An - l E k such that F(A 11 ••• , An - 1, 1) ':/; O. Put x~ = x1 - A¡X11
(J,f*(Spec (B,)) = (1 1 /*( Y,), Since yt is an open neighborhood of q in Y, and (1 ~ i ~ n - 1). Show that Xn is integral over the ringA ' = k[xí, ... , x~ - tl.
since ¡• is open, it follows that f*( Y,) is an o pen neighborhood of .P in X and and hence that A is integral over A' . Then apply the inductivc hypothesis toA'
thercfore contains Spec (Ap).] to complete the proof.
f has the going-down From the proof it follows that y 11 ••• , y, may be chosen to be linear com-
ll. Let f: A - >- B be a flat homomorphism of rings. Then
binations of x1o ... , x 11 • This has the following geometrical interpretation: if k is
property. [Chapter 3, Exercise 18.]
algebraically closed and X is an affine algebraic varicty in kn with coordinate
0
12. Let G be a finite group of automorphisms of a ring A, and let A denote the ringA # O, then there exists a linear subspace L of dimension r in kn anda linear
subring of G-invariants, that is of all x E A such that o(x) = x for all u E G. mapping of k" onto L which maps X onto L. [Use Exercise 2.]
Prove that A is integral over A 0 • [lf x E A, observe that x is a root of the poly- •

nomial Ile1eo (t - o(x)).] f a11 Nul/stel/ensatz (weak form) .

Let S be a multiplicatively closed subset of A such that o(S) S S or 17• Let X be an affine algebraic variety in k'", where k is an algebraically closed field,
o e G, and Jet S 0 = S fl A 0 • Show that the action of G on A extends to an and let l(X) be the ideal of X in the polynomial ring k[t1, · · · • tnl (Chapter 1•
action on S - lA, and that (SO) - l A 0 ~ (S - l A)0 • Exercise 27). If I(X) .¡: (1) then X is not empty. [Let A = k[/1, · · ·' tnl~I(X)
. . . . o d 1 p be the set be the coordinate ring of X Then A ..J. O hence by Exercise 16 there extsts a
13. In the SJtuation of Exercase 12, let .p be a pnme adeal of A , an et . . p. )' · r • 0 1110 L Hence
of prime ideals of A whose contraction is .p. Show that G acts transtuve Y
1 00 mear subspace L of dimension ~ O in kn and a mapping of X •
X~ 0.)
In particular, P is finite.
 70 INTEGRAL DEPENDENCE ANO VALUATIONS

Deduce that every maximal ideal in thc ring k [l t, . .. , t,.] ¡5 of thc fo ~ be a ring. Show that thc following are . 71
_ alt • • . , 1n - a11 ) wherc a1 E k. Lct /1 'd 1 · A · · equ¡valcnt ·
( 11 rlll zJ. . EvcrY prime 1 ca JO • 1~ an lntcrscction of max· ·.
18. Let k be a field and let 1! be a bfini.tcly gcn:rntedf kk-al(gT ebl:a·. Supposc that lJ
.u)~> 1o every homomorph1c Jmagc of A the nilr d' un~l Jdcals.
a tea\ lS cq 1
· ficld . Thcn B is a fimte algc ra1c cxtcns10n
JS a . of . ~. 11s 1s anothc r vcrs¡ radical. . . . ua to the Jacobson
of HilbcrCs NuJlstellcnsatz. The followmg proo 1s duc to Zariski. For Othon ... Every prime 1deal JO A wh1ch is not maximat .
proofs, sce (5.24), (7.9).) . cr
JJI) of the prime idca~s ~~ich ~.ontain it strictly. . IS equal to the intersection
only hard part JS m ) => u). Supposc ii) fal h
Let X Jo . . . , X " geocrate B as a k-algebra. Thc proof 1s by induct 1·0 n on ['fJlC • • f . se, t en the . .
lf n = 1 thc result is clearly true, so nssume n > l . Lct A == k [x¡) and ¡"· wu } 'cll is not an mtersechon o max¡mal idcals p .
ay nssume that A
.
1s an
.
mtegral domain
· assmg to th
whos
re ts a Pnmc id 1
e
.
quottent
ea
ring
K - k(x ) be the field of fractions of A . By thc inductivc hypothcsis n . Cl wc rn e 1acobson d' •
-
finite 1
algebrtuc • •
extcnsJon of K,, hence cae h o f X2 , •.• , x•,. satis • IS a
. fi1es a monic Lctfbe a non-zero e cment of m. Thcn A -J. O
1 ra tea\ mis not
. m . n., Poly. zero. . . A . . . 1 .,... , hcnce A h . .
nomial equation with coe m 1C1cnts v .
J.c. coc ffi.c1cn
. t f 1 f
s o t 1c orm afb whcrc a 'd aJ whosc contractJOn m.
1 e ,
Js a pnme 1dcal ,.,h sueh t11at ¡ ~ 1h as a maximal ·

and b are in A. If [is t~lc. product of thc denommators of al! thcsc cotfficicnts, ...... ¡mal with respcct to thJs property. Thcn h is not . ,.,, and which is
mw- . f h . . ,., maximal and .
then each of x:h . •. , x ,. 1s mtcgral over A1 • Hence B and thereforc K ¡5 integral to the intersectl~n o t e pnme Jd~als strictly containing V ] 1s not equal
A ring A wtth the three equ¡ valent propcrties ab · .
over A 1• •
ove JS called a J acobson
Suppose x 1 is transcendental over k . Then A is intcgrally closcd, beca use it . TlfiK·
a unique factorization domain. Hcncc A 1 is integrally closcd (5. 12), and thcr~~ .. .4 Let A be a Jacobson ring (Exercise 23) and B an A-alg b
rore A, = K, wbich is clearly absurd. Hence x1 is algcbraic over k , hcncc K Jlf· •
either (i) mtegra 1 over A. or ( 11" ) fi mtely
. e ra.
generated as an Show that ·r
A-al b J B .ts
(and thcrefore B) is a finito extension of k. Jacobson. [Use Exercise 22 for (ii).] ge ra, then B is
19. Deduce the result of Exercise 17 from Exercise 18. In particular, cvery finitely gcnerated ring and eve fi .
a]gebra over a field, 1.s a Jacobson nng. . ' ry mte1Y generae t d
20. Let A be a subring of an integral domain B such th at Bis finitcly gcncratcd over
A. Show that therc exists s :f; O in A and clements Y1, .. . , y,. in B, algebraically 15. Let A be a ring. Show that the following are equivalent:
independent over A and such that B, is integral ovcr B;, whcrc B' = i) A is a Jacobson ring ;
A[y11 • • • , Ynl· [Let S = A - {O} and let K = S - lA, the field of fractions of A. ii) Every finitely generated A-algcbra B which is a field is finite over A.
Then S - t Bis a finitcly gencrated K-algcbra and thereforc by thc normalization [i) => ii). Reduce to the case wherc A is a subring of B and use E · 1.
. . . • xerc1se 2
Jemma (Exercise 16) there exist x 11 • •• , Xn in S - lB, algebraicaUy indepcndent rr.s: A ts as m Exerctse 21 , th.cn there exists a maximal ideal m of A not con-
over K and such tbat S - l B is integral over K[x1, ... , x ,. ]. Lct z1 , . • • , zn tamJDg s, and the homomorphtsm A - >- A/m = k extends to a homomorph'
genera te B as an A-algebra. Then each z1 (regarded as an elcmcnt of S - lB) is . h J b . ISffi
g of B mto t e a ge raJe closure of k. Sincc B is a field, g is injective, and g{B)
integral over K[x 1 , ••• , Xn]. By writing an equation of integral dependence is algebraic over k, hence finite algebraic over k.
for each z¡, show that there cxists s E S such that x, = y tfs (l ~ i ~ 11) with ii) => i). Use criterion iii) of Exercise 23. Let ~ be a prime ideal of A whicb ¡5
y, E B, and such that each sz1 is integral over B'. D educe th at this s satisfies the no! maximaJ, and let B = Af-p. Let f be a non-zero clement of B. Tben B1 is a
conditions stated.] fimtely generated A-algebra. If it is a field it is fi.nite over B, hence integral
21. Let A, B be as in Exercise 20. Show that therc exists s :¡; O in A such that, over B and therefore Bis a field by (5.7). Hcnce B1 is nota field and therefore
if O is an algebraically closed field and / : A __, n is a homomorphism for which has a non-zero prime idea], whose contraction in B is a non-zero ideal \)' such
tbatf~ lJ'.]
f(s) :f; O, then f can be extended to a ho momorph ism B -- n. [With the
notation of Exercíse 20, f can be extended first of all to B' , for examplc by 26. Let X be a topological space. A subset of X is local/y closed if it is the inter-
mapping each y, to O; then to n; (because f(s ) '# O), and finally to B, (by section of an open set and a closed set, or equivalently if it is open in its closure.
Exercise 2, because B, is integral over B;).] The following conditions on a subset Xo of X are equivalent:
22. Let A, B be as in Exercise 20. If the Jacobson radical of A is zero, then sois thc {1) Every non-empty locally closed subset of X meets Xo;
Jacobson radical of B. (2) For every closed set E in X we ha ve En Xo = E;
[Ley v :¡;. O be an element of B. Wc havc to show that there is a maximal ideal (J) The mapping U t-t U fl Xo of the collection of open sets of X onto the col-
of B which does not contain v. By applying Exercise 21 to the ring Bv and its lection of open sets of X 0 is bijective.
subring A, we obtain an element s ::f:. O in A. Let m be a maximal ideal of A A subset Xo satisfying these conditions is said to be very dense in X.
such that s; m, and let k = A/m. Then the canonical mapping A - >- k extends . lf A is a ringr show that the following are equivalent:
0
toa homomorphism g of Bu into an algebraic closure n of k . Show that c(v) -f 1
• .> A is a Jacobson ring;
and that Ker (g) n 8 is a maximal ideal of B.] u) The set of maximal. ideals of A is very dense in Spec (A);
 72 INTEGRAL DEPENDENCE ANO VALVATIONS
EX!!RCISts
.. ") Evcry Jocally closcd subset of Spcc (A) consisting of a single point is 1 '' [l""'] be the group ulgebra of L' over k . By d •fi . . 73
'r'·~) d ···)are gcometrical formulations of conditions ii) a nd iii) of Exc ~ osed. A :::: 1\ r space by e 1emcn ts Xa (ce e r) such the lnltton• A ts . frecly
u an m rctsc 2).] k-vcc to . at x ..xa _ &enerated a
a ·ntcgrnl domtun. - xH a. Show th s
Va/uation rings and ualuations is an a
Jf 11
\
::: "tXcrl
+ . . . + ..\ x is a
n "n ny non-zcro elcm
at A

27• Let A, B be two local rings. Bis ~aid t~ dominate. A if.A is a subring of .8 a
0 and al < .. . < « n, define Vo(u) to be ent of A, Wherc lh >.
all ~ _ {O} _ ,.. r satisfies conditions ( 1) and (2) ~1 E Sh?w that the ~a i ~re
the maxima1 ideal m of A is contamed m the maxJmal 1deal n of B (or, cquiv:d
let ~ be the set of all local sub . · va: A t K be thc ficld of fractions of A. Show th
0 xerctse 31. PPtng
1en tly, if nt = n fl A). Let K be a. field f and
d . . 1 h nngs Le tuation u o f K ' an d tha t the valuc group ofat Vo can be ·
of X. If 1: is ordered by ~he rel~tton ·or odmtn at J?fnA , s .10w t at I:. has maxirna¡ a . . unlquely extend d
lO a V • • • V IS precasely r . e
elements and that A E ~ ts maxtmal 1 a n on1Y 1 tS a valua tJ on ri ng or k.
A be a valuataon nng a nd K Jts field of fracr
(Use (5.21).] 34. Let morphism such that ¡• : Spec ( B ) - ,. Spcc (Aa)o.ns. Let / : A - B be a ri
J¡omo b h 1s a closed . ng
l8. Let A be an integral domain, K its field of fractions. Show that thc following are _.. K ¡5 any A-a 1gc ra omomorphism c·1 e 1·r 0 . mapptng. Then 1·r
g: .B K ) we have g(B ) = A . . ' ' g f IS the ernbeddang . of
equivalent: 10
(1) A is a valuation ring of K ; . A
[Let e == g(B); o b VIOUS. 1y C 2 A . Let 11 be a maximal .d
1
(2) If a, b are any two ideals o~ A, t~en e1ther. a s; ~ or .ó s; o. ed m = n fl A is the maximal ideal of A when A cal of C. Since ¡- ¡5
Deduce tbat if A is a valuat1on rmg a nd ~ .IS a pnme tdeal of A , thcn A P and e1os , • ce m = A Als
·ng Cn dominntes A m. Hence by Exercise 27 we hav C · o the local
A/P are valuation rings of their fields o f f ract10ns. rl A ]
e ~ . e n = A and therefore

29 • Let A be a valuation ring of a field K . Show that every subring of K which From Exercises 1 and 3 it follows that, if /: A ~ B is inte .
35
contains A is a local ring of A . · A-nlgebra, then the mapping (/ ~ 1)* : Spec (B 0 C) _,. S gral(Can)~ C ts any
,. pec lS a closed
30. Let A be a valuation ring of a field K. The group U of units of A is a subgroup map.
of tbe multiplicative group K* of K. Conversely, suppose that / : A - >- B has this property d h . .
. Th f . . l . an t at B IS an tn-
Let r = K*/ U. If ~. 7] E r are represen ted by x, y E K, define ~ ~ r¡ to h
tegral domam. A en B lS ~~~~ra [~~pla.cmg A by its image in B, reduce to
mean xy - 1 E A. Show that this defines a tota l orderi ng on r which is compatible the case w~e~e ~ t .an . JS tf ~ lnJcct~o~. Let K be the field of fractions of
e
with the group structure (i.e., ~ 7] => ~w ~ 7]W for all w E r) . In other words, B and Jet A ~a va ua 10 0 rmg o . contammg A. By (5.22) it is enough to show
r is a totally ordered abelian group. It is called the ualue group of A . that A' contams B. By hypoth:s1s Spec (B 0 ... A ' ) -+ Spec (A') is a closed
Let u: K* _. r be the canonical homomorphism. Show that v(x + y) ~ map. Apply the result of Exerc1se 34 to the homomorprusm B ® A' _ K
mio (u(x), v( y)) for all x, y E K* . defined by b ~ a' ._. ba'. It follows that ba' E A' for all b E B anda~ a' e ~'·
taking a' = 1, we have wha t we want.] '
31. Conversely, let r be a totally ordered abelian group (written additively), and Jet . Show that t.h: result. just. proved re~ains .valid if B is a ring with only
K be a field. A valuation of K witlr values in r is a mapping u: K* - ). r such that firutely many mm1mal pnme 1deals (e.g., 1f B 1s Noetherian). [Let \Jt be the
(1) v(xy) = v(x) + u(y), minimal prime ideals. Then each composite homomorphism A -+ B -+ Bjb1
(2) u(x + y) ~ mio (v(x), v( y)), is integral, hence A - ). TI (B/p 1) is integral, hence A _,.. BjSJl is integral (where
for aU x, y E K*. Show that the set of elements x E K* su eh that v(x ) ~ O is a !Jl is the nilradical of B), hence finally A - B is integral.]
valuation ring of K. This ring is called the ualuation ring of v, a nd the subgroup
v(K*) of r is the value group of v.
Thus the concepts of valuation ring and valuation are essentially equivalent.
32. Let r r
be a totally ordered abelian group. A subgroup A of is isolated in r if,
whenever O ~ f3 ~ a and a E A, we ha ve f3 E A. Let A be a valuation ring of a
field K, with value group r (Exercise 31). If lJ is a prime ideal of A, show that
v(A - .p) is the set of elements ~ O in an isola ted subgroup A of r , a nd that the •

mapping so defined of Spec (A) into the set of isolated subgroups of r is bi·
jective.
lf .P is a prime ideal of A, what are the value groups of the valuation rings
A/.p, Ap 1
JJ. Let r be a totally ordered abelian gro u p. We shaU show how to coostruct a .field
K and a valuation v of K with r as value group. Let k be any field and let
 •
CHAIN CON
Dll10Ns 75
" for cach ll ~ O, and Go e Gl e ... e G
6 orde~does not satisfy the a.c.c. On the other hand ~· .. (strict inclusion )
thnt the G so that G does satisfy d e e e only proper subg s so
0 f 0 are "' · · · roups
) The group H of all rational numbers of th r
4 . d' . F e IOrm mfp" (
. fi s neithcr cham con ttJOn . or we ha vean exa t m, n E Z, n > O)
¡atJS ¡e 1 d 't t.1S fy d.c.c. beeausc Z e sequence O ...
so that }; oesn sa d ~ Z ~ H
Chain Conditions G-" O,
. f a e e beca use
Gd
oesn •t. oesn't ·, an d H doesn't ~
satts Y · • •
S) Thc ring k [x ] (k a field~ x an indeterminatc) satisfi
es a.e.c. but not d
on ;deals. .c.c.
So far we have considered quite arbitrary commutative ri ngs (with idcntity). 6) The polynomiaJ.ring k d' [x¡, x2, . .. ] in an infinitc b .
To go further, however, and obtain de~per theo~en~s we need to i~posc some . num er ofmdct .
. sntisfies nelther el1am con 1t10n on ideals: for the ermmatcs
finiteness conditions. The most convement way 1s 111 thc form of chain con- Xn ' •
1 . • d h sequence (x 1) e (
e ... ¡5 stnct. y mcreasmg, an t e sequence (x1) ::::> (x2 ) ::::> 3 xlt x~)
ditions". These apply both to rings and modules, and in this chaptcr we strictly decreasmg. 1
(x t) ::::> • • • 1s
consider the case ofmodules. Most of the argumcnts are of a rather formal kind
1) We shall see later that a ring which satisfies de e 'd
and beca use of this there is a symmetry between the ascending and desccnding 'd 1 (Th · · · · · on 1 eals must al
chains-a symmetry which disappears in the case of rings as we shall see in satisfy a.c.c. on 1 ea s. 1s 1s no/ truc in general for mod J. • so
2, 3 above. ) u es. see Examples
subsequent chapters.
Let 1: be a set partially ordered by a relation ~ (i.e., ~ is reflexive and Proposition 6.2. Mis a Noetherian A-module <=> euery submodule .

transitive and is such that x ~ y and y ~ x together imply x = y).

Proposition 6.1. The following conditibns on L are equivalen/ :
i) Every increasing sequence x1 ~ x 2 ~ • • • in L is stationary (i.e., there
exists n such that Xn = Xn+ 1 = · · ·).
ii) Every non-empty subset of'L has a maximal element.
Proof. i) => ii). If ii) is false there is a non-empty subset T of 'L with no maximal
element, and we can construct inductively a non-terminating strictly increasing
seq uence in T.
ii) => i). The set (xm)m~ 1 has a maximal element, say Xn· • ·
If'L is the set of submodules of a module M, ordered by the relation s;, then
i) is caBed the ascending chain condition (a.c.c. for short) and ii) the maximal
condition. A module M satisfying either of tbese equivalent conditions is said
to be Noerherian (after Emmy Noether). If ~ is ordered by 2, then i) is the
descending chain condition (d.c.c. for short) and ii) the mínima/ condition. A
module M satisfying these is said to be Artinian (after Emil Artin).
Examples. 1) A finite abelian group (as Z-module) satisfies both a.c.c. and
d.c.c.
2) The ring Z (as Z-module) satisfies a.c.c. but not d.c.c. For if a E Z and
a ::1: O we have (a) => (a2) => • • • => (a") => • • • (strict inclusions).
3) Let G be the subgroup of Q/Z consisting of all elements whose order is ~
power of p, where p is a fixed prime. Then G has exactly one subgroup Gn ° ' hence 1s stationary.
74
jinitely generated. 0
if M lS
Proof =>: Let N be a submodule o: M, and let L be the set of all finitely
generated .submodules of N . Then 'L IS not empty (since OEL) and therefore
has a maxtmal element, ~a~ No .. If N 0 i= N, consider the submodule No + Ax
where x E N, x r1 No; th1s ts fimtely generated and strictly contains N
. . H o, so we
d
have a contra tctJOn. ence N = N 0 and therefore N is finitely generated.
<=: Let M1 s; M2 s; · · · be an ascending chain of submodules of M.
Then N = U~.. l Mn is a submodule of M, hence is finitely generated, say by
X11 • • ·, x,. Say x, E M"' and let n = maxí • 1 n1; then eaeh .x1 E M"' hence
M" = M and therefore the chain is stationary. •
Because of (6.2), Noetherian modules are more important than Artinian
modules; the Noetherian condition is just the right finiteness condition to make
a lot of theorems work. However, many of the elementary formal properties
apply equally to Noetherian and Artinian modules.
Proposition 6.3. Let O ~ M '~ M~ M • 4 O be an exact sequence of
A-modules. Tlzen
i) Mis Noetlzerian ~ M ' and M " are Noerherian;
p ii) Mis Artinian ~ Jvf' and M " are Artinian.
roo¡. We shall pro ve i); the proof of ii) is similar.
in M~= An ~scending chain of submodllles of M ' (or Af") gives rise toa chain
 C H AI N CONDlTIONS
76 C HAIN CONDITIONS 77
Suppose rhat !vi has a composition series of /ength n. Th
<=: Let (LJn>l be an ascending chain of submodulcs of M · th roposition 6·_7: series of M has /engtlr n, and every chain in M e ebn
is a chain in M ', and (P(L,.)) is a chaín in M ". For large cnou~h ~nb (a~ P
1
(L11)) npos111011 . an e
1 evcrY col composil ion sen es.
chains are statíonary, and it foliows that the chain (L") is sta tiona Oth these 10
ry. • extended )ad note the Jeast length of a composition series of a module M
Corol/ary 6.4. Jf M 1 ( l ~ i ~ n) are Noetherian (resp. Artinian) A 00
¡. Let /(N~f has no composition series.)
/Y; ·
d)¡. 1 M t·
• LL\n
SO I S
-modll/eS, ((cM)::: + ~ !(N) < /(M ) . Let (M,) be a composition series of J\1 of
o'J/
Proof Apply induction and (6.3) to the exact scqucncc i) N e ¡\ t and consider the submodules N 1 = N n M , of N. s·1
. tcngt 1, • . d . nce
n n-1
..,¡
... 11 unum ¡ 11J and the latter JS a stm p1e m o ule, we ha ve e1ther N
e ftft - 1 J• JtL • t- 1
/Nt -_
O -+ A1,. - > Ef) M , - > Ef) M 1 - > O. • Ar1_ 1/1Yt -
1'
u
~ or e1se JYt - 1
= N,; hence, rcmovmg rcpeated terms, we ha ve a com . -
. .. 1 1•1 Mt- 1/k 11 • of N so tha t / (N) ~ / (M ). lf / (N) = I (M ) = n, then N1 /N _
't'on senes ' . h M - 1 ' -
A ringA is sajd to be Noetherian (rcsp. Artinian) if it is so as an A- d posJ ' M, .or r ca eh i = 1' 2, ... ' n , en ce n - 1 = Nn- h hence M n - 2 --
i.e., if it satisfies a.c.c. (resp. d.c.c.) on idea/s. mo ule, ¡\{t-1 / and finally M = N.
·¡•
Nn-?.' · 11 chain ¡11 M has length ~ / (M ). Let M = M 0 ::::> M 1 ::::> •• • be a
11 1
Examplcs. I) Any field is both Artinian a nd Noctherian ; so is the rin z¡ • ) f Y gth k. Then by i) we have / (M) > l (lvf 1) > .. . > J(M ) ==
chalO o 1en 0,
(n .¡: O). The ~in~ Z i~ Noetheri~n, .but not A~tinian ( Exercisc 2 beforc cl. ))~n) 2
rc
j
hence I(M ) ~ k . · · · f M If ·
2) Any prmcJpalJdeal doma m JS Noethen an (by (6.2): every ideal is finitel ' iii) Consider any compos1tton s~:tes o . 1t has length k, then.~ ~ l(M )
generated). ) ") hcnce k = /(M ) by the defimt 10n of !(M ). Hence all compos1tton series
11
by 'the same Iength. p ma · 11y, const'der a ny e ha .m. If tts
. 1cngth 1.s J(M) it must be
3) The ring k [x¡, X~¡, . . . ] is not Noetherian (Exercise 6 above). But it · ·r .
an integral doma in, hence has a field of fractions. Thus a subring of a Noetherials a composition series, by n ; 1 tts engt ts < !(M ) 1t
have " ) 1 h . . 1s
. nota composition series.
ring need not be Noetherian. n hence not maximal, and therefore new terms can be inserted until the lengtb is
4) Let X be a compact infinite Hausdorff space, C ( X) the ring of reaJ. !(M). •
valued continuous
1
functions on X . Ta ke a strictly decreasi ng sequence F ::>
1
, Proposition 6.8. M has a composition series <=> M salisfies both chain
F2 ::::> • • • o[ closed sets in X, a nd Jet an = {fE C(X):f(Fn) = 0}. Then the couditions.
an form a strictly increasing sequence of ideals in C(X): so C (X) is not a Proof. => : All chains in M are of bounded length, hence both a.c.c. and d.c.c.
Noetherian ring. hold.
Proposition 6.5. Let A be a Noetherian (resp. Artinian) ring, lvf a finitefy. ~ : Construct a composition series of M as follows. Since J.{ = M 0
generated A-module. Then Mis N oetherian (resp. Artinian). satisfics the maximum condition by (6.1), it has a maximal submodule M 1 e M0 •
Proof Mis a quotient of An for sornen: apply (6.4) and (6.3). • Similarly M1 has a maximal submodule M 2 e M h a nd so on. Thus we have a
strictly descending chain M 0 ::::> M 1 => • · · which by d.c.c. must be finite, and
Proposition 6.6. Let A be Noetherian (resp. Artinian), a an ideal of A. hence is a composition series of M . •
Then Aj a is a Noetherian (resp. Artinian) ring.
. A module satisfying both a.c.c. and d.c.c. is therefore called a module of
Proof By (6.3) A j a is Noetherian (resp. Artinian) as a n A-module, hence aJso fimte length. By (6.7) all composition series of M bave tbe same length /(M),
as an Aj a-module. • called tl~e length of M. The J ordan- Holder theorem applies to modules offinite
A chain of submodules of a module M is a sequence (M1) (O ~ i ~ n) of ~ength: ¡f(M,)o <t<n a nd (1\1;}0 ~ 1 < n are any two composition series of M, tbere
submodules of M such that · · ;~a one-to-one correspondence between the set of quotients (M,_ tfM,)r<t.:.r. and
ise set of quotients (M;_¡fM;) 1 <,<n' such that corresponding quotients are
M = Mo ::::> M1 ::::> • • • ::::> M" = O (strict inclusions). omorphic. The proof is the same as for finite groups.
Pro · ·
The length of the chain is n (the number of "links" ). A composition series of M A 'POslt~on 6.9. Tlze lengtlz /(M) is an additive fimction on the c/asJ of al/
is a maximal chain, that is one in which no extra submodules can be inserted : , ·modu,Js of./inite lengtlz.
this is equivalent to saying that each quotient M 1 _ 1 f M1 (1 ~ i ~ n) is simple Proof. W h
then ¡(M)e _ave to, show that ifO ~M ' .!., 1w~M " -+ O is an exact iequ~~ce,
(that is, has no submodules except O a nd itself). . - I(M ) + I(M"). Take the image under a of any compos1tion
 78 CHAI N CONDITIONS
EXERCISEs
series of M ' and the inverse image under f3 of any composition . . 'd b 79
. .. . senes of A ologicnl spncc X JS .s ~J to e Noetherian if the o e
these fit together to g1ve a compostt10n senes of M, hcncc thc rcsult. • ¡yJ• ; 1 5. A toP nding chain condtllon (or, equivalently the m P. n subsets of X sausr
the asee bsets are complcmcnts of open subs~ts 't axlmal condition) s· Y
Consider the particular case of modules over a field k i e k v 1 sed su b f • 1 comes to th . tnce
' · ., - ector 5 1 eo that the closcd su sets ?. X satisfy the desccnd' . e same thing
Proposition 6.10. For k-vector spaces V the following conditions
Paces·
· to s.nY lently, the minimal .condttton). Show that, if X i~n~ chcun.condition (or,
/ent: are equiva. equtV!l of X is Noethenan, and that X is quasi-com oethenan, then every
subspace pact.
i) finite dimension ,· t that the following are equivalent :
6· provc
. X is Noethenan.
.
ii) finite /ength;
.~) EverY open subspace of X is quasi-compact.
iii) a.c.c.; .~~)) Every subspace of X is quasi-compact.
JJI
iv) d. c.c. 1
N etherian space is a finite union of irreducible closed s b
Moreover, if tlrese conditions are satis.fied, length = dimension. 1. A. ot :E of closed subsets of X which are not finite unions ~fs?aceds .. lConsider
the seaces ] Hence t he set of 1rre
. duc1'ble components of a N trreth uctble
. closed
Proof . i) => i.i) is el~mentary; ii). ~ iii), ii) => iv) from (~.8) . ~cmains to prove su bsp · oe enan space ¡5
iii) => 1) and 1v) => 1). \ Suppose 1) 1s false, then there ex1sts an mfinite sequence finite.
(xn)n >1 of linearly independent elements of V. Let Un (res p. Vn) be the vector 8. If A is a Noetherian ring then Spec (A) is a Noetherian topological space. Is the
space spanned by xlJ .. . , Xn (resp., Xn+lJ Xn +2' •• . ) . Then the chain (Un) converse true ?
1
(resp. (Vn)n;. 1 is infinite and strictly ascending (resp. strictly descending). n)
) 1
9• Deduce from Exercise 8 that the set of minimal prime ideals in a Noetherian ring
Corol/ary 6.11. Let A be a ring in which tire zero ideal is a product m1 • •. mn0¡ is finite.
(not necessarily distinct) maximal ideals. Tlzen A is Noetlzerian if and only if A tO. If Mis a Noethcrian module (over an arbitrary ringA) then Supp (M) is a closed
is Artinian. Noetherian subspace of Spec (A).
Proof Consider the chain of ideals A ~ m1 2 m1 m2 2 · · · 2 m1· · · mn =o. 1 11 • Let/: A B be a ring homomorphism and suppose that Spec (B) is a Noetherian
- >
Each factor m1· · ·m, _1fm1· · ·m, is a vector space o ver the field A/m1• Hence space (Exercise 5). Prove that /*: Spec (B) -+ Spec (A) is a closed mapping if
a .c.c. <=> d .c.c. for each factor. But a .c.c. (resp. d.c.c.) for each factor <=> a.c.c. and only if fhas the going-up property (Chapter 5, Exercise 10).
(resp. d.c.c.) for A, by repeated application of (6.3). Hence a.c.c. <=> d.c.c.
12. Let A be a ring such that Spec (A) is a Noetherian space. Show that the set of
for A. • prime ideals of A satisfies the ascending chain condition. Is the converse true?

EXERCISES

l. i) Let M be a Noetherian A-module and u: M ~ M a module homomorphism.

If u is surjective, then u is an isomorphism.
ii) If Mis Artinian and u is injective, then again u is an isomorphism.
[For (i), consider the submodules Ker (u"); for (ii), the quotient modules
Coker (u").] •

2. Let M be anA-module. lf every non-empty set of finitely generated submodules

of M has a maximal element, then Mis Noetherian.
l
•

3. Let M be an A-module and let N 1 , N'J be submodules of If !"f/~1 ~~

A!·.
M/N'J are Noetherian, so is M/(N1 n N 2 ). Sirnilarly with Artiman 10 P ace
Noetherian.
M 10. A Prove
4. Let M be a Noetherian A-module and let a be the annihilator of •
that A fa is a Noetherian ring. . . ·u t ue 1
lf we replace "Noetherian" by "Artinian" in this result, ts tt stl r
1
j
 '
NOETHERlAN 'RlNCs
. 81
Bas1s Theorem). Jf A is
7 7.5• (Hilb_ert's
f/leorern. 1 ring A[x] is Noetherian. Noetherlan, then the
o/ynomta .
p Let a be an ideal m .A[x ]. ~he leading coefficients ofthe .
proof. ·deal l in A. S mee A IS Noetherian ( is fi .t 1 polynomtals in
m an 1 . . • m e Y generated
For cad1 1 = 1, ... , n thcre 1s a polynomi 1!t . say by
11 for
Noetheria11 Rings a11 • • ·' ~;·+ (lower tcrms). Lct r = max(,. 1 r,. Th: ; EgA[x] of the form
r ::: a1.'t J' enerate an ide 1
' ', e a JO
· A[x]. ) b a
n - f
Let -
_ ax'" + (lower termsA ehany clement of a .• we have a E (
'\" u,a" whcre u, E ; t en f - "" u r.x.m-r1 1• 5 . · lf m >-. . . r,
'tea === ,¿JI .. t • • ~ IJI m a and h d
We recall that a ringA is said to be Noetlzerian if it satisfies lhc follow· wn Proceeding m thJs way, we can go on subtracting el as egree
<: 111· • l f d ements of a' fro f
equivalent conditions: IIlg thrcc ·¡ ·•e get a polynomia g, say, o egree < r; that is we h f m
untl \T ' • ave == g + h,
I) Every non-empty set of ideals in A has a maximal elcmcnt. where ¡, E a .
t M be the A-module generated by l , x , . . . , xr-1. th h
2) Every ascending chain of ideals in A is stationary. Le M) , N . . ' en w at we have
oved is that a = (a n + a . ow M IS a fimtely generated A- d 1
3) Every ideal in A is finitely generated. h:nce is Noetherian by (6.5), hence a n. ~ is finitely gcnerated (asan A-:~d~~)
(Tbe equival.ence. of these conditions wa~ pro ved in (6. 1) an.d (6.2).) by (6.2). If gl~ ... , Km genera te a n M tt ~~ clear that theft and the g, generate a
Hence a ¡5 fimtely generated and so A [x] 1s Noetherian. • ·
Noethenan nngs are by far the most 1mportant class of rmgs in commutaf
algebra: we have seen sorne examples already in Chapter 6. In this chapter tve ¿
Remark. It is also true that ~oct~er~an =:o- A[[~]] N.oetherian (A[[x]] being
shall first show that Noetherian rings reproduce themselves under variowc the riog of formal power senes m ¿"( w1th coeffic1ents 10 A). The proof runs
familiar operations-in particular we pro ve the famous basis theorem of Hilbe~t~ aJmost parallel to that of (7.5) except that one starts with the terms of 1
· b 1 · owest
We then proceed to make a number of important deductions from the degree in the power senes e ongmg to a. Se e al so (1 0.27).
Noetherian condition, including the existence of primary decompositions. Corollary 7.6. If A is Noetherian so is A[x¡, ... , xn].
Proposition 7.1. If A is Noetlzerian and cp is a lzomomorphism of A onto a Proof By induction on n from (7.5). •
ring B, then Bis Noetherian. Corol/ary 7.7. Let B be a .finitely-generated A-algebra. lf A is Noetherian,
Proof. This follows from (6.6), since B ~ A j a, where a = Ker (cp). • then so is B.
In particular, every .finitely-generated ring, and every finitely generated
Proposition 7.2. Let A be a subring of B,· suppose tlzat A is Noetherian and
algebra over a field, is Noetherian.
that Bis finitely generated asan A-module. Then B is Noetlterian (as a ring).
Proof. By (6.5) Bis Noetherian asan A-module, hence also as a E-module. 1 Proof. Bis a homomorphic image of a polynomial ring A[xh ... , xn], which is
Noetherian by (7.6). •
Example. B = Z[i], the ring of Gaussian integers. By (7.2) B is Noetherian.
Proposition 7.8. Let A 5; B 5; C be rings. Suppose that A is Noetherian,
More generally, the ring of integers in any algebraic number field is Noetherian.
that e is finitely generated as an A-algebra and tlzat e is either (i) finitely
Proposition 7.3. If A is Noetherian and S is any multip!icatively closed generated as a O-module or (ii) integral over B. Then B is finitely generated
subset of A, then s- 1A is Noetherian. asan A-algebra.
Proof. By (3.11-i) and ( 1.17-iii) the ideals of S - 1 A are in one-to-one order- Proo[ It follows from (5.1) and (5.2) that the conditions (i) and (ii) are equiva-
lent m th.1s sttuation.
· So we may concentrate on (i).
preserving correspondence with the contracted ideals of A, hence satisfy the max·
imal condition. (Alternative proof: if a is any ideal of A, then a has a finite set e
Let X¡, . .• ' Xm generate asan A-algebra, and Iet y¡, ... 'Yn genera te e as a
of generators, say X¡, •.• , Xn, and it is clear that s- 1 a is generated by x1/l, · · ·' B-module. Then there exist expressions of the form
xJl.) • x, = "2 b y 11 1 (b 11 E B) (1)
Coro/huy 7.4. lf A is Noetherian and ~ is a prime ideal of A, then Ap is J

Noetheria11. • YU'J = ¿ b,,kyk

k
(b,,k E B).
(2)

•
80
 PRIMARY DECOMPOSITION IN
82 NOETHERIAN RI NGS NEOTHERIAN RINGs
. 83
In a Noetherwn ring A every ideal . .
Let B 0 be thc algebra genera ted ovcr A by thc b11 and thc b s·
tncc ,no 7· ·
11 zs a fimte ;
Noetherian, so is B0 by (7.7), and A S B o S B.
flk ·
A is Lt l Jb/e ;dea/s. ntersection of
·rref.IIC se not ; thcn t he se t o f 1'deals in A for wh· h h
1
Any elcment of C is a polynomial in the x, with cocfficicnts in .f suppO . 1 l IC t e lcmm .
stituting (1) and making repeated use of (2) shows that cach clcmcnt 0Af S~b. proO;·
mptY 1lC
nce has a maxtma
d
e ement a . Since . .
a lS reductbl
a ts false is
Jinear combination of the y, with cocfficicnts in Bo, and hcncc e . c .Is a not Cll• , here f> :::> a an e ::::> a. Hencc ea eh of b e is fi . . e, we have
{¡ n e w r . , a nttc tnte .
generated as a B0 -modulc. Since Bo is Nocthcrian, and B is a submo~s finttely 0 :::
. eductble 1
• 'deals and there,ore so ts a: contradiction. • rsectton of
1 0
it foJiows (by (6.5) and (6.2)) tbat Bis finitely generated as a Bo-modulu e ~ C, ,rr ]2. fn a N oelhenan
. rmg . every irreducible id . .
B0 is finitely generated as an A-algcbra, it follows that B is finitcly gen e. Stncc Lernrna 7• . . . . ea1 rs Prtmary.
- crated B passing to the quot1ent nng, 1t ts enough to show th t 1·r h
an A-algebra . • as froof. ~ble then it is primary. Let xy = O with y =1= 0 and a .~e zero ideal
is irreduc• ( ) e Ann(x2) ~ ... . By thc a.c e this h, . . con~l er the chain
Proposition 7.9. Let k be a field, E a finitely generated k-algebra. lf E .. 'd als Ann x - · ., e am 1s stahonar ·
fie/d then it is a finile algebraic extension of k. 's a ofJ e
Ann ( x") -- Ann(xn + 1) = . .. . for sorne n· lt 1'"oll ows that (x") n y,( l.e., we
) _ .
Proof. Let E = k[x¡, . .. , Xn ]. If E is not algebraic over k thcn we e
haV~ (y) then ax = O, and 1f a E (x") then a = bxn hence b n+1 _ Y - O,
foflf O E ( n) h bx n = 0 ,. t hat1s,
· ' X - 0, hence
number the x 1 so that Xtt ••• , .Xr are algcbraically indepcndcnt over k anhrc. be Ann ( xn+l) = Ann x ,
r
ence
h .n
a
.
= O. Since(O) ' · d .
lS 1rre uctble
. . ' w ere _J. owe must there,ore 0
ave x = , and th1s shows that 'O) · .
r ~ 1, and ea eh of Xr + 1 , • •• , x" JS algebrmc over the ficld F = k(x . and ( y -r
) · \ ts pnmary. •
Hence E is a finite algebraic extension ofF and thcrcfore finitely gcncr~,t~d -~ .\,). From these two lemmas we have at once
F-mod ule. Applying (7.8) to k ~ F ~ E, it follows that F is a finitcly gcner:ta~
k-algebra, say F = k[y1 , ..• , y3J. Each y 1 is of the form /¡fg1, where ~ ande "''heorem 7.13. In a Noetherian ringA every ideal has a primary decomposr-.
.1,
. ] . J g,
are po1ynom1a s m X¡, .. . , Xr · tion. •
•
Now there are infinitely many irred ucible polynomials in the ring Hence all the results of Chapter 4 apply to Noethcrian rings. •
k[x 11 • •• , Xr ] (adapt Euclid's proof of the existence of infinitcly many prime
numbers). Hence there is an irreducible poJynomial h which is prime to each Proposition 7.14. In a Noetherian ring A, every ideal a contains a power of
ofthe g1 (for example, h = K1K2· · ·Ks + 1 would do) and the element lz - 1 ofF ils radical.
couJd not be a polynomial in the y 1. This is a contradiction . Hence E is alge. Proof. Let x 1 , ••• , xk genera te r(a): say xf' E a (l ~ i ~ k). Let m =
braic over k, and therefore finite algebraic. • ¿~. 1 ( 111 - 1) + l. Then r(a)m is generated by the products xít. . ·Xkk with
¿ ,1 = m; from the definition of m we must have r, ~ n1 for at least one index ;,
Coro/lary 7.10. Let k be afie/d, A afinitely generated k-algebra. Let m be a hence each such monomiallies in a, and therefore r(a)m s a. •
maximal ideal of A. Titen the fie/d A j m is a finite algebraic extension of k.
In particular, if k is algebraical/y closed tlzen A / m ~ k. Corol/ary 7.15. In a Noetherian ring the ni/radical is nilpotent.
Proof. Take E = Af m in (7.9). • Proof. Take a = (O) in (7 .14). •

(7.10) is the so-called "weak" version of Hilbert's Nullstellensatz Corollary 7.16. Let A be a Noetherian ring, m a maximal ideal of A, q any
( = theorem of the zeros). The proof given here is due to Artin and Tate. For ideal of A. Then the following are equivalent :
its geometrical meaning, and the "strong" form of the theorem, see the Exercises i) q is m-primary;
at the end of this chapter. ii) r(q) = m;
iii) m" S q ~ mfor some n > O.
Proof. i) => ii) is clear; ii) => i) from (4.2); ii) => iii) from (7 .14); üi) => ii) by
PRIMARY DECOMPOSJTION IN NOETHERIAN RINGS taking radicals: m = r(m") s; r(q) s; r(m) = m. •
Propositio11 7.17. Let a # (1) be an ideal in a Noetherian ring. The~ the
The next two lemmas show that cvcry ideal -:¡: (1) in n Noetherian ring has u
prime idea/s which belong to a are precise/y the prime ideals which occur rn the
primary decomposition.
set of idea/s (a: x) (x e A).
An ideal a is said to be irreducible if Proor B . O
. ?· Y passmg to A f a we may assume that a = . e 1• ' . 0 fL t 1 nft
q = O be a
111111101al primary decomposition of the zero ideal, and let \'1 be the radtcal
n = b n e ::::- (a = b or a = e). q,.
 84 NOETIIERJA N RINGS EXERCISES &

d Je
""'O'" apply (7.8) to obtain a contradiction H
d · ence K ¡ f
S
Let a1 = n 1 ~ 1 q1 :f O. Then frorn the proof of (4.5) we hu ve r(Ann(x)) ""' rno ~ Ílcnce is finitely genera te ns a Z/(p)-algcbra. Use (7 9; o characteristic
J .,

for any x :f O in n, so that Ann(x) s; p,. ~~ p7 , • to complete the

Sincc q1 is v,-primary, by (1.14) therc exists an integcr 111 such that p'~ e proof.J
an afline algcbraic variety givcn by a family of .
and thereforc a,p;n ~ a, n V:" s; t n q, = O. Lct m ~ 1 . be the s m~Jc~~
1
0 b
integer such th at a 1pf' = O, and Jet x be a non-zcro clemcnt m o,"'" - 1 TI 1. Let X ee1) . 27) . Sh ow that thcre exists
' (Chnptcr 1, E xerctsc equal!ons!.
a . o(tl, ... , '")
. . ~"'' . 1cn e:: Ot (t~Jat X is given by thc equations la(tl • ... • r~) = O for efitn/ue subset loor 1
p1x = o, therefo:e for such.an x \~e h~ve Ann(.x) ~ p, an~ hcncc Ann( x) ::::: P,. sUC l ' a o.
Conversely, 1f Ann (x~ JS a pnme 1dcal ~~. thcn 1(Ann(.\)) = p nnd so by(4.S) • . . _,octhcria n, is A ncccssarily Noctherian?
8. If A[XJ IS ¡ -, •
p is a prime ideal belonglllg to O. •
1 be 3 ring such that
9.Let: cach maximal ideal m of A, the local ring A is N h .
(1) for each x ..¡: O in A, the set of maximal idea~ of ;et he'nhan; .
EXERCISES (2) or• w te contatn X ·IS
fimte. .
J. Let A be a non-Noetherian ring and Jet E ~e the set of idcals in A which are not SI10' v that A is Nocthcnan.
'd 1 . A Le
finitely generated. Show that 1:: has maxm1al elements and that thc maximal [Lct a ..¡: O be an 1 ea m : t lnt. ... , m, be the maximal ide l .
· Choose x 0 #; O m o and let m as Whtch
elements of.!: are prime ideals. contam o. . lt · · · • m,+ • be the maximal ·d 1s

[Let a be a maximal element of E, and supposc that therc exist x, y E A su eh that Yh ich contain X o. Smee m ,+ It . . . , m, +• do not contain o there ex·tst 1 ea
\ ' ) S' X¡E asuch
x rt a and y~ a and xy E a. Show that there cxists a finitcly gcncratcd ideal rhat XJ ~ lltr + J. (1 ~ J .~ s : mee each A m, (J ~ i ~ r) is Noctherian, the ex-
o0 s a such that n 0 + (x) = n + (x). and that n = Clo + x ·(a :x). Sincc tension of a m• A 111 1 ts fimtely gencrated. • Hencc there exist x , . 1t . . . . x, .m a
(a: x) strictly contains a. it is finitely gcnerated and thcrcforc so is n.] whose images m Am1 genera te Am,n for 1 = 1• ... , ' · Let a = (x )
Hence a ring in which every prime ideal is finitcly gcncratcd is Nocthcrian Show that o0 anda ha ve the same cxtcnsion in Am for every maxtmal id~Lm . ·', an
x,d.
(l. S. Cohen). deduce by (3.9) tha t Oo = a .]

2. Let A be a Noetherian ring and let f = 2.:. o aux" A [[x]].

E Pro ve that 1 is 10. Let M be a Noethcrian A-module. Show that Ñf[x] (Chapter 2, Exercise 6) is a
nilpotent if and only if eaeh a11 is nilpotent. [ See pog t. 11) Noethcrian A [x]-modulc.
3. Let a be an irreducible ideal in a ringA. Then the following are equivalcnt : 11. Let A be a ring such that each local ring A v is Noetherian. Is A necessarily
i) n is primary ; Noetherian?
ii) for every multiplicati vely closed subset S of A wc ha ve (S - 1 a)C = (o: x) for
sorne x E S ; 12. Let A be a ring and na
faithfull y ftat A-algebra (Chapter 3, Exercise 16). If B
iii) the sequence (a :x") is stationary, for cvery x E A. is Noetherian, show that A is Noetherian. [Use the ascending chain condition.]
4. Which of the following rings are Noetherian? 13. Let /:A ->- B be a ring homomorphism of finite type and Iet ¡ •: Spec (B) ~
i) The ring of rational functions of z having no pole on the circle lzl = l. Spec (A) be the mapping associated with f Show that the fibcrs of ¡• are
ii) The ring of power series in z with a posi ti ve radius of convergence. Noetherian su bspaces of B .
iii) The ring of power series in z with an infinite radius of convergence.
iv) The ring of polynomials in z whose first k derivatives vanish at thc origin Nul/stel/ensatz, strong form
(k being a fixed integer). 14. Let k be an algebraically closed field, let A denote thc polynomial ring
v) The ring of polynomials in z, w all of whose partía! derivatives with respect k[th · · · , In] and let a be an ideal in A. Let V be the variety in k" defined by the
to w vanish for z = O. ideal a, so that Vi s the set of all x = (x¡, . .. , Xn) E k n such thatf(x) = Ofor all
In all cases the coefficients are complex numbers. 1E a. Let /(V) be the ideal of V, i.e. the ideal of all polynomials K e A such that
5. Let A be a Noctherian ring, B a finitely generated A-algcbra, G a finite group of g(x~ == O for all x E V. Then / (V) = r(a) . . . •

A-automorphisms of n, and no the set of all elements of B which are left fixed
by every element of G. Show that no is a finitely generated A-algebra.
6. If a finitely generated ring K is a field, it is a finite field .
(lf K has characteristic o. we have z e Q s; K. Sincc K is finitely generated
over Z it is finitely generatcd o ver Q, hcncc by (7 .9) is a finitely generated Q·
Ut ts clear that r(a) s /(V). Conversely, Jet/~ r(o), then there is a pnmc Ideal!
containing a such that f ~ p. Let f be the image off in B = Ajp, let e = B, -
B[I ffJ, and let m be a maximal ideal of C. Since C is a finitely generated k·
algebra we have C/m ~ k, by (7.9). The images X¡ in C/m of t~e generato~::
of A thus define a point x = {X¡, •.. ' Xn) E kn, and the constructJOn shows
xe Vandf(x) ~ 0.]
 EXE~CISES 87
86 NOETHERIAN RlNGS
topological space and lct .<JF be the smallest coll .
Lct X be a . s all open subsets of X and is closed with ectJon of subsets of X
15 Let A be a Noetherian local ring, m its maximal ideal an~ k its residue field, nnct zo. whtC••
. h contatn
.
1
sections and comp ements.
rcspect to th
e formation /
• let M be a finitely generated A-module. Then the followmg are equivalent : r. 'te Jnter fXb 1
of ,JOI 1ata subsct E o e ongs to §:" if and onty if E . .
i) Mis free; i) ShOW tfl 01 u n e, whcre V is open and e is closed IS a finnc Un ion of sets
ii) Mis flat ; . . . . f the or . d . bl .
iii) the mapping of m ® M into A ® M 1s mJcctJve; o ose that X is trre uct e and let E e :F. Show that .
ii) SuPP '=' = X) if and only if E co ntains a non-empty E .15 dense in X
iv) Tort (k, M) = O. . . (i.e., that L 0 Pen set m x.
[fo show that iv) => i), Jet X¡, • .. , Xn be elements of M whosc Irnages m lvlf lllM
form a k-basis of this vector s,pace. By (2.8), the x, genera te M . Let F be a free be a Noethcrian topolo~ical space (Chapter 6, Excrcise 5) and l
A-module with basis e¡, ... , en and define</> : F ~ M b~ </>(e,) = x,. Let E == Kcr zt. Let X that E E !F if and only tf, for ea eh irreducible closed set X et E ~ X.
(rf). Then the exact sequence O ~ E ~ F _ ,.. M ~ O g1ves us an exact sequcnce
ShoW
- Xo :¡; Xo or clse E r: x; ·
o contams a non-empty open subsct of X
o S X, e1ther
En ar Thcn the collectton of closed sets X ' s x such that E '""' x?· [Su~pose
o )o k ®A E )o k ® ,. F l®~) k ®A M )o o. E~ .:r • d therefore has a mmtma· · 1 e1emcnt X • Show that X .' '. ~ fF
0 . 1s not
emPtYan . b o ts trreductble and
Since k ® p and k ® M are vector spaces of the same dimension over k, it h 1 each of the alternattvcs a ove leads to the conclusion th. E
thcn t a or 11 d 1 at n Xo e§: ]
follows that 1 ® 4> is an isomorphism, hence k ~. E = O, hence E = o by The scts belonging to .:r are ca e t 1e constructib/e subsets of X. .
Nakayama's Lemma (E is finitely generated beca use 1t ISa submodule ofF, andA
is Noetherian).] L t X be a Noetherian topological space and let E be a subset of X Sh h E
2
2 • . e pen in x if and only if, for cach irreducible closed subset x' ·10 °Xw t .atht
16. Let A be a Noetherian ring, M a finitely generated A-module. Then the following JS o . o , et . er
E r. Xo = 0 or else E fl X o c~ntams a non-empty open subsct of Xo. [The
are equivalent : proof is similar to that of Exerc1se 21.]
i) Mis a fiat A-module;
ii) M-p is a free Ap-module, for all prime ideals +>;
23• Let A be a Noet~erian ring, f: A ~ B-a ring homomorphism of finite type (so
iii) Mm is a free Am-module, for all maximal ideals m. that B is Noethenan). Lct X = Spec (A), Y = Spec (B) and Iet ¡ •: y __.. X be
In other words, flat = locally free. [Use Exercise 15.] the mapping associated with f Then the image under ¡• of a constructiblc
11. Let A be a ring and M a Noetherian A-module. Show (by imitating the proofs subset E of Y is a constructible subsct of X.
of (7.1 1) and (7.12)) that every submodule N of M has a primary decomposition [By Exercise 20 it is enough to take E = V n C where U is open and C is closed
(Chapter 4, Exercises 2Q-23). in Y; then, replacing B by a homomorphic image, we reduce to the case where E
is opcn in Y. Since Y is Noetherian, E is quasi-compact and thercfore a finite
18. Let A be a Noetherian ring, p a prime ideal of A, and M a finitely generatcd union of open sets of the form Spec (8 0 ). Hence reduce to the case E = Y. To
A-module. Show that the following are equivalent : show thatf•( Y) is constructible, use the criterion of Exercise 21. Let Xo be an
i) p belongs toO in M; irreducible closed subset of X such that [•( Y) n X0 is dense in Xo. We ha ve
ü) there exists x e M such that Ano (x) = p;
¡t(Y) fl Xo = f*(f* - 1(X0 )), and/* - 1 (X0 ) = Spec ((A/lJ) ® A B), where Xo =
iii) there exists a submodule of M isomorphic to A/p.
Spec (A/p). Hence reduce to the case where A is an integral domain and/is injec-
Deduce that there exists a chain of submodules
tive. If Y¡, ... , Y 11 are the irreducible components of Y, it is enough to show that
O = Mo e M 1 e · · · e M, = M somef•( Y,) contains a non-empty open set in X. So finally we are brought do~n
to the situation in which A, B are integral domains and f is injective (and sull
such that each quotient Me/M 1_ 1 is of the form A/p, where p, is a prime ideal
of A. of finite type); now use Chaptcr 5, Exercise 21 to complete the proof.]
•

19. Let a be an ideal in a Noetherian ring A. Let 24. With the notation and hypotheses of Exercise 23, ¡• is an open mapping .;:>
f has the going-down property (Chapter 5, Exercise 10). [Suppose 1 has tl:e
. that E -- ¡•e Y) ts
, 1

a = n b, = fl
/. i
C¡
.
gotng-down property As in Exercise 23 reduce to provmg
· · ' ·
lJ E E and l->' e- lJ 'dthen
C•l
open m X. The going-down property asserts that 1f X
be two minimal decompositions of a as intersections of irreducible ideals. Prov~ p' e E: in other words that if X.0 is an irreducible closed subset of x.anX] 0
that r = s and that (possible after re-indexing the c1) r(6 1) = r(c,) for all 1• meets E, then E n X 0 is' dense in X 0 • By Exerctses
. 20 and 2-, · 0 pen m .
., E 15
[Show that for each i = 1, ... , r there exists j such that
2S· Let A be· Noetherian f· A ~ B of finite type and flat ('t.e., B is ftat. as anand
A·
a= blrt···rtb 1 _ 1 rt c1 rtb 1+ 1 rt···rt b,.] mod ' · · [Exerc1se 24
C ule). Then ¡•: Spec (B) ~ Spec (A) is an open mappmg.
State and prove an analogous result for modules. hapter S, Exercise 11.]
4+I.C.A,
 88 NOETHERIAN RINGS

Grolltendieck groups 8
26. Let A be 3 Noctherian ring and Jet F (A) denote the set of all isomorphis .
e 1 . m ~lass
of finitely gcnerated A-modules. ctL b e t 1e r~c a e tan group gcncratcd ·es
f b l
F(A). With each short cxact sequcnce O -).. M - > l vf - > tvr -~ o of fi . by
1
· h 1 ( " '
f ' )
generated A-modules we assoc1ate t e e cmcnt ¡ v, - (!vi) + (/'ot/") 0itcly .
01
where (M) is t11c isomorphism class of !<.11, cte. Lct D be thc suboro
b up or C,
e ¡\.rti n Ri11g·s
generated by these clements, for nll s 110rt cxnc t scqucnccs. Thc quoticnt .
e¡ D is callcd the Grothendieck g roup of A , and is dcnot~d by .K (A). 1f /\~ ~u~
1

finitely generated A-module, Jet y(i\lf), or YA(NI) , denote the 1magc of (M) i
K(A). n
i) Show that K (A ) has the following universal propcrty: fo r cach a·•d· . . ring is onc which satisfics thc d.c.c. (or cqu· 1
• • u lllvc An Artm . .1 tva cnt1y thc minimal
function .\ on thc class of firutcly gcneratcd A-modules, wi th valucs ·
d .t,·on) on tde~• s.
abelian group G, thcre ex1.sts a u m.que 110momorpl11.sm A0 : K(A) - > G1n an
1
eon apparent symme t ry W .Jt 11 N oct l1cnan
· nngs
· is howcv .. .
suc 1\ TIl e , A . . . cr mts 1cadmg 1
that .\(M) = Ao(r(M)) for all M . " C will show tha t an rtm nng 1s nccessarily Noethcria d f · n
ii) Show that K (A) is generated by thc clcmcnts y(A/V), whcrc p is a prime id t
fac '" A · · . . n an o a very
1 . 1kind rn a sen se a n rt111 n ng ts thc s1 m plest kind of ring r· fi
of A. [Use Exercise 18.] ca specHl • f . . a ter a 1cld, and
udy them not beca use o thc1r gencraltty but beca use of the' . ..
iii) If A is a ficld, or more generally if A is a principal ideal domain, thcn WC St Ir Slmp1ICJty.
K(A) ~ Z. Proposition 8.1. In an Artin ring A erery prime ideal is maxima/.
iv) Let J; A -> B be a finite ring homomorph ism. Show that restriction of
Proof. Lct V be a prime ideal of A. T hen 8 = A/p is an Artinian integral
scalars givcs rise to a homomorphism Ji: K ( B ). - > K (A ) su eh that fi(y 1j(N))
domain. Let xE B, x # O. By the .d .c.c. we have (x 11 ) = (xn+l) forsomen
= YA(N) for a E-module N. lf g: B -+ e I S a nother fi ni tc ring homo-
morphism, show that ( g o J) 1 = Ji o g 1• hcnce xn = x n+ly rt Or sorne Y E B . Smee B '1s an mtegral· domain and x ~ O, it'
follows that we may cancel x", hencc xy = l. Hcncc x has an inverse ¡11 B and
27. Lct A be a Noethcrian ring and Jet Ft (A) be the sct of a ll isomorphism classes of therefore Bis a field , so tha t V is a maximal ideal. • '
finitcly generatcd /!al A-modules. Repcating thc construction of Excrcisc 26 we
obtain a group Kt( A). Let Y1 (.Nf) denote the imagc of {M ) in K 1(A). Corol/ary 8.2. In an Artin ring the ni/radical is equal to tite Jacobson
i) Show that tensor product of modules over A induces a commutativc ring radical. •
structure on K1(A), such that Y1(M ) · Y1(N ) = Yt( M 0 N). Thc identity
elcment of this ring is y 1{A). Proposition 8.3. An Artin ring has only a finitc numbcr of maximal idcals.
ii) Show that tensor product induces a K1 (A)-module structure on the group Proof. Considcr the set of all fin ite intersections m 1 n · · · n mn whcre thc m1
K(A), such that y 1 (M) · y( N) = y( M ® N) . are maximal ideals. This set has a mi ni mal elcmcnt, say m1 fl· · ·flm 11 ; hencc
iii) lf A is a (Nocthcrian) local ring, thcn K 1(A) ~ Z . for any maximal idea l m wc have m n 111 1 fl · · ·fl mn = m1 fl· · · fl lll 11, and
iv) Let J: A - > B be a ring homomorphism, B bcing Noetherian. Show that therefore m 2 m1 n · · · n mn. By ( l . ll ) m 2 m1 for sorne i, l~ence m = m,
extension of scalars gives rise to a ring homomorphism J ': K 1 (A ) -+ K 1(B) since m1 is maximal. •
such that f!(rt(M)) = Yt(B ® A M). [lf M is ftat and finitely generated
over A, then B ®,, Mis flat and finitely generated over B .] If g: B _..,. C is Proposition 8.4. In an Arrin ring tire ni/radical ~¿ is ni/poten!.
another ring homomorphism (with e Noetherian), then ( f o g ) l = [ 1 o g 1• Proof By d.c.c. we ha ve mk = mk + 1 = ... = o say, for so me k > O. Suppose
v) If J; A -,. Bis a finite ring homomorphism then 0
f: O, and let :E denote the set of all ideals ú such that oó =/= O. Then ~ is not
empty, since o E :E. Let e be a minimal element of L; then there exists x E e such
fi(J 1(x)y) = xjj(y )
that xo :1: O; we ha ve (x ) s; e, hence (x) = e by the minimality ?r.c. .But
for x E Kt(A), Y E K(B). In other words, regarding K (B) as a K 1 (A)-module (xa)a = xa 2 = xa '::/: O, and x a s (x) , hence xo = (x) (again by rmmmahty).
by restriction of scalars, the homomorphism J ' is a K 1 (A)-module homo·
morphism. ~ence x = xy fvr sorne y E a, and therefore x = xy = xy2 = · · · = xy" =~~:15·
ut Y E 0 == 91,.. 2 ~1, hence y is nilpotent and thercfore x = xyn = 0·
Remark. Since Ft(A) is a subset of F(A) we have a group homomorphism
': Kt(A) ~ K(A), given by E(Yt{M)) = y(M). If the ringA is finite-d imensional contradicts the choice of x, therefore o = O. •
•

and re~ular•. i.e., if all its local rings A v are regular (Chapter 11) it can be shown By a chain of prime ideals of a ring A we mean a finite strictly incfireastmhg
that ( 1s nn 1somorphism. ' sequence · 1·5 11 We de ne e
~lo e P1 e • • • e .\Jn; the /ength of the eh a m •

89
 90 ARTJN RINGS
EXERClSES
dimension of A to be the supremum of the lcngths of all chains of prin . A ring with only one prime ideal necd not b N 91
. . . . . A O) fi . 1C tdca) mplc. L t A - k[ · e oethe ·
m A: Jt IS an mteger ~O, or + oo (assummg . :¡:. . A 1cld has dtmension O. ths f;%11 ¡\rtin ring). e . - . X¡, x 2, ... ] be the polynomial . n~n (and hence
ring Z has dimension l . e
1
not ~n set of indetermmates x" over a field k, and let a be n~g tn a countabl
¡nftnJt~ The ring B = A j a h~s only one prime ideal ( the tdeal (x¡, ~~ .. :
Tlreorem 8.5. A ringA is Artin -=· A is Noetherian and di m A = O. -"~' · · · · x . .. ) ), hence B 1s a local ring of di m _namely the image or'
Proor. =>: By (8.1) wc ha ve dim A = O. Let m, ( 1 ~ i ~ n) be thc d . . t . .. , "' d 'ffi l ens10n O B
(XJ• ' 2 ' • 0 for it is not 1 1cu t to see that its prim .d . · ut B is not
'J.
maximal ideals of A (8.3) . Th en ri", .. 1 m," s; Cn", ... 1 m,)" = 9l " = O. Hcncc tsttnct
b ,.roetherta
l"'
' e 1 eal ts not fi ntte
. l
y gen~
(6.11) A is Noethcrian. Y erated.
is a local ring, m its maximal ideal, k = A/ . .
<=: Since the zero idepl has a primary decomposition (7 . 13) A has oni . 1 Ir le rn/nt2 is annt'h t'lated bY m and therefore has th m lts restdue field, the
A
finite number of minimaJ prime ideals, and these are all maximal sin ce di m A !_ .t A-modu . d( . . e structure of a k ,
Hence 91 = nr. 1 m , say; we have V'l" = O by (7. 15), hence . 01.... 1 tn~ = o (a-s 1?· Jflll is fimtely generate e.g., 1f A 1s Noetherian) th . . ~\ector
.
the previous part of the proof. Hence by (6. J 1) A ts an Arttn nng. •
n spa~· of generators of tn will span mfm2 as a vecto~ se tmages m mfm2 of
a. se (tn/nt2) is finite. (See (2.8).) pace, and therefore
Jf A is an Artin local ring with maximal ideal m, thcn m is thc only pri dunk
ideal of A and therefore m is the nilradical of A. Hcncc every elcmcnt of 11 ~c Prornosition 8.8. Let A be an Artin local ring. ,.,..,
1
J ,zen the following are
nilpotent, and m itself is nilpotent. Every element of A is either a unit or .s equivalen!:
. . j (p IS
nilpotent. An example of such a ~mg ts Z "), wherc p is prime and n ~ l. i) every ideal in A is principal;
Proposition 8.6. Let A be a Noetherian local ring, m its maximal ideal. Then ii) the maximal ideal m is principal;
~ l.
2
exactly one of tlze following two statements is true: iii) dimk (m/m )
i) m" '/; m" +1 for al/ n,· Proof. i) => ii) => iii) is clear.
2
ii) m" = Ofor some n, in which case A is an Artin local ring. iii) => i): If dimk (m/tn ) .= O, then m = m2, hence m = oby Nakayama's
Proof Suppose m" = m"+ 1 for sornen. By Nakayama's lemma (2.6) we havc lemma (2.6), and therefore A IS a field and there is nothing to prove.
m" = O. Let ~ be any prime ideal of A. Then m" s; ~, hence (taking radicals) If dimk (m/m2 ) = 1, then m is a principal ideal by (2.8) (take M = m
m = ~. Hence m is the only prime ideal of A and thercfore A is Artin ian. • there), say m = (x). Let a be an ideal of A, other than (O) or (1). We have
m = 91, hence m is nilpotent by (8.4) and therefore there exists an integer r
Th~or~m 8.7. (structure theorem for Artin rings). An Artin ring A is such that a ~ m', a $ n1' + 1; hence there exists y E a sueh that y = ax',
uniquely (up to isomorphism) a finite direct product of Artin local rings. y~ (x'+l); consequently a f# (x) anda is a unit in A . Hence x' e a, therefore
Proof Let m, (1 ~ i ~ n) be the distinct maximal ideals of A. From the proof m' = (x') ~ a and hence a = rn' = (x'). Hence a is principal. •
of (8.5) we ha ve 0f. 1 m~ = O for sorne k > O. By ( 1.16) the ideals mf are
coprime in pairs, nence n m~ = 0 m~ by (1.10). Consequently by (l. lO) again Example. The rings Zf(p") (p prime), k[x]f(f") (f irreducible) satisfy the
2 3 4
tbe natural mapping A~ Df- 1 (A/ mn is an isomorphism . Each A/mf is an conditions of (8.7). On the other hand, the Artin local ring k[x x ]/(x ) does
,

Artin local ring, hence A is a direct product of Artin local rings. not: here m is generated by x 2 and r (mod x 4), so that m2 = O and
Conversely, suppose A ~ Dr. . 1 A" where the A, are Artin local rings. dim (m/m2) = 2.
Then for each i we have a natural surjective homomorphism (projection on thc
ith factor) t/>,: A ~ A1• Let a1 = Ker (t/>1). By (1.10) the a1 are pairwisc coprime,
n
and a, = O. Let q, be the unique prime ideal of A" and let ~~be its contracti~n EXERCISES
•

;,-l(q,). The ideal ~~ is prime aod therefore maximal by (8.1). Since q, is ntl·
potent i.t .follows that a"' is .P 1-primary, and hence n
a, = (O) is a primary de· l. ~t q1 (') • • • f\ q" = O be a mini mal primary decomposition of the ze~o ideal
composttton of the zero ideal in A. Since the a 1 are pairwise coprime, so are the m a Noetherian ring and let q1 be ~ -primary. Let ~i'> be the rth symbollc.power
of "' (Ch ' n there extsts an
apter 4, Exercise 13). Show that for ea eh z = 1' · · ·,
' •
.p., and they are therefore isolated prime ideals of (0). Hence all the primary . "''
co~ponents a, are isolated, and therefore uniquely determined by A, by the_2n~ lnteger r, such that h<,,> e q1
S .,.,, - '
· 1 1
• an Artm oca
umqueness theorem (4.11). Hence the rings A ~ Aj a are uniqueJy determme . uppose q, is an isolated primary component. Then Av, tsffi . tly large r
~ 1 - 1 n ng hence ·r . . . . , - o 1~'or all su . cien ,
bYn, • h • I m, ts tts maxtmaltdeal we have m, - ' ·

4• ence q, === .Pi'> for all large r.

 92 ARTIN RI NGS

lf q, is an cmbedded primary component, then Av is Art' ·

1101
. . •- 1n1an he
powers m~ are all d1stmct, and so the l.>~'> are all distinct. Hen . ' ncc lhc
• •. 1 ce 1n thc .
9
pnmary decomposJtJOn we can rep acc q, by any of the infini tc set 0 f .s•vcn
ideaJs l'~r> wherc r ~ r" and so thcre are infini tely many 111 ¡11 • P,·pr~mary
decompositions of O which ditfer only in the \J,-componcnt. •mal Prtrnary
2. Let A be a Noetherian ring. Prove that the following are cquivalcnt·
i) A is Artinian; · Di serete Valuatio11 Rings and
ii) Spec (A) is discrete and finite;
iii) Spec (A) is discrete. Dedekind Don1ains
3. Let k be a field and A a finitely gcnerated k-algcbra. Provc that thc following
equivalent: are
i) A is Artinian ;
ii) A is a finite k-algebra. As we have indicated. befare, algebraic. number theory is one of the h'1stonca .
1
f!o prove that i) => ii), use (8. 7) to. reduce to thc ~ase w.here A is an Artin local Of commutattve algebra. 1n thts chapter we specialize down to th
50 urces . e case
rmg. By the NuiJstellensatz, the restdue field of A 1s a fimte extcnsion of k. Now . terest in number theory, namely to Dedekmd domains. We deduce th
0f 10
use the fact that A is of finite length as an A-module. To provc ii) ::::- i), observe ·
unique factorizatton o f 1'd ea1s m
· D edek'.md d omams · fr.om the general primarye
that the ideals of A are k-vector subspaces and therefore satisfy d.c.c.) mposition theorems. Although a d1rect approach 1s of course possible one
deco . h .
4. Let f: A -+ B be a ring homomorphism of finitc type. Consider the following obtains more insight our way 1~to t e precise context of number theory in
statements: mmutative algebra. Another 1mportant class of Dedekind domains occurs
co . 1 1 b .
i) f is finite; ·a connection with non-smgu ar a ge ratc curves. In fact the geometrical
ii) the fibres of ¡• are discrete subspaces of Spec (B); ~icture of the Dedelúnd condition is: non-singular of dimension one.
iii) for each prime ideal ~ of A, the ring B 0 A k(p) is a finite k(p)-algcbra The Iast chapter dealt with Noetherian rings of dimension O. Here we start
(k(lJ) is the residue field of Av); by considering the next simplest case, namely Noetherian integral domains of
iv) the fibres off* are finite. dimension one: i.e., Noetherian domains in which every non-zero prime ideal is
Prove that i) => ii) <=> iii) => iv). [Use Exercises 2 and 3.] ' maximal. The first result is that in such a ring we have a unique factorization
If fis integral and the fibres off* are finite, isf necessarily finite? theorem for ideals:
S. In Chaptcr 5, Exercise 16, show that X is a finite covering of L (i.e., thc number
Proposition 9.1. Let A be a Noetherian domain of dimension l. Tiren every
of points of X Iying over a given point of Lis finite and bounded).
non-zero ideal a in A can be uniquely expressed as a product ofprimary ideals
6. Let A be a Noetherian ring and q a p-primary ideal in A . Consider chains of wlrose radica/s are al/ distinct.
primary ideals from q to p. Show that all such chains are of finitc bounded Proof. Since A is Noetherian, a has a mínima] primary decomposition
Jengtb, and that all maximal chains have the same length.
a= nf=l q1 by (7.13), where each q1is say .tJ1-primary. Since dim A = 1 andA
is an integral domain, ea eh non-zero prime ideal of A is maximal, hence ~he. ~~
are distioct maximal ideals (since p 1 2 q1 2 a =1= 0), and are therefore patrwtse
coprime. Hence by (1.16) the q, are pairwise coprime and therefore by (1.10) we
have TI q, = n q,. Hence a = 0 q1• • •
. .Conversely, if a = n qh the same argument ShOWS tbat a -:== () q,; th.JS IS a
mtntmal primary decomposition of a, in which each q, is an tsolated pnmary
component, and is therefore unique by (4.11). •
· Let A be a Noetherian domain of dimension one in which every p~im~ry
tdeal i · 001'que factonzat.Ion
s a Prtme power. By (9.1) in such a ring we shall have . t
of non-ze 'd . , . . If 10 calize A wlth respec
t0 ro I eals mto products of pnme 1deals. we ditions
a non z · . . · r: · g the same con
• ero Pnme Ideal ~ we get a local nng A" saus.ym
93
 94 D ISCR t:: I E VALUATJON R JNGS ANO DEDEKIND DOMAI NS
DEDEKIND DO"AJ
1
" NS
as A , and therefore in Ap evcry non-zcro ideal is a powcr of thc ma . . ....., (nt/ lll:1) :::: 1,·
jv) dJu •k , •
Such local rings can be characterized in other ways. Xtmat tdcat. v) Every 110 n-zero tdealts a power of m,·
. .,..1 ere exists x E A such that every non-z .d .
•
DISCRETE VALUATION RINGS VI) J '' ero ' ea/ ts of th ¡¡
k ~ O. . e orm (X'),
Let K be a .field. A discrete valualion on K is a mapping v of K* onto z ( .r Before wc start gomg the rounds, we make t
proo1 • . . wo rcmarks :
K * = K - {O} is the multiplicative group of K) such that Whcrc Jf 0 ¡5 an 1deal :F O, (1), then a JS m-primary a d
(A) . h l n a :::> ll\n ~
=== m sincc m JS t e on y non-zcro prime id • - or sorne n.
1) v(xy) = v(x) + v(y), i.e., v is a homomorphism ; f or r a ( ) ' 1
ea , now use (7 16)
(B) m" =1= m" + for all " ~ O. This follows from (S.6).
1
· ·
2) v(x + y) ~ m in ( v(x), v(y) ).
i) ::> ii) by (5.18).
The set consisting of O and all x E K* such that v(x) ~ O is a ring, callcd ..) :::- iii). Let a E m and a -:/= O. By remark (A) the . .
valualion ring of v. It is a valuation ring of the field K . It is sorne times conv ..thc 11 ) n - 1 t+ ( ) C re CXJSls an In te
h that m" s; (a ' m =F a . hoose b E m" - 1 and b ti ( ) ger n
to extend v to the whole of K by putting v(O) = + 00 . cntcnt suc the fiel d o f f rae t'1ons o f A . We have x - 1 ~ A (sincc b 'fti (a) ') and let x --
albE K• d h r b r a , hcnce x-t ¡
Examples. The two standard examples are: not 1'ntegral over .
A,an t ere.ore y(5 .l)we havex - lmtt- tn(" ·r
1or 1 x
_ 1 me m s
1] . :;::
,,ould be a fa1thful A [x - -module, finttely generated as an A d )- '
1) K = Q. Take a fixed prime p, then any non zero x E Q can be written tn \T • f -mo u1e But
.- l¡n s; A by constructwn o x, hence x - m = A and thcreforc m = A ~
1

uniquely in the form pay, where a E Z and both numerator and denomina ter of .
are prime to p . Define vp(x) to be a. The valuation ring of Vp is the local rin~
Zcp>·
2) K = k(x), where k is a field and x an indeterminate. Take a fixcd
irreducible polynomial/E k [x] and defi ne v1 justas in 1). The valuation ring of
v1 is then the local ring of k [x ] with respect to the prime ideal (/).
An integral domain A is a discrete valuation ring if there is a discrete valua-
tion v of its field of fractions K such that A is the valuation ring of v. By (5.18),
A is a local ring, ancl its maximal ideal mis the set of all x E K sucp that v(x) > O.
If two elements x , y of A have the same value, that is if v(x) = v(y), then
v(xy - 1) = O and therefore u = xy - 1 is a unit in A. Hence (x) = (y).
If a :¡:: O is an ideal in A, there is a least integer k such that v(x) = k for
sorne x E a. It follows that a contains every y E A with v(y) ~ k, and therefore
the only ideals :¡:: O in A are the ideals m k = {y E A: v(y) ~ k}. These form a
single chain m ::::> m2 ::::> m3 ::::> • • · , and therefore A is Noetherian.
Moreover, since v: K* ~ Z is surjective, there exists x E m such that
v(x) = 1, and then m = (x), and mk = (xk) (k ~ 1). Hence. m is .the o~ly
non-zero prime ideal of A, andA is thus a N oetherian local domam of dunenswn
one in which every non-zero ideal is a power of the maximal ideal. In fact many
of these properties are characteristic of discrete valuation rings.
. . ifd ' ·on one tn its
Propo1itio11 9.2. Let A be a Noethenan local domam o 1mensl .'
1
maximal ideal, k = Af m its residue field. Then the f ollowing are equzva ent.
••
•
i) A is a discrete valuation ring;
ii) A is integral/y closed,·
iii) m is a principal ideal;
;~: · (2 8) h d' ( ¡ 2 x - (x).
iii) => lV). By . we . ave lm" m m ) ~ 1, and by remark (B) mfm2 =/: O.
iv) => v). Lct a be an tdeal :F (0), (l). By remark (A) we have a :::> "f¡
some n; from (8.8) (applied to A/m") it follows that a is a power of m.- m or
v) => vi). By rema.r k (B), m ::f- m 2 , hence therc exists x E m, x ~ m2. But
(x) = m' by hypothes1s, hence r = 1, (x) = m, (xk) = m".
vi) => i). Clearly (x) = m, hence (x") ::f- (x" + 1) by remark (B). Hence if a
¡5 any non-zero element of A, we have (a) = (xk) for exactly one value of k.
Define v(a) = k and extend v to K* by defining v(ab - 1 ) = v(a) - ~;{b). Check
that vis well-defined and is a discrete valuation, and that A is the valuation ring
of v. •
DEDEKJND DOMAINS
Theorem 9.3. Let A be a Noetherian domain of dimension one. Then the
fo/lowing are equivalent:
i) A is integral/y c/osed;
ii) Every primary ideal in A is a prime power;
iii) Every local ring A" (p :¡:: O) is a discrete valuation ring.
•
Proof. i) <=> iii) by (9.2) and (5. 13). .
iQ <=> iii). Use (9.2) and the fact that primary ideals and powers of ldeals •
behave weU under localization : (4.8), (3.11). •
.
A ring satisfying the conditions of (9.3) is called a Dedekind domain. '
CoroUary 9.4. In a Dedekind domain every non-zero ideal has a unique
factorization as a product of prime ideals.
Proof. (9.1) and (9.3). •
 96 DISCRETE VALUATION RINGS ANO DEDEKIND DOMAlNS

FRACTIONAL lDEAts
Exam¡)Jcs. 1) Any principal ideal domnin A. For 1 1• No ti . 97
'd 1 · fi · / 5 e 1crnn ( ·
r ea rs nrtely gencrated) and of dimcnsion onc (Examplc . f :. 511 H:c cvcry t lbility is a local propcrty :
rnvcr
3
cvery local ring Av(lJ =/: O) is a principal ideal domain hcncc l.t tc(r (1. 6)). 1\lso . osition 9.6. For a fractional ideal M thefc .
)y 9·-?) .•1 d'rscrctc
va 1uatron
. .
rrng; hencc A rs.
a Dedekmd . '
dorna in by (9.3). proP . . , o11owmg are equil'a/ .
i) tvf is ínverllble, . em.
2) Lct K be an algcbraic number ficlcl (a finite algebraic . .
Its ring ofintegers A is the integral closurc of z in K. (For exam ~~~c~~"''? 11 of Q). ") ¡.,l ís finite/y generated al/(/, jor each prime ideal h M . .
JI • ,.,, P ts mvertible .
then A = Z[i], the ring of Gaussian integcrs.) Then A is a D~d \ ~ 1\ ::::: Q(i), ·'') M is fimtely generated al/(/, for each max· ·[ ·¡
Jll • una u ea[ lll Al
.
.
. . . e rnd dornain · · vert1'b/e•·
111 • m IS
Tlleorcm 9.5. The rmg of mtcgcrs 111 an algC'braic 111 m1hcr }iC'/d , . ·
Dedekind domain. 1\. IJ u .r i) => ii): Av = (M ·(A:Nl))v = Mv·(Av:Mv) by (3 11)
Pro.o,.fi itely gcncrated, bccause invcrtiblc). · and (3. 15) (for
Proof K is a separable extcnsion of Q (beca use the charactcri ~r , . . M!S Jll
hence by.(5.1~) thcrc is a basis ut> .. . , un of K ovcr Q such that ;t= ~s ;e~~_}· ii) => iii) as usual.
Hence A JS finrtely gencrated as a Z-mod ulc and thercforc Nocthcrian \j )· ...1 => i): Lct a = NI · (A: !vf), which is an integral ideal F . h .
JI ( ( • or cae maxtmal
is integrally closed by (5.5). To complete the proof we must show that e~/ , so ,..J 'd ,11 lit wc have Clm = lvfm· Am:Mm) by (3.11) and (315)) _A b
1 Ce • r1- . • - m ecause
· 'd 1
zero pnme 1 ea .P o f A · · 1 · r) 11011·
1s maxrma , a n? th rs f~llow~ from (5.8) and (S. ): Mmis invcrtJble. Hence a ::;:: m. Consequently a = A and therefore M is
9
(5.9) shows that p n Z =/: O, hence \.> n Z 1s a maxrmalrdcal of z and thcr·r invcrtiblc. •
· maxtma
.p rs · 1 111
· A by (5. 8) . • Ca ore
Proposition 9.7. Let A be a local domain. Then A is a discrete raluation
R emark. The uniquc factorization theorern (9.4) was originally preved for ring <=> every JlOII-zcro fractiona/ ideal of A is invertible.
rings of intcgers in algebraic numbcr ficlds. The un iqucncss thcorcms of Chapter Proof =>. Lct x be a generator of thc maximal ideal m of A, and Jet M ::¡:. 0
4 m ay be rcgarded as gencralizations of this result: prime powcrs ha ve to be be a fractional ideal. Then there exists y E A such that y M s A: thus y Misan
replaced by primary ideals, and products by intersections. integral ideal, say (xr), and therefore M = (xr -s) where s = v(y).
FRACfiONAL IDEALS <= : Every non-zcro integral ideal is invertible and therefore finitely gen-
erated, so that A is Noetherian. It is therefore enough to preve that every non-
Lct A be an integral domain, K its field of fractions. An A-submodulc ¡\/ of K zero integral ideal is a power of m. Suppose this is false; let L be the set of non-
is a fractional ideal of A if xA1 S A for sorne x =/: O in A. 1n particular, the zero ideals which are not powers of m, and let a be a maximal element of E.
"ordinary" ideals (now called integral ideals) are fractional ideals (takc x = 1). Then a =fi m, hence a e m; hence m -l a e m - 1m = A is a propcr (integral)
Any element u E K generates a fractional ideal, denoted by (u) or Au, and called ideal, and m - 1 n 2 n. If m -lo = n, then a = ma and therefore a = O by
principal. If Mis a fractional ideal, the set of all x E K such that x 1\l s; A is dc- Nakayama 's lcmma (2.6); hence m -la ~ a and hence m- 1a is a powcr of m
noted by (A: M). (by the maximality of a). Hence a is a power of m: contradiction. •
Every finitely generated A-submodule M of K is a fractional ideal. For if M
is generated by X¡, •. . , Xn E K, wc can writc x 1 = y 1z - 1 (1 ~ i ~ n) wh~re J'¡ The "global" counterpart of (9.7) is
and z are in A, and then zM s A. Convcrsely, if A is Noetherian, cvery fractronal Theorem 9.8. L et A be an integral domain. Then A is a Dedekind domain <=>
ideal is fini tely generaled, for it is of the form x- 1 n for sorne integral ideal 11 •
every non-zero fractional ideal of A is invertible. .
An A-submodule M of K is an invertible ideal if there exists a submodulc
Proof. =>: Let M =1= O be a fractional ideal. Since A is N~etheri.an, ft~ 15
N of K such that MN = A. The module N is then unique and cqual to (A: /11~, ·
firnrtcly . . 1
generated. For each pnme 1dea lJ =1= ' P 0 1~~ 1·s a fractronal rdea r 0
H
1
\/ ¡5
for we havc N s (A:M) = (A:M)MN sAN =· N. Jt follows that M 15
A1 · (A·· M) == ce
A ~f the discrete valuation ring Av, hence is invertible by (9.7). cnce 1
fi nitcly generated, and therefore a fractwnal · ·tdeal: 10r
r ·
smce
rnvertible, by (9. 6). .
-
thcre exist x1 E M and y 1 E (A: M) (1 ~ i ~ n) such that L: Xt.Yt ~ 1, and hdcnby . . . 'bl hence finitely gencrated,
for any x E Al/ we have x = L. "' (y 1x )x1: eac l1 y,x E A , so that NI JS oocneratc -:::: Every non-zero integral tdeal ts mvertr e, . discretc valun-
~cnce A is Noctherian. We shall show that each Av~~ .¡. ~ ¡~:al =F o in Av is
0 1
x1, . .. , x". . .·
'bl its inversc
Clearly every non-zero principal fractional ideal (u) ts mvertr e,, . . ation ~ron r~ng. For this it is enough to show that ea~h 1 :te~;aideal in JÍp, and Jet
. .
being (u- 1). T he mvert1ble . h resp ect to mu trp1re
.tdeals form a group w1t , rnvertrble, and then use (9. 7). Let ó =/= O be an (mteo:a • t'bl by (9.7). •
n -- ur.c == ú n A. Then n •ts ,mvert•b • } l
e, 1ence r.u -- oP JS mver 1 e
whose identity element is A = (J ).
 98 OISCRETE VALU ATJON RI NGS ANO DEDEK INO DOMAINS

•
Corol/ary 9.9. lf A is a D edekind domain tite 11011_ ,.,,.0 r., . 99
' .... J' act1o,1 1
form a g roup with respect to multiplicarion. • a idea/so¡ A ~cJSES . . ..
Tbis gro up is callcd the g roup of idea/s of A; we denote 't b A be a Dcdckmd do.mam, S a. multiphcativcly closcd subs
1 l· Lct A ·s either a Dedckmd domam or the ficld of fract' et of A. Show that
1
tenninoJogy (9.4) says that is a free (abclian) gro up, gencra tcd b 1· In this {h S ~ •Sulpposc that S ::/:= A - {O}, and lct H , H ' be the i~:~s ~fA.
prime ideals of A . Y e non-zcro
~ •A respectively. Show thnt cxtcnsion of ideals inda e ass gr~ups of A and
Let K* den o te thc multiplicative group of thc ficld of fract' _, S 1 • m H _ ,.. H ' . uces a surJective homo-
morP 115
Each u E K* defines a fractio nal idea l (u), and th e mapping ll l->- ( ·~·~s .1\ of .{
be a Dedekind domain. lf 1 = a 0 + a 1x + ... + .
morphism e/>: K* -4- l. The image P of e/> is th e group of princ/' / sr ~ h~rno. ., Let A . A f . llnx" IS a poly .
'" with coefficients 10 , t 11c content o 1 1s the ideal c{f) == (a )n~m1al
ideals: the quotient group H = 1/P is callcd the ideal class gror~a /act~ona) prove Gauss's /emma ~hat c.(d/g) =] c( f} c(g).
1 1
0
• • .. , a" 1n A.
kernel Uof c/> is the set ofall u E K* such that (u)= (1 ) so tha t it is t~ A. Thc
units of A . We ha ve a n exact sequence ' le group o¡ [Localize at each max1 ma 1 ea .
al uation ring (other than a field) is Noetherian if and onl ·r. . .
J, A v . Y 1 1t 1s a dtscrete
1 -4- U - >- K* - >- 1 - >- H ~ l . vaJuation nng.
t A be a local domain which is not a field and in which the maxim 'd .
Remark. For the Dedekind do ma ins th a t a rise in numbe r theory tllc
. . ' re are
L
4. e n <O n - o p h A. .
principal and n. 1 m - · ro ve t at · 1s a d1screte valuation ring.
a11 ea1m IS
class1cal theorems .r ela!mg to .the gro ups f! a~d U. Let K_ be an a lgcbraic numbcr
fie.ld and let A be 1ts rmg of mtegers, wh1ch JS a Dedekmd domain by (9.5). In S. Let M be a finitelt generated mod ule over a Dedekind doma in. Preve that Mis
th1s case: flat <=> Mi s tors10n-free.
1) H is a finite gro u p.' Its o rder h is th e class number of the field K. Thc foi- [Use Chapter 3, Exercise 13 and Chapter 7, Exercise 16.]
Jowing are equivalent: (i) h = 1; (ii) 1 = P ; (iii) A is a pri ncipa l ideal domain· 6 Let M be a finitely~generated torsion module (T(M ) = M) over a Dedekind
(iv) A is a unique factorization do main. ' · domain A. Pro ve that M is uniquely representable as a finite direct sum of mod-
ules A/p~•, where P1 are non-zero prime ideals of A. [For each p '1= o, Mp is a
2) U is a finitely -generated abelia n gro up. M o re prcciscly, wc can specify torsion Av-module ; use the structu re theorem for modules over a principal ideal
the number of generators of U. First, the elemcnts of.fi nite o rdc r in U are just doma in.]
the roots of unity which lie in K, and they fo rma fi ni te cyclic group W; U/ W is
1. Let A be a Dedekind doma in and a :f:. O an ideal in A. Show that every ideal in
torsion-free. The number of generators of Uf W is give n as follows: if (K : Q) = n
Afa is principal.
there are n distjnct embeddings K -+ e (the field of complex nu mbers). Of Deduce that every ideal in A can be generated by at most 2 elements.
these, say r 1 map K into R, and the rest pa ir off (if a is one, then w o a is another,
where w is the automorphism of e defined by w(z) = z) into say pairs: thus '2 8. Let a, ó, e be three ideals in a Dedekind domain. Prove that
r 1 + 2r2 = n. The number of generators of Uf W is then r 1 + r 2 - l. a r. (ú + e) = (a l l ó) + (a n e)
The proofs of these results belong to algebraic number theory and not to a + (6 n e) = (a + ó) n (a + e).
commutative algebra: they require techniques of a different nature from those [Localize.]
used in this book. 9. (Chinese Remainder Theorem). Let alt ... , On be ideals and let X1, • • · ' x" be
elements in a Dedekind domain A. Then thc system of congruences x e
Examples. 1) . K = Q(v=l); n = 2, r 1 = O, r2 = 1, r 1 + r2 - 1 = O. The x, (mod O¡) (1 ~ i ~ n) has a solution x in A <=> x, = x, (mod a, + a,) when-
only units in Z[i] = A are the four roots of unity ± 1, ±i. ever i :¡:. j .
[This is equivalent to saying that the sequence of A-modules
2) K= Q(v2); n = 2, r 1 = 2, r 2 = O, r 1 + r 2 - 1 = l. W = {± l},
and U/ W is infinite cyclic. In fact the units in A = Z[v'2] are ± (1 + Ví)", A ~ Ef)
n "
Afa, -+ ffi A/(a, + 01
) -
•
where n is any rational integer. l • l 1<1

is exact, where 4> and .p are defined as follows : h (' j)-componeot

~(x) == (x + a¡, .. . , x + an); tjJ(x 1 + O¡, · · · , ~n + 0~{1 1.5 =~ou~h to show that
•

.\'• - x, + a, + a1• To show that this scquence 15 cxact Yassume tbat A is

1't ·
Is exact when localized at any p rf; O: ·m ot her words we ma

S a discrete valuation ring , and then it is easy.]

+r.c.A.
 TOPOLOGtES ANO
COMP LETto~·s
.~ 101
10 . 1 nt (this mcans that thc ficlds of fractions f h
equtva e . o t e two local .
. norphtc). . nngs are
tSOl fWO of thc impo~tant propcrtJes of localization are that it
d t he Noethenan propcrty. T he samc is true r preserves exact-
·ss an 10r compler
nc . t to finitcly-gcneratcd modules- but thc proofs a ton- when we
restnc . A h . re much hardc r and take
.Completio11s P rnos tO f thts chapter. not . er tmportant rcsult . h
1s t e theo ·
u . 'dcntifics the part of a rmg which is "killcd" b _rem of Kru\l
1
vluc 1 1 · Y completton R
' k' g Krull 's Thcorcm IS thc analoguc of the fact that . · oughly
spea tn ' . . an analyt 1c fu r .
·ned
l by the coeffictents of tts Taylor expansion Th. nc ton 1s
In classícal algebraic geometry (i.c. ovcr thc ficld of complcx numb ) detcrrn . . . · 1s ana 1ogy is ¡
. . crs wc r Noetherian local nng m whtch case thc thcorcm J·ust asse ts th f"\ e carest
use transcendental mcthods. Th1s rncans that we regard a rat 1onal fu . can ,ora . 1 'd 1 B r at ,, 1 m" - O
. ' nctton as .l e m is thc maxtma 1 ea . oth Krull's Theorem and the ' -
analytíc function (of one or more complcx vanables) and considcr 1.ts ' an w ter , cxactness of com-
· · geomctry thc be t Power
I n a b.stract a 1ge b ratc 1 t ·on are easy consequences of the wcll-known 'Artin- Rees Le ,
series expansion about a pomt. pe 1 1 1 . mma and we
. r . S Wc ca acco rd this lemma a centra p. ace m ou r trcatmcnt. '
d 1
do is to consider the correspon mg torma power senes. This is not so n
. .
as in the holornorph1c case but 1t ca n be a very useful tool. The pr
POWcrful f or the study of comp1et10ns wc. shall . find it nccessary to introduce gra ded
. . . occss of rings. The pr~totype of a graded nn~ 1s the rin~ of polynomials k[x1 , •• . , x,J,
replacing polynornJals by formal power senes •s an cxample of a general d .
. . CV¡ce the grading bemg the usua~ onc obtamed by takmg the dcgrce of each variable
h
known as completion. Anot er tmportant tnstance of completion occt .
• • • • • 1rs 1n to be 1. Ju~t as ungraded nngs ~re thc fou~da~ion for.affinc algebraic gcometry,
number theor~ m the fo~mat10n o: p-ad!c numb~rs: .lf p 1s a pnme numbcr in Z
50 graded nngs a.re the foundat1o? ~or prOJCcttvc algcbraic geomctry. Thcy are
we can work m the vanous quot1ent nn gs Zfp Z . m othcr words, we can t
and solve congruences modulo p" for higher and highcr values of 11 • This 7 therefore of considerable geometnc tmportance. The important construction of
the associated graded ring Ga(A) of an ideal a of A, which we shall mcet, has a 1

analogous to tbe successive approximations given by the terms of a Taylo:
expansion and, justas it is convenient to introduce formal power series, so it is
convenien t to introduce the p-adic numbers, these being the limit in a certain
sen se of Z/p"Z as n -+ oo. In one respect, however, the p-adic numbers are more
complica ted than form al power series (in, say, one variable x). Whcreas the
very definite geometrical interpretation. For example, if A is the local ring of a
point p on a variety V with a as maximal ideal, then Ga(A) corresponds to the
projective tangent cone at P, i.e. all the lincs through P which are tangent to v
at P. This geometrical picture should help to explain the significance of G11(A)
in connection with the properties . of V near P and in particular in connection
~

polynornials of degree n are naturally embedded in the power series, the group with the study of the completton A .
Zfp 11Z cann ot be embedded in Z. Although a p-adic integer can be thought
of as a power series ¿ OnP" (O ~ a" < p) this representa ti on docs not beha\'e
well undcr the ring operations. TOPOLOGIES AND COMPLETIONS
In this chapter we shaJl describe t he general process of "adic" completion- Lct G be a topological abelian group (written additively), not necessarily
the pri me p being replaced by a general ideal. It is most conveniently expressed Hausdorff: thus Gis both a topological space and an abelian group, and the two
in topological terms but the reader should beware of using thc topology of the structures on G are compatible in the sense that the mappings G x G ~ G and
real numbers asan intuitive guide. Instead he should think of the power series G-+ G, defined by (x, y) H- x + y and x ~ - x respectively, ~re contt.nuous.
topology in which a power series is "small" if it has only terms of high orde~. If {O} is closed in G then the diagonal is closed in G x G (bemg the mver~e
Alternatively he ca n thi nk of the p -adic topology on Z, in which an integer 15 ' mapping (x, y)~ x-y) and so G ts
image of {O} under the · H ausd?rff· lf a ts
"small" if it is divisible by a high power of p . a fixed elemen t of G the translation Ta defined by Ta(x) == x +.a 15 a \hohmeo-
. · T oJ. ence
Completion, like localization, is a met hod of simplifying things by co~· morphism of G onto G (for Ta is continuous, and tts mverse ts -. ' d
centrating attention nea r a point (or p rime). It is, however, a more drtstl~ if U is any neighborhood of Oin G thcn U + a is a neighborhood of a 111 G,,an
' · h. f¡ Thus the topo ogy
simplificati on than localization. For example, in algebraic geometry th~ 0 ~~ conversely every neighborhood of a appears m t IS o~m.
ring of a non-singular point on a va riety of dimension n always has . ~r ~: of G is uniquely determined by the neighborhoods of O111 G.
completion the ring of formal power series in n variables (this will essent•a ~ ts Lemma 10.1. Let H be tlze intersection of al/ neighborlloods oJO in G. Then
. . ft such polO
pro ved 111 Cha pter 11 ). On the other hand the local nngs o wo . . aliY i) H is a subgroup .
cannot be isomorphic unless th e va rieties o n which they lie are b•ratwn ·
lOO
 J 02 COMPLETIONS
TOPOLOGIES AN
. D COMPLETtONs
ii) H is tlze c/osure of {0}.
+ Gn ¡5 a netghborhood of g; sincc g + G e: . 103
iii) G/ H is Haus dorff. then g J-Ience for any ¡, the coset h + Gn is open and " - G" thts shows G .
iv) Gis Hausdorff <=> H = O. open. . since this is the complement of Gn in G it ~ollthcreforc Uhto (h + "ats
·s open, . . b ows that G . ~ ,J
Proof i) follows from the continuity of the group operat ions F .. 1 f r topologJes gtven Y scq uenccs of subgrou ps th . " ts closed
. or 11) wc h o .. f 1 1 . . ere t s a n l . .
, ·e dcfi mtwn o t 1e comp etton whtch is oft . a ternattVe pu 1
x E H <> OE x - U fo r aJI neighborh oods u of ave : algebrat . G TI 1 . en convemcnt S re y
- 0 e uehYseq uencc m . len t le unagc of x in G/G . . uppose (x )
<> X E {0}. is a a f f . -v " ts ultimat 1 '
l saY to ~~~ · 1 we pass rom 11 + l to " tt is clcar that ~ e y constant
cqua ~ " +1 ~ t: '
ii) implies that the cosets of H are a ll closed; thus points are 1 . · ction ~ .. Under the
proJe o,. ~ 1
and so G/ H is Hausdorff. Thus H = O :::- G is Hausdorff an~ tlsed 10 GfH
0

•rs tnVIa
• • J. • , lC CO!lVC
G/Gn+ 1 · >- G/ G11 •
rsc
ThuS a Cauch y sequcnce (xv) in G defines a coherem sequence ( .
Assume for simplicity that O E G has a countable fu nda ment 1 en) tn the sense
neighborhoods. Then the completion G of G may be defi ned in the ~su~s~; of that
on+l~n +l = ~" for all n.
means of Cauchy sequences. A Cauclzy sequen ce in G is defined to be Yby
. a scquencc
(xv) of elements of G such that, for any nerghborhood U of o there . Moreover it is clear.
that equivalent Cauchy sequences defi 1
h nc t 1e same seq
· s(U) wrt· h t he property t h at ' cxtsts an
mteger (!>')
n •
Finally, gtven any co erent sequcnce (g ) we ca
• • • • b k. n,
uence
n construct a Caueh
sequence (x n) gtvmg rrse to tt y ta mg Xn to be any clement . th y
x 11 - xv E U for all ¡.t, v ;;;¡: s( U).
that x 1 - Xn E Gn)· T hus (J can equally well be defined as tthn e cofset gn (so
- n+ • h b . e set o coherent
Tw~ Cauchy sequences are equivalen/ if ~v Yv ~ O in G. The set of all
- sequences (~11) wtth t ~ o vtous gro~p structu re.
eqmvalence classes of• Cauchy sequences •
rs denoted
• .A
by é. If (x v), (y)v are , We have now arnved at a spectal case of inverse fimit< "·· More generally, 1

Cauchy sequences, so rs (xv + Yv), and 1ts class m v depends only on the classes consider any sequence of groups {An} and homomorphisms
of (xv) and (Yv). Hence we ha vean addition in G with respect to which 6 ¡5 an
On+ l: An +l-+ An.
~belian group. For each x E G the class of the constant sequence (x) is an
element cf>(x) of G, and 4>: G --)- G is a homomorphism of abelian groups. Note We call this an inverse system, a?d the group of all coherent sequences (an)
that 4> is not in general injective. In fact we have (i.e., a11 E A,.. and 0,.. +1an +1 = an) 1s called the inverse limit of the system. It is
Ker e/> = U n usually written ~m A n, the homomorphisms O" being understood. With this
where U runs through all neighborhoods of O in G, a nd so by ( 10. 1) ~ is injective notation we bave
if and only if G is Hausdorff. G ~ lim G/Gn.
(

If H is another abelian topological group and f: G ~ H a continuous

homomorphism, then the image under fofa Ca uchy sequence in G is a Cauchy
sequence in H, and therefore f induces a homomorphisfu /: G -+ fl, which is
.
contmuous. If b 1 g
we ave G --)- H --)- K, then g/"'.... ... ~
o f = g o f.
So far we have been quite general and G could for instance have been the
additive group of rationals witb the usual topology, so that G wo uld be the r: al
numbers. Now, however, we restrict ourselves to the special kind of topologtes
occurring in commutative algebra, namely we assume that O E G has a funda-
mental system of neighborhoods consisting of subgroups. Thus we have a
sequence of subgroups
G = Go 2 G1 2 · · · 2 Gn 2 · · ·
and U s; Gis a neigbborhood ofO ifand only ifit contains sorne Gn· A.typica~
example is the p-adic topology on Z, in which Gn = pnz. Note that.;" su~
1
topologies the subgroups G,.. of G are both open and closed. In fact g E
11
The inverse limit definition of G has many advantages. lts main drawback
is that it presupposes a fixed choice of the subgroups G,... Now we can have
different sequences of G,.. defining the same topology and hence the same com-
pletion. Of course we could define notions of "equivalent" inverse systems but
the merit of the topological Ianguage is precisely that such notions are already
built into it.
. The exactness properties of completions are best studied by inverse limits.
FJrst let us observe that the inverse system {G/G,..} has the special property that •
8r.u is always surjective. Any inverse system with this property we shall calla
~~~~ective system. Suppose now that {An}, {Bn}, {Cn} are three inverse systems
n that we have commutative diagrams of exact sequences
O ~ An+l ~ Bn+l-+ Cn +l -+ O
~ -1- +
o ~ An ~ B,.. -+ C,. -+ O.
 104 COMPLETIONS

We shaJJ then say that we have an exact sequence of inverse .r Apply (l0.2) to the cxact sequences lOS
díagram certainly induces homomorphisms systems. 'fhe
proo; · G' G G"
O - >- Ji m A n -+ Hm B" - >- lim
o( o( <
e" _,. O O -+ G' n Gn ~ Gn ~ pG"-+ O. a
but this sequence is not always exact. Howevcr, wc have . ticular we can apply (10.3) with G' == G then G" _
In par ology so that G" = G" . Hence we dedu~ - G/G,.. has the
Proposition 10.2. Jf O - >- {A n} -+ {Bn} - >- {en} - >- O is an e>:acr . d'screte
1 top
inverse systems tlzen · .sequence oJ.r Corol',ary
' JO •4. <in is a subgroup of (; and

O -+ Jim An -+ lim Bn -+ lirn en G/Gn ~ G/ G11 • •

o( o( ~
. inverse limits in (10.4) wc deduce
Taking
is always exact. Jf, moreover, {An} is a surjective system then
proposition 10.5. (; ~ Ó. •
O-+ limAn -+ lim Bn - >-limen -+ O
< < ~--- J.. G -+ (j is an isomorphism we shall say that G is complete. Th
is exact. If 'f'. . f G. l us (lO.S)
that the completJOn o ts compete. Note that our definition of e -
Proof Let A = f1:.
1 An and define dA: A -+ A by el 11 (an) = an - O (a ) asser~ ludes Hausdorff (by (10.1 )). om
plete me f 1 ·
Then Ker dA ~ o(Jim An. Define B, e and d 8 , d e similarly. The exactn+l n+l.
sequcncc The most importan~ class o :xamp es of topologtcal groups of the kind
consideríng are gtven by takmg G = A, Gn = a", whcre a is an ideal in a
of inverse systems then defines a cornrnutative diagram of exact sequences
'~e a~ The topology so defined on A is called the n-adie topology, or just the
0--rA--rB -+C-+0 nng 1·ogy· Since the a" arehideals,
a-topo h it. is not hard
. to check that
. with this topology
dA~ dn-J, de_¡, . topological ring, i.e. t at t e nng operat10ns are contmuous. By (10.1) thc
0-+A-+B -+ C -+0 A IS al gy is Hausdorff
topo o
~n... .
a" = (0). The completion A of A is again a topo-
. . h h' h k .
logical ring; 4>: A -+ A ts a contmuous nng omomorp tsm, w ose ernel 15
and hence by (2.10) an exact sequence
O -+ Ker dA-+ Ker dB -+ Ker d e--+ Coker dA ->- Coker d 8 -+ Coker d e -7 O. n•¿ikewise for an A-module M: take _G = M! G, = a"M_· Thjs defines ~he
To complete the proof we ha ve only to prove that a-topo1ogy 011 M ' and the completion M of M
. ts a topologtcal A-module .(t.e.
A x M--7 k! is continuous). If f: M -+ N ts any A-module homomorphtsm,
{An} surjective => dA surjective, then f(a"M) = a"f(M) s a" N, and therefore f !s con,_tinuous (with respect to
the a-topologies on M and N) and so defines/: M --7 N.
but this is clear because to show dA surjective we have only to solve inductively ,
the equations Examples. I) A = ·k [x ], where k is a field a~d x an indeterminatc; a = (x).
Then Á = k[[x]], the ring of formal power senes. . .
Xn - On+l(Xn+l) = On 2) A = z a = (p) p prime. Then A is the ring of p-ad1c mtegers. lts
for Xn E An, given an E An. • '
elements are infinite '
series L.:... o anp", o ~ an ~ p - 1. We have p" --7 Oas
n -7 oo.
Remark. The group Coker dAis usually denoted by lím 1 An, smce · 1't IS
· a derived
(
functor in the sense of homological algebra.
FlLTRATIONS
Coro/ltuy 10.3. Let O -+ G' -+ G!!...:,. G" --+ O be an exact sequence a:~
groups. Let G have the topo/ogy defined by a sequence {Gn} o~ subgrouptG }. The a-~opology of an A-module M was defined by ta
ki
:gthe submodules a" M
of defining the same
as bas1c neíghborhoods of O, but there are other way =' ... where the M,.
give G', G" the induced topo/ogies, i,e. by the sequences {Gn n Gn}, n
Then topology. An (infinite) chain M= M~ 2 M1 · · · ~e!ted by (M ). lt is an
2 1

11
are submodules of M, is called ajiltratlon of M, and . n if aAf :::: Mn+t for
«-filtration if nM e M c-
10
r all n and a stable a-.filtratiO "
n - n+l ' ' ' n
ls exact. all sufficiently large n. Thus (n" M) is a stable a-filtrauo · •
 J06 COMPLETlONS
G RADED RINGS ANO
Lemma 10.6. /f (M")' (M~) are stab/e a-filtrations of tv/ Mooull:s 107
bounded di.fference: that is, there e.xists m 1 ínteger 11 suc·l • lhcn lhey hav A be a ring (not graded), a an ideal of A Th
, o · 1 11wt 111 e .
Lct s· ·¡ 1 ·f M l.S an A-moduleand
• :::: Et>:-o a". 1~1 ar y, 1
· en we ca t
. n orm a &raded
and Mn+no S Mnfor al/n ~ O. Hence al/ stable a-:filtrar · " +no S M'
tons derer11u,e nnS ;1 M* =' EBn Nln ts a gradcd A*-module s· M.,.,ts an a-filtration f
same topo/ogy on Af, namely the a-topology. ·
lhe~ J,f thcn . . fi . 1 ' mee amM e M o
, If A is Noethcnan, a ts. n1tc Y gencratcd, say b x n - '~~+r.·
Proof. Enough to take Al~ = a"NI. Sincc ald e M ro ~] and is Noethcnan by (7 .6). y 1> • • • • xr; then A' ::::
r " - n+1 r a 11 11 w 1
a"M S M n; a so aAfn = Mn + 1 10r all n ~ n0 say, hencc /vi
1 ' e lave A[x1' • • • ' ' ' •
S n"M. • n+no ::::: O"Af ,ma 10.8. Let A be a Noetherian ring M afi .,
~o L en . .r ·t ' m e1Y-generated A
J ,( ) an o--filtra/1011 O; M. Tllen the following arn equiVa
. 1ent: ·module,
( Jt'J n . <;

i) M* fs a finitely-generated A*-module,·
GRADED RINGS AND MODULES
ii) The filtration (Mn) is stable.
A graded ring is a ring A together with a family (A")"> 0 of subgrou s .r Each Mn is finitely gcnerated, hcncc so is cach Q = r.:L\n ..
additive group of A, such that A = '+':.. 0 An and AmA e A r0 r all p of the PrOO;· • b ut no t ('m genera l) an A *-submodule. n. Howe
W r•o Mr: th1s IS a
w 1\ - m + JI m 11 > o
1\
b Oli'P of M .
Thus A 0 is a subring of A, and each An is an A0 -module. ' ... · su g ver, It generates
one,' namely
Examplc. A = k[x11 • •• , x,], An = set of all homogeneous polynomials M: = M o EE>···EE> Mn Et) aMn Ef> a2 M 11 Ei) ... ffi a'M11 EiJ ...
degree n. of
Since Qn is finitely *generated as an A-module,
d. .
M:
is finitely generated
as an
.rr A is a graded ring, a graded A-module is an A-module kf togcther with a r
A*-module. The M n 10rrn an aseen mg cham, whose union is M•. Since A* is
family(Mn)n >o ofsubgroupsof ~such thatM = E8:-o AlnandArnlvln s M m +n Noetherian, M* is finitely generated as an .A*-module <> the chain stops, i.e.,
for all m, n ~ O. Thus each Mn IS an Ao-rnodule. An elemcnt x of N[ is ¡, 01110 _ M* = #f't0 for sorne no <=> M no + r = o'M no for all r ~ O<> the filtration ¡5
geneous if x E Mn for sorne n (n = degree of x). Any clcmcnt y E Nf can be stable. •
written uniquely as a finite surn 2n Yn. where Yn E Ñln for all n ;;?: O, and all but a
finite number of the Yn are O. The non-zero cornponents Yn are callcd the Proposition 10.9. (Artin- Rees lemma). Let A be a Noetherian ring, a
lwmogeneous components of y. an ideal in A, J\!1 a finitely-generated A-module, (M11) a stable a-filtration
If M, N are graded A-modules, a homomorphism ofgraded A-modules is an of .M. If A1 ' is a submodule of M, then (M' n Mn) is a stable a-filtration
A-module homomorphism f: J\!1 ->- N such thatf(Mn) S Nn for all n ~ O. of M '.
If A is a graded riog, Jet A+ = EF>n>o An. A + is an ideal of A. Proof. We have a(M ' fllvfn) S aM ' n oM" S M' n .Mn+ 11 hence(M' fl M.,.,)
is an a-filtration. Hence it defines a graded A*-module which is a submodule of
Proposition 10.7. The following are equivalen!, for a graded ring A: M* aod therefore finitely generated (since A* is Noetherian). Now use (10.8). •
i) A is a Noetlzerian ring ,- Taking M" = an M we obtain what is usually known as the Artin-Rees
ii) A 0 is Noetherian and A is finitely generated as an A 0 -algebra. lemma:
Proof. i) => ii). A 0 ~ A / A+' hence is Noetherian. A + is an ideal in A, hence is Corollary 10.10. There exists an integer k suclz rhat
finitely generated, say by X¡, . .. , Xs, which we may take to be homogeneous
elements of A, of degrees k¡, ... , k, say (all > 0). Let A' be the subring of A (a" M ) n NI ' = o"-k ((okM) n M ')
generated by x 11 •• • , x, over A 0 • We shall show that An f;; A' for all n ~ O, foral! n ~ k . •
by induction on n. This is certainly true for n = O. Let n > O and let Y E An· . h t he e1ementary lemma (10.6)
Since y E A+, y is a linear combination of the X¡, say y = 2:f .. 1 a,x" wh~re On the other hand, combining (10.9) w1t
a, E An-k, (conventionally Am = O if m < 0). Since each k 1 > O, th.e ind~c~ve we obtain the really significant version:
hypothesis shows that each a, is a polynomial in the x's with coeffictents tn o· 'd 1 M afinitely-generated
1
Theorem 10.11. Let A be a Noetherian ring, a an ea' . "M' and
Hence the same is true of y, and therefore y E A'. Hence An f;; A' and therefore A-module and M ' a submodule of M. ,.,., the filtratwns a
J. ,zen ¡ of M'
A =A'. (a" M) n M' Jzave bounded difference. In particular the a-topo ogy
ii) => i): by Hilbert's basis theorem (7.6). • coincides wit/z tire topology induced by the a-topology of M. •
s•
 J08 COMPLETIONS G RADED RINGs
ANO MODULEs •

Remark. In this chapter we sball apply the las t part of ( 10 11) 'tions (1 0. 12) and ( 10. 13) together a 109
propo
Sl ssert that h
. · concc ·
topologies. However, m the next chapter the strongcr result abou t b rnJng M js exact on the. category of finitely-generated A t e functor M ~
ditferences wíll be needed. ounded ) ®.. t ·an). As shown tn Chapter 2 this proves . -modules (when A .
r-~oetherJ . · 1s
osition 10.14. lf A zs a Noetherian ring a 'd
As a first application of ( 10.11) ~ve combine it with ( 10.3) to gct the .
A

portant exactness property of comp/etiOn : un.

:;:%on a 1
of A, then Á is jlat A-algebra. • • an ea/, A the a-adic com-
For non-finitely-generatcd modules thc f
k
A

Proposition 10.11. Let Remar · . h. . M unctor M 1--?- M .

ood functor, whic IS exact, IS ~ A ®AM and the
A

ts not exact:
O -? M ' -? Jvf ->- Atf " - > O the g 't ly-generated modules. two functors coincide
on finl e
be an exact sequence offinitely-generated modules o ver a Noetheria11 rmg
• We Procecd now to study thc ri ng Á in more detat.1· F'1rst sorne el
A 'tions · ementary
Let a be an ideal of A, then tlze sequence of a-adic completions o propost ·
,.. 1 """' ,..
Pro'Position 10.15. If A is Noetherian, Á its a-adic 1 .
O - >- M -? M --+ M " --+ O .. .. comp etiOn, tiren
i) a == A a ~ A ® Á a ;
is exact. •
ii) (a")"' == (á)";
Since we bave a natural homomorphism A --+ Á we can regard Á as ..Ul') a"fa" + l = an¡an + l '.
/"V

A-algebra and so for any A-module M we can form an Á-module Á ® M . al~

iv) a is contained in the Jacobson radical of A.
is natural to ask how this compares with the Á-module M. Now thc A-~odul
homomorphism M -? M defines an Á-module homomorphism e Proof Since A is Noetherian, a is finitely-generated . (1 0.13) implies that the
map
A ® Á a --7 a,
A

In general, for arbitrary A and M, this is neither injective nor surjective, but we whose image is Aa, is an isomorphism. This proves i). Now apply i) to a11 and
do have: we deduce that
• (a")"' = Aa" = (Áa)" by (1.18)
Proposition 10.13. For any ringA, if Jvf isfinitely -generated, Á ®A M -r M
= (á)" by i).
is surjective. IJ, moreover, A is Noetherian tlzen Á ®,1 M --+ M is an iso-
morphism. Applying (10.4) we now deduce
Proof Using (10.3) or otherwise it is clear that a-adic completion commutes A fa" ~ Á/o"
witb finite direct sums. Hence if F ~ A" we ha ve A ® .. F ~ f . Now assume M
is fin itely generated so that we have an exact sequence from which iii) follows by taking quotients. By ii) and (10.5) we see that Á
is complete for its a-topology. Hence for any X E a
O --+ N-? F -? M -+ O.
(1 - x ) - 1 = l + x + x2 + · · ·
This gives rise to the commutative diagram o

~nverges in A, so that 1 - X is a unit. By (I .9) this implies that ais contained

... ....
10 the Jacobson radical of A. •
A ®..t N-+ A ®..t F--+ A ®..t M-+ O
~Y -1- " .¡,a Proposition 10.16. Let A be a Noetherian local ring, m its maximal ideal.
0-?/? --+ P ~ M-+0 Then tire m-adic comp/etion A of A is a local ring with maximal ideall~. . •

Proof. By (10.15) iii) we have Aj{it ~ Afm hence Á/ lit is a field and n! a 50 15
~n which ~he to~ li~e is exact (by (2.18)). By (10.3) 8 is surjective. Since fi is an
150 ~?rphJsm thts tmplies that a is surjective, proving the first part of the pro- ma~imal ideal. By (10.15) iv) it foll;vs tha~ 111 is the Jacobson radical of A and
posJtton. Assume now that A is Noetherian then N is also finitely generated so 15 the unique maximal idea l. Thus Á is a local ring. •
50 t~at 'Y is surjective and, by (10.12), the bot;om line is exact. A little diag.ram Th · 1 t1·0 n is answered by
e tmportant question of how much we lose on comp e
chasmg now proves that a is injective and so an isomorphism. • Krull's Theorem:
 110 COMPLETlONS
T HE ASSOClATEO O
RADEo lUNa
Theorem 10.17. Let A be a Noetlterian ring, a an ideal M fi . BY (1.9) every element of l + a is a u 't 111
~ · • a mue/y
A-modt1e and M the a-comp/etzon of M . Then the kernel E == ~generated proof. . . m· •
M~ M consists of t/zose X E M annihilmed by soma elen lellt ofn~~-.1
l +
Q'fiA{ or
'J
A
nS
a particularly ¡mportant spcc~al case of (10 19)
· we have:
. Proof Since E is the intersection of all neighborhoods of o E Nf n. o/lary 10.20. L et A be a Noetherian local . .
1
induced on it is trivial, i.e., E is the only neighborhood of o E E 'othe topology eo'te/y-genera ted A -moci u1e. Then the m-to rmg,
r
1
m lis .
rnaxtrnal ideal M
induced topology on E coincides with its a-topology. Since a E is · ~ (lO. lt) the '"
fiparticular 1 .r . 'PO ogy of M • H
tlze m -topo ogy OJ A ts Hausdorjf. • ts
. , a
ausdorff. In
in the a-topology it follows that aE = E. Since Al is finitel y-gc a nctghborhooct
. . fi . . nerated a11 d . We can restate (10.20) slightly differently if
Noethenan, E rs aJso mtely-generated and so we can apply (2.5) and' A ts fA is just any ideal containcd between m wde recaU that an m-primary
from aE = E that (I - a) E = O for sorne a E a. The converse ¡ _deduce idea 1 o ( 1O.20) 1mp
. 1' an sornef power ln~'~ (use (4.2)
(1 - a)x = O, then s obvtous: if !4)). Thus 1es that the intersectio
an d (7. f A . N l . . n o a1l m-pri .
of A is zero. 1 now . rs any . oet 1cna~ nng, P a prime ideal mary ldcals
X = ax = a 2 x = o o o En a"/YJ =
nal
a)

E. •
ver
sion of (10.20) to the local rmg A p. L1fting back toA d '.we can apply this
(4 S) b t . an usmg the 0 t
rrespondence . e ween ~-pn mary ideals of A and . . ne- o-one
co \'A ) we deduce · m-pnmary ldeals of A
Remarks. 1) If S is the multiplicatively closed set 1 + a, then (IO.l 7) asserts (where 111 = ,., P • ll
that
Corollary 10.21. LelA be a Noerherian ring, p a prime 1'd 10.r
A -+ A and A -+ s- 1 A · OJ.r a 11 'p-pnmary
intersectzon · r'dea¡s of A is the kernel oif Aea 1 A. Then the
. -+ All. •
have the same kernel. Moreover for any a E a
(1 - a) - l = 1 +a + cc2 + ... THE ASSOCIATED GRADED RING
. ~

converges In A,
_
so that
.
every element of •S becomes a unit in A· By tl1e u ntversa
·
1
Let A be a ring and a an ideal of A . Define
property of ~ ~ thrs mea~s ~ha_t ~he~e rs a natural homomorphism s - IA ~Á
1
a)

and (10.17) 1mplres that thrs rs mJective. Thus s- 1A can be identified with G (A)(= Gn(A)) = EB a"f an +l (a0 = A).
n .. o
subring of A. a
2) Krull's Theorem (10.17) may be false if A is no t Noetherian. Let A be the This is a graded ring, in which the multiplication is defined as follows:
ring of aU C«J functions on the realline, and let a be the ideal of all f which van- For each Xn E a", let Xn denote the image of X 11 in a"fa" +1; define .Xm.X" to be
ish at the origin (a is maximal since A j a ~ R). In fact a is generated by the XmX"' i.e., the image of XmXn in a m+ n¡ a m+n+l; check that XmX11 does not depend
identity function X, and n:. .
1 a" is the set of all 1 E A, all of whose derivatives on the particular representatives chosen.
Similarly, if Mis an A-module and (Mn) is an a-filtration of M, define
vanish at the origin. On the other hand 1 is annihilated by sorne element 1 + a
(a E a) if and only iflvanishes identically in sorne neighborhood ofO. The well- a)

known function e- 1/x'J, which is not identically zero near O, hut has vanishing G(M) = EB
n=O
Mn/Mn +l
derivatives at O, then shows that the kernels of
.... which is a graded G(A)-module in a natural way. Let G11(M) denote Mn/M11+l·
A-+ A andA - >- s- 1A (S = 1 + a)
Proposition 10.22. Let A be a Noetherian ring, a an ideal of A. Then
do not coincide. Thus A is not Noetherian . i) Ga(A) is Noetherian;
Krull's Theorem has many corolJaries: ii) Ga(A) and Ga(A) are isomorphic as graded rings;
Corollllry 10.18. Let A be a Noetherian doma in, n ::/; ( l) all ideal of A. iii) if Mis afinitely-generated A-module and (Mn) is a stable a-filtration of M,
Then n
an =O. then G(M) is a finitely-generated graded Ga(A)-module.
Proof. 1 + a contains no zero-divisors . ~roof. i) Since A is Noetherian a is finitely generated, say by X¡, ·. · · ' x,. ~t
• x, be the image of x, in afa2 'then G(A) = (A/a)[i1, ... , i,]. Smce Ala IS
Coro/huy 10.19. Let A be a Noetherian ring, a an ideal olA contained in the Noethenan,
· G(A) is Noetherian' by the Hilbert bas1s · theorem.
Jacobson radical and /et Al be a finitely-generated A-module. Then the
a-topo/ogy ol M is Hausdorjf, i.e. a" M = O. n ii) o."fa" + 1 ~ ñ"fa" + 1 by (10.15) iii).
 EXER.ClSES
112 COMPLETIONS
cd groups, and G(cp) : G( F ) _, G(M) is a h 113
iii) There cxists no such that M no+ , = a'J\tf no for all r ~ O, hcnce G(M ) is of filttr BY construction it is surjective. Hence b tmom~~phism of G( )
genera ted by
ú:\ G (M ). Each Gn(A1) = JWn/ A1n+ 1 ts Nocthcrian
w n <no n ' and
mod~;:; 00w the diagram Y · ) u) ~ is surjecti~
10 23

~
'h'l t d by 0 hence is a finitely-generated A/ n-module, hcnce \I/n(no GnH/
(l ) coost o
F --r M
.
3flnt tae J

is generated by a finite number of elements (as an A/ n-modulc), hcncc G(M) is a y1 • y1 "

finitely generated as a G(A)-module. • - o -

F~ M
The last main result ~f this chapter is that the n-adie complction of a
. F is free a nd A = Á it follows that a ¡5 an isomo h' .
Noctherian ring is Noethenan. Befare we can procccd to the proof we nced smce . . . . Th . . . "' rp ISm Smcc ~.1 •
simple Iemma connecting the completion of any filtercd group and the assoc~ Haus
dorfT ~ ÍS lOJCCtlVC. C SUfJCCllVlty of cf> thus imp\'tes the surJecttv
·. . .ty J f'1 .1.IS
1
and this means that X¡, .. . , x, generate M as an A-module. • o "''
ated graded group.
Lemma 10.23. Let 4> : A -r B be a homomorplzism of filtered groups ¡ .
Corollary ]0.25. Witlz. theNhypotheses
1 . of (10.24), ;
1¡ G(M) . .
IS a Noerhenan
4>(A ) ~ B11 , and let G(4>) : G(A) -r G(B), ~: Á -r B be the induced lz~n;;~ G(A)-module, t1en 1 M l S a oet renan A-module.
11
morphisms of the associated graded and completed groups. Then .r We ha ve to show that every submodule M' of M is fin't 1
ro
P O•'J 1 • , • • 1 e Ygenera ted
(6.2). Let A/n = M .n Mn.• thcn (A1n~ 1.s a~ a-filtrat10n of M' , and the cm-
1

i) G(4>) injective ~ injective;

=>
bedding Nl n - >- /'.1n g1ves n se. to an lOJ,C~tlve homomorphism M~/M~ +l -:r
ii) G(cp) surjective => ~ surjective. MJ A1n+1, hcnce toan cmbeddmg of G(i\1 ) m G(M ). Since G(M) is Noetherian
Proof. Consider the commutative diagram of exact sequences G(M') is finitely generated by (6.2); also /11 ' is Hausdorff, since n M' ~
O-r An/An+l -r A/An+ l - >- A/An - >- O n M" == O; hencc by ( 10.24) !vi' is finitely generated. • r.

t GnC~) t an+ 1 t an
We can now deduce the result we are after :
•
O-r Bn/Bn+l ~ B/Bn+l -r B/Bn - >- O.
Theorem 10.26. Jf A is a Noerherian ring, a 011 ideal of A, then the a-
This gives the exact sequence completion Á of A is Noetherian.
O~ Ker Gn(4>) - >- Ker an +1 -r Ker an ~ Coker Gn(4>) -r Coker an+l Proof. By (10.22) we know that
- >- Coker an ~ O.
Ga(A) == Ga(Á)
From ~.his we see, by induction on n, that Ker an = O (case i)) or Coker a" = O is Noetherian. N ow apply (10.25) to the complete ring Á, taking lv/ = A
(case u)}. Moreover in case ii) we also ha ve Ker ex 1 - >- Ker ex surjective.
Taking the inverse limit ofthe homomorphisms o:" and ;;plying (10.2) the lemma (filtered by an, and so Hausdorff). •
follows. • Corol/a,.y 10.27. Jf A is a Noerlzerian ring, tire power series ri11g B =
A[[x¡, . . . , Xn]] in n variables is Noetherian. In particular k[[X¡, · · ., x,J]
. We ca~ now f~rm a resu!t which is a partial converse of (10.22) iii) and is the
mam step 10 showmg that A is Noetherian. (k afiele/) is Noetlzerian. . .
. 'lb b · tl1eorem and B 1s 1ts
p roposl~lon
. . JO .24. Let A be a ring, a an ideal of A, ManA-module, (MJ an Proof. A[x 11 • •• , xn] is Noethenan by the Ht ert asts •
completion for the (x 1 , . . . , xn)-adic topology. •
a-fi/tratwn .of.M. Suppose that A is complete in the o-topology and that Mis
~a;,;do:! m 11~ filtration topology (i.e. that nn
M" = O). Suppose also that
( ) a fimtely-generated G(A)-module. Then M is a .finitely-generated EXERCISES
A-module. tl-1
1 Le · ps givcn by ctn(l) == P '
Phroof. Pick a finite set of generators of G(M) and split them up into their · t a": Z /pZ -~ Z /p"Z be the injection of abehan grou A .1 countable direct
and let a: A -+ B be the direct sum of all the etn (whcre ~ !;) ShoWthat the
therefore th ·compo nen tS, say ~~
omogeneous e (1 ~ i ~ v) where
' e, ·
has degree say n(i), and lS 1
sum of copies of Z /pZ and B is the direct sum of th~ Pf A ·for the topology
a-filtration e. •ma~ of say x, E Mn<t>· Let F 1 be the module A with the stable °
P·adic completion of A' is just A but that thc complettOn f the Z/pZ. Deduce
generator 1g~;:: : :.~ = ak +nm and put F = EB¡-1F'. Then mapping the . d . h d' ect producto
tn uced from the p-adic topology on B JS t e tr tl catcgorYof a
11 z-
e to x, defines a homomorphism th · f ctor on l C
at P·adtc completion is not a right-exact un
cp: F ~M modules.
 114 COMPLETJONS
l lS
. A" is flat over A, it is enough to show th t
·se 1 Jet A - a- 1 (p"B), and consider thc exact scq uencc [S•nce .a
l. 1n E xerc1 , " -
O~ An A ~ A/An -+O. M ~ !Vf injcctive for all finitely generated .
-> M ~ A IS Za . .
1 e (1 0.19) and Excrcise 6.] nskt;
Show that Hm is not right exact, and compute jim A n. noW uS
~
A be the local ring of the origin in en (i.e. th .
J. Let A be a Noetherian ring, o a~ ideal and M a finitely-generated A-modu¡ s. L; G C(zh ... , Zn) with g(O) -:¡:. 0), let B be thc' rin~ r~~g of all rational functio
1
Using Krull's Tbeorem and Exerc1se 14 of Chapter 3, prove that e. flh'cll converge in sorne neighborhood of the 0 • . powcr series in z1 · ns
\'1 1 • • ngtn, and let e b ' • • . ' Zr¡
n a"M
CID
n Ker (M ~
e rmal powcr senes m Z¡, ••. , Zn, so that A e B e e e the ring of
· Sh~w that Bis a local
= Mm),
n•l m2n ?ng and that its completion for tbe maximal ideal t 1
rl . l . Opo ogy IS e As . .
where m runs over aH maximal ideals containing o. B is Noethenan, pro ve t 1at B ts A-flat. [Use Cha ter . ~ummg that
Exercise 7 above.] P 3, Exerctse 17, and
Deduce that
M = o <=> Supp (M) n V(a) = 0 (in Spec (A)). Let A be a local ring, m its maximal ideal. Assume that A 15
. .
9· For any polynomial/(x) E A[x ], let](x) E (A/m)[x] denot .ntt-adtcal~y complete.
[fbe reader should tbink of M" as the "Taylor expansion" of M transversal t0 ' 1
Prove Hensel s emma : 1
·r f( ) . . e l s reductton m0 d
x ts mo me of degree n and ·r th . ·.m.
the subscheme V(a): the abo ve result then shows that M is determined · monic polynomials g(x), fi(x) E (A /m)[x] of degrees / , ~re ex~st copnme
neighborhood of V(a) by its Taylor expansion.] m a l 'f - ( ) fi( ) b . ' r Wtlh /(x) =
g(x)fi(x), then we can 1 t g x , 1 x ack to monte polynomials (x) 11( ·
sueh that f(x) = g(x)lz(x). g ' x) e A[x]
4. Let A be a Noetherian ring, a an ideal in A, and A the n-adie completion. For
any x E A, let x be the image of x in A. Show that [Assume inductively ;hat we ha ve constructed g"(x), hk(x) E A[x] such that
gk(x).hk(x) - f(x) E m _A [x]. Then use the fact that since g(x) and fi(x) are
x nota zero-divisor in A => ..'( not a zero-divisor in A. copnme we can find ap(x), Óp(x), of degrees ~ 11 - r, r respectively, such that
xP = a (x)gk(x) + Óp(x)lik(x), where p is any integer such that 1 ~ P ~
Does this imply tbat 9 """ """ n.
Finally, use the completeness of A to show that the sequences g~c(x), /~¡,(x)
A is an integral domain => A is an integral domain ? converge to the required g(x), h(x).]
[Apply the exactness of completion to thc sequence O --r A ~> A.] 10. i) With the notation of Exercise 9, deduce from Hensel's lemma that if /(x)
has a simple root a E A/m, then f(x) has a simple root a e A such that
S. Let A be a Noetherian ring and Jet a, ó be ideals in A . If Mi s anv A-module Jet
a= a mod m.
Ma, M & denote its n-adie and ó-adic completions respectively. ·If Mis fini~ely
ii) Show that 2 is a square in the ring of 7-adic integers.
generated, prove that (Ma)b ~ Ma+f.l ,
iii) Let f(x, y) E k [x, y], where k is a field, and assume that /(0, y) has y = ao
[fake the n-adie eompletion of the exact sequence
as a simple root. Prove that there exists a formal power series y(x) =
0 -+ ómM-+ M/ómM -+ O L.:.. o a"x" such thatf(x, y(x)) = O.
(This gives the "analytic branch" of the curve f = O through tbe point (0, ao).)
and apply (10.13). Then use the isomorphism
11. Show tbat the converse of (1 0.26) is false, even if we assume that A is local and
~~ (~irn M/(a"M + fJmM)) ~ lim M /(a"M + ó"M) that A is a finitcly-generated A-module.
"' " +<-
n [Take A to be the ring of germs of Ca> functions of x at x = O, and use Borel's
and the inclusions (a + ó)2" S a" + Ó" s (a + ó)".] Theorem that every power series occurs as the Taylor expansion of sorne C"'
6· Let A be a Noetherian rin funct.ion.]
d · .
Jacobson radical fA ·r g an a a~ Ideal m A. Prove that a is contained in the 12· If A is Noetherian then A [[x . • . xnll is a faithfully ftat A-algebra. [~xpsre(ss)
1
a-topology. (A N~th . and only ~ eve~y maximal ideal of A is closed for the ' 1' ' · d se Exerctse v
an ideal contained . ~nan topologtcal nng in which the topology is defined by A ~ A[[x1, ... , Xn]] as a composition of flat extens10ns, an u
local rings and {b m(l~ ~SJXa~ob)son r~dical is called a Zariski ring. Examples are of Chapter l.]
Y · Iv) a-ad1c completions.)
1• Lct A be a Noeth · ·
enan rmg 'd ...
that Á is faithfully flat ' a an 1 eal of A, and A the n-adie completion. Prove
rin¡ (for the a-topolog~;~r A (Chapter 3, Exercise 16) if and only if A is a Zariski
 HiLBERt FUNCT
IONs ll?
rem JJ.l. (Hilbert,Serrc). P (M, t)is arationa .
ThtO!D' ( 1 - t "•), where f(t) E Z(t) 1functlon in rof rhe r
11 f(t) , .. 1 • JOrm
BY induction on s, the number of generators of A
proof. tl ·s ...,eans tha tAn = O for all n > O so that A Aover Ao. Start With
..... O; ll •·-- ' === oand M '1 ·
s -- tedA o module, hencc Mn = Ofor alllarge n. Thus P(M ) . S a fimtely.
genera , t ts a polynomial
Dimension Theory . this case.
10 "'r v suppose s > O and thc theorcm true for s _ M . . .
r ,.O\ h' 1· u1t1phcat1o b
module homomorp tsm of M 11 into M he . . n Y x,
is an A- n+k,, nce tt glVes an exact
scquencc, say x.
O -r Kn --7 Mn ~ Afn+ k __,. L - >O
• • ll+.k , • (l)
One of the b
asic notions
.
in algebraic. geometry is tha t of the dimension
.
f
o a Let K == Ef)n Kn, L = EBnLn, these ~re both finttely-generated A-modules
. t This ¡5 essentlally a local not10n, and, as we shall show m this cha use K is a submodule and La quottent module of M) and both .
vane y. f d. . ti Pter, (beca h A [ , are anm-
. 3 very satisfactory theory o tmensiOn
there ts . or general
. Noethcrian 1oca 1 hilated by x, hence t ey are o x11 ... , x, _d-modules. Applying .\ to (1) we
.
nngs. The main theorem asserts. .the eqUJvalence
. of three
. ddierent dcfinitio, 1s of have by (2.11)
dimension. Two of these defi.mtJOns hav~ a ~atr1y obvwus geometrical contcnt, ' )\(Kn) - 'A(Mn) + )\(Mn+k,) - .\(Ln+k,) ===O;
but the third involving the Hllbert functJOn ts Iess conceptual. It has, howcver multiplying by t n+k, and summing with respect to n we get
many technical advantages and the whole theory becomes more strcamlined if
ooe brings it in at an early stage. (1 - t k•)P(M, t) = P(L, t) - t k•P(K, t) + g(t) (2)
After dealing with dimen.sion we give. a brie~ ac~ount of r~gula r local rings, where g(t) is a polynomial. Applying the inductive hypothesis the result now
which correspond to the not10n of non-smgulanty m algebrarc geomctry. We follows. •
establish the equivalence of three definitions of regularity. The order of 'the pole of P(M, t) at t = 1 we shall denote by d(M). It
Finally we indicate how, in the case of algebraic varieties over a field , thc provides a measure of the "size" ?f M ~relati~e to .\). In particular d(A) is
local dimensions we ha ve defined coincide with the transcendence degree of thc defined. The case when all k, = 1 1s spectally sunple:
function field.
Coro//ary 11.2. If each k 1 = 1, then foral/ sufficiently large n, ~(MJ is a
polynomial in n (with rational coefficients) of degree* d - l.
lfiLBERT FUNCfiONS Proof By (11.1) we have >..(Mn) = coefficient of 111 inf(t)·(l- t)-'. Cancel-
ing powers of (1 - t) we may assume s = d and f(l) :F O. Suppose f(t) =
Let A = Ef):O.o A" be a Noetherian graded ring. By (10.7) A 0 is a Noetherian
<r;;N k •
ring, andA is generated (asan A0-algebra) by say X¡, • •• , x$, which we may take L.k•o akt ; smce

to be homogeneous, of degrees k 1 , ••• , k, (all > O). d+k-l t"

(1 - t) - d =
. Let M be a finitely-generatcd graded A-module. Then M is generated by a d-1
fimte number of homogeneous elements, say m, (1 ~ j ~ t); let r1 = deg m1. we have
Every element of M,., the homogeneous component of M of degree n, is thus of N

the form "f.¡JJ.x)m¡, where jj(x) E A is homogeneous of degree 11 - r1 (and d+n-k-1 for alln ~ N.
A(Nln) =
therefore zero if n < r,). It follows that M is finitely generated as an Ao· d-l
module n 1 . . n . .
o . . . l in n with leading term
' ame Ytt JS generated by all glx)m, where gJCx) is a monomtal m the k ..
x, of total degree n _ r,. and the sum on the right-hand stde ts a polynomta •
11 1
Let ,\ be an additive function (with values in Z) on the class of all finitely· ("¿ak)n - /(d- 1)! -:1: O. • . f¡ r all
h t f(n) is an mteger o
~e:rated Áo·.modules (Chapter 2). The Poincaré series of M (with respect toA) Remarks. 1) For a polynomial f(x) to be such t a ffi . ts · e g. l.x(x + 1).
. . t r coe cten . . . , l
e generatmg function of t\(M,.), i.e., it is the power series tntegers n, it is not necessary for f to ha ve ege
111 'al is -1: also
•W 0 f the zero po}ynonu
CIO
e adopt the convention here that the degree _ _ l.
P(M, t) = 2: >..(M,.)t n E Z[[t ]]. that the binomial coefficient ( _n ) = O for n ~ O• and == 1 for n -
1
11•0

116
 • •••

DIM ENSION THEORY OP

NOETHERlAN
118 DJMENSJON THEOR y LOCAL RlNGs
'al in (11 2) is usualJy called the Hilbert fimctlon (or P 1 . from (1 ) wc ha ve ' " + 1 - '" == f(n), it follows th . \19
2) Tbe polynorru · o y. SJOCC ~ r for alllarge n. at /" ts a po\yno .
nomiaJ) of M (with respect to t\). f dcgree ..... · • lllla1g(n)
o ·") Lct (.M'n) be anothcr stablc q-filtration f M
. now to the sequence (l) let us repl?ce x, by any clcment x E A ° -e )
· ns 11ave boundcd diffcrcnce ' .and let g n . == I(Mf¡f{ )
uto.G) the two filtratiO
. Re.turmng -divisor in A-1 (i.e., xm = O wtth m E M ::- m == 0). TI " BY (l M e ¡;;¡ M M • Le., there ex ts 11 •
whtch 15 not a zero len uch that n+no - "' n+no s; for all n >. O· lS an intcger
K = O and equation (2) shows that rto s + n ) ~ g(n), g(n + na) ~ g(n). Sincc g
g(n o . -e )
( .)/
11

and -;'consequently we have

g are poly .
d(L) = d(A1) - J. e " we ha ve llmn.. oo g n g n = 1, and therefore g - l nomtals for al\
Jarg , m
and Jeading coc tctcn .
. t • • g llave the sa d
me cgrec
Thus we have proved
The polynomial g(n) corresponding to thc filtrati ( 11
11•3· !f ·\' E A k is not a zcro-divisor in i\1 titen d(lvl fx A1 ) __
•

Propos1•1¡on
•
>~( ) . on q M) 1s denoted by
d(Af) - 1. • Xq " • XqM(n) = /( M 1q" M) (for all large 11).
We shall use (11.1 ) in the case where A.a is an A rtin ring (in particular, a
field) and >.(Af) ¡5 the /engtlt I(Nf ) of a fimtely-genera tcd Aa-module M . By If 11¡f = A, we write Xq(n) for x~(n) and call it thc character· f
of the rn-primary ideal q. 1n this case ( 11 .4) gives ts le po1ynomial
(6.9) /(M) is additive.
Example. Let A = A0 [x 1 , x,], whe:e Aa is an Artin ring and the x, are
•• • , Corollary 11.5. For al/ large n, tite lengrh f(A /q") is a 1 .
1 · 1 1 po ynonua/ X (n)
independent indeterminates. Thcn An ts a free Aa-module generatcd by the of degree ~ s, w zere s rs t re east number of generators 0¡ q. • q

s+ n - 1 The polynomials Xq(n) for different

monomials x1m 1 •• • xr:• where ¿ m1 = n; there are of these, hcnce
s- 1
P(A, t) = (1 - 1) -•.
We sbalJ now consider the Hilbert functions obtained from a local ring by
passing to the associated graded rings as in Chapter 1O.
Proposition 11.1/.. Let A be a Noetherian local ring, m its maxima/ ideal,
q an m-primary ideal, Af a finitely-generated A-module, (Mn) a stable q-
filtration of Af. Then
i) Af/ Mn is offinite length, for ea eh n ~ O;
ii) for al/ su.fficiently large n this length is a po/ynomia/ g(n) of degree ~ s
in n, where s is the leastmunber of generators of q;
iii) the degree and leadinK coefficient of g(n) depend only on M ami q, 110 1
the jiltration clwsen.
Pro?f i) Let. G(A) = ®n q"Jqn+ 1, G(t.f) = Ef>n !.1nf M n+ 1 . G0 (A) = Af q is an
Artm local nng, say by (8.5); G(A) is Noetherian, a nd G(M ) is a fini tely-
generate~ graded G(A)-module (10.22). Each Gn(M) = Jl;f n/M n+l is a
. . eh o ices of the in-primary ideal q all have
the same degree, as t11e next propos1t10n shows:
•
Proposition 11.6. Jf A , m, q are as abo ve
deg Xq(n) = deg xm(n).
1
Proof We havc m 2 q 2 m r fo r sorne r by (7.16), hence mr. 2 q11 2 m''· and
therefore
Xm(n) ~ Xq(n) ~ Xm(m) for alllarge 11.
Now let n ->- co, remembering that the x's are polynomials in n. •
The common degree of the Xq(n) will be denoted by d(A): in view of (11.2)
this means we a re putting d(A) = d( Gm(A)) where d(Gm(A)) is the integer
on defined earlier as the pole at t = 1 of the Hilbert function of Gm(A).
DIMENSION THEORY OF NOETHERIAN LOCAL RINGS
Let A be a Noetheria n local ring m its maximal ideal. •

Noethenan A-r~10dule annihilated by q, hence a Noetherian A/ q-module, and Let o(A) = least number of generators of an m-primary i~eal fs ~·
0

therefore of fimte length (since Af q is Artin). Hence M / M is of finite length',

and n
Our ambition is to prove that o(A) = d(A) = dim A. We shall aclueve ~~
proving o(A) ~ d(A) ~ dim A ~ o(A ). (11.5) and (11.6) together provt e e
t/ •

n
first link in this chain:
1" = l(M/Mn) = L l(M, _¡JM,). (1)
r •l
Proposition 11.7. o(A) ~ d(A). • th.
ii) If xh · · ·, x, generate q, the images x, of the x in qfq2 genera te G(A) . 0
f (l 1.3). Note that JS
: ~~n~/;~alg:bra, and e~ch x, has degree l. Hence by (1 /.2) we ha ve /(Mn/Mn+l)
Next we shall prove the analogue for local nngs . t the topological
Proof uses the strong version of the Artin- Rees lemma (not JUS
y, here /(n) JS a polynomial in n of degree ~ s - 1 for all large n. Part).
 DJMENSION 11-IEORY
OF NOETHE!UA
120 DJMENSION THEORY • N lOCAL lUNas
o/lary 11.12. In a Noethenan ring e 121
.. Let A, m, q be as before. Let M be a .finitely-generated eorere rore tlze ser o
if .
pnme
'd
z ea/s in a
very prime id 1
Noetl . ea has .finite 1
Proposlllolf 118
Á.a non-zero-divisor in M and M' = M jxM. Then ti1 ;¡ • •
hain cond/twn. •
1enan ring . leighr d
satls.fies the d , an
· A-module, x e · e escendin
deg xr· ~ deg x~' - 1.
crllark. Likewise we may define the depth o[ P b e . g
_ xM· then N ~ M as A-modules, by virtue of the assumption ~ Js which start at "': clearly depth p = dim 'A¡y onstde~ing chains f .
=
Proof. Let N N~ q"M. Then we have exact scqucnces
on x. Let Nn -
¡dea . N h . .
'd 1 even m a oet cnan nng, may be i fi .
1 ea , .
p. But th
e depth of a .
n mte (unless th . . Pnme
o Prune

see Excrctse 4. e nng IS local).

O-+ N/ N" -+ Mjq"M -+ M ' Jq" M ' -+ O.
proposition 11.13. Let A be a Noetherian ¡ 1 .
1 oca rmg of di
Hence, if g(n) = I(NJN,..), we have there exists an m-pr mary ideal in A generated b mension d. Then
x:
g(n) - 1(n) + xr(n) = o and therefore dim A ~ o(A). y d elemenrs xl, ... , Xa,

P rooif. Construct x11 .. . , xd inductively in such a h

r Now by Artin- Rees (10.9), (Nn) is a stable q-filtration of N . · h way t at every ·
,or a111 arge n. . . M • containing (xlt .. ·, x,) h as he1g t ~ i, for each i. Supp . Pnme ideal
Since N:; M, (11.4) ¡¡¡ then tmphes that g(n) and Xq (n) have the same lcadmg L (1 . ) ose ' > Oand x
constructed . et ~~ ~ J ~ s be the minimal prime id · ~· · · ·• x, _l
term; hence the result. • x1_ 1 ) which have height exactly ¡ _ 1 S'tnce . eals (if any) of
(X lt • •• l - 1 < d - .
height m, we ha ve m -:/= t>, ( 1 ~j ~ s), hence m :1 U'
J •

CoroUary 11.9. Jf A is a Noetherian local ring, x a non-zero-divisor in A, then - dtm A =

d(AJ(x)) ~ d(A) - l . Choose x1 E m, x,.q: .U l:>,, a.nd l~t q be any prime containing (; - ~Pi by (1.1 1).
11
contains sorne mtmmal pnme 1deal lJ of (x . . . x ) If • . , x,). Then q
Proof. Put M = A in (11 .8). • 1t ' l- l · P=p¡for some 1·
we have x, E q, x, 1: t>, hence q => +> and therefore height q ~ 1·. ·r •
(l ~j. ~. s ), then height p ~. i, hence q ~ ¡ Thus :;.-" ' • \' ~ P,
1
We can now prove the crucial result : height
. :;.-" · every pnme tdeal
Propositio11 11.10. d(A) ~ dim A. contammg (xiJ . . . , x,) has hetght ~ l.
Proof. By induction on d = d(A). If d = O then I(A/ mn) is constant for all Consider then (xh . . . , xd). If P is ~ prime ideal of this ideal, p has height
1arge n, hence m" = m"+ 1 for sorne 11, hence m" = O by Nakayama's lemma ~ d, hence p =.m (fo~ ~ e m => hetght p < height m = d). Hence the
(2.6). Thus A is an Artin ring and dim A = O.
tdeal (xlt ... , xd) 1s m-pnmary. •
Suppose d > Oand Jet l>o e l> 1 e· · · e ~r be any chain of prime ideals in Theorem 11.14. (Dimension theorem.) For any Noetherian local ringA rile
A. Let x e l'1t x ~ l> 0 ; let A' = Afp0 , and let x' be the image of x in A'. Then following three integers are equal:
x' :/: O, and A' is an integral domain, hence by (11.9) we have
i) tlze maximum length of clzains of prime idea/s in A;
d(A' /(x')) ~ d(A') - l. ii) the degree of the characteristic polynomial xm(n) = I(A/m 11
);

Also, ifm' is the maximal ideal of A', A'/m'" is a homomorphic image of A/m", iii) tlze least number of generators of an m-primary ideal of A.
hence I(Afm") ~ I(A'fm'") and therefore d(A) ~ d(A'). Consequently Proof (11.7), (11.10), (11.13). •

d(A'/(x')) ~ d(A) - 1 = d - l.
H~n'7, .by the inductive hypothesis, the length of any chain of prime ideals in
~ f(x) 15 ~ d - l. But the images of p11 • •• , p, in A'J(x') form a chain of
~ngth ' - 1, hence r - 1 ~ d - 1 and consequently r ~ d. Hence
drm A ~ d. •
~xample. Let A be the polynomial ring k[xh .. . , xnl localized at the maximal
tdeal m = (xh .. . , xn)· Then Gm(A) is a polynomial ring in n indeterminates
~~d. so its Poincaré series is ( 1 - t)-". Hence, using the equivalence of (i) and
(n) tn (11.14), we deduce that dim Am = n.
Coro/lary 11.15. dim A ~ dimk (m/m 2). .
Proof lf x, E m (1 ~ i ~ s) are such that their images in mfm forro a basts
2

Corollluy 11•11• If A is a Noetherian local ring, dim A is finite. • of this vector space then the x genera te m by (2.8); hence dimt (m/m ) =
2

If A is any ring. ' p a pnme

· 1'd eal m
. A, then the height of ~ is defined to be the s ~ dim A by (11.13). • '
aupremum of chaans of · 'd 1
by (3 13) h . h . pnme 1 ea s Po e P1 e ... e ~r = ~ which end at P: C l''- A Then every
oro "''Y 11.16. Let A be a Noet/zerian ring, X1, • · . , x, E ·
. , erg t '-' = drm Ap. Hence, from (11.11):
minilna/ ideal p belonging to (x¡, . .. , x,) has lzeight ~ ' ·
 REGULAR LOCAL •
122 OIMENSION THEORY . . . RINcs 123
TIl ·s
J proposttton takcs a stmplc form if A co t .
• J( , ,. ) bccomes lJe-primary, hence r ;::: dim Ap :::::: 'd uc fi1eldA /m: n ams a fi eld k mappi
Proof In Ap the ¡dca -'tt ... , . ' h . allY onto the rest .
rnorP te ng tso-
beight v. • (H4upt;~ .. IJ.teJ
. 11 17 (Krull's principal ideal theorcm). Let A be a Noetherian coXro,/lary 11.21. lf k e A is a fteld mappt'ng .
.
.. . , xd ts a system of parameters, then x
tsomorph · ll
rca y onto Afm and
Corol/ary • b • e'eme/11 oif A WtllC .r • 1 ·
1s · 1rer a zerO-CIIVJ
ncll .1 · •
sor nor a unir . if
ring and ,cr
1
x e an ,, 1
. ' 1 k
independent over · lt ... , xd are 1 b
a ge raica/ly
. . al prime ideal .p of (x) has he1ght l .
Then every muum . .
B (J1 16) height V ~ 1. l f heJght t> = O, then t> IS a pnme ideal
.
?
proof Assume /(~h . .. ' xd) = where f is a polynomial with co . .
Proof . Y 0· h 'nce every element of t> is a zero-divisor by (4. 7) : contra- Jff f/J owe can wn te f = !. + h tgher terms, where ¡, is horno e effic1ents mk.
belongmg to , e
d ¡; -¡; O. Apply (1 1.20) to J. and wc deduce that ¡; h g n~ous of degree
diction, since x E V· • s an • n::: • • k . • as all 1ts co ffi .
. . Since/. has coelllctents m thts implies r == 0 . e ctents
m m. . . Js - , a contradtct'100 H
Coro/lary 11.18. Let A be a Noetlzerian /o.cal ring, x an e/ement of m whiclz . x are algebratcally mdcpendent over k. •
.'1:1 , ••• , d
· · ence
is nota zero-divisor. Then dim A/(x) = dtm A - l .
Proof Let d= dim A/(x). By (11.9) and (1 1.14) we have d.~ dim .A _ 1. REGULAR LOCAL RI NGS
On the other hand, Jet x, (1 ~ i ~ d) be elements of m whose tmages m A/(x)
generate an m/(x)-primary ideal. Then the ideal (x, X¡, ... , xd) in A is m- In a1gebraic geometry
.
there is an important distinction betwee .
· n smgu1ar and
non-singular pomts (see Excrctse 1). The local rings of non-singul .
primary, hence d + 1 ;:?; dim A. • · 1· · ( h . ar pomts
have as. thetr genera tzatwn
.
to t e non-geomctnc case) what are call d
.f . . e regu1ar
Corol/ary 11.19. Let Á be the m-adic comp/etion of A . Tlzen dim A == local nngs: these are nngs satts ymg any of the (equtvalent) conditions i}-iii)
dim Á. of the next theorem.
Proof A/m11 ~ Áftit" from (10.15), hence Xm(n) = Xm(n). •
Theorem 11.22. Let A be a Noetherian local ring of dimension d, m its
lf x 11 •• • , x 4 generate an m-primary ideal, aod d = di m A , we call x 1 ,
xd ... , maximal ideal, k = A jm . Tlzen the fol/owing are equivalen!:
a system ofparameters. They have a certain independence property described in i) Gm(A) ~ k [I!J . .. , Id] where the t, are independent indetemrinates;
the following proposition. ii) d i m~~: (m/ m 2 ) = d;
Proposition 11.20. Let x 1 , .• • , xd be a syslem of parameters for A and let iii) m can be generaled by d e/ements.
q = (xh .. . , x 4 ) be the m-primary ideal generated by them. Let f (t 1 , • •• , td) Proof i) ~ ii) is clear . ii) ~ iii) by (2.8): see the proof of (11.15). iii) => Q:
be a homogeneous po/ynomia/ of degree s with coefficients in A, and assume let m = (x 1 , • . • , xd), then by (1 1.20) the map a: k[x11 .. . , xd] --7 Gm(A) is an
that isomorphism of graded rings. •
f(x ll .. . , xd) E q~+ 1 . A regular local ring is necessarily an integral doma in : this is a consequence of
Then al/ lhe coefficients off lie in m. the following more general result.
Proof Consider the epimorphism of graded rings Lemma 11.23. L et A be a ring, a an ideal of A such that ~· = O. n,.
a: (A /q)[th .. . , Id] -+ Gq(A) Suppose lhat Ga(A) is an integral domain. Tlzen A is an integral domam.

given. by '! -? x, where 1, are indeterminates and x1 is x, mod q. The hypothesis n

Proof Let x y be non-zero elements of A . Then since ° = O there eXJh'st
11

¿ H 1 Let x y- denote t e
onfun~hes th.at](tl, · . . , td) (the reduction of fmod q) is in the kernel of a .
· '
IDtegers r S ~ 0 SUCh that X E a' X ¿ ar+l Y E as, Y~ a ' •' --
• , ~ , 'F ' -
tmages of x, y in G,(A), Gs(A) respectively. Then x ::f: , Y
o - ::¡: O hence xy =
'
Assume ifposslble that sorne coefficient offis a unit then/is nota zero-divisor
(cf. Chapter 1, Exercise 3). Then we have ' X· y -::/: O, hence xy # O. • .
. . 1 re precisely the dts-
d(Gq(A)} ~ d((A/q}[tll ·· .,Id]/(])) becausefe Ker {ce} Hence by (9.2) the regular local rings of dtmenston a
= d((Af q)[th · · ·, ldl) - 1 by (11.3) crete valuation rings. . . integrally closed
= d - 1 by the example following {11.3). It can also be shown that if A is a local nng and Gm(J1) lS an ular local ring
Btraudt"dt(Gq(A)) = d by the main theorem (1 1.14) This gives the required con- integral domain then A is integrally closed. It follows that a ~eg of dun ' ension
· •
18 , · 1 1domams ·
le 1on. • · tntegrally closed · but there are integrally closed oca
>1 ,
Which are not regular .
•
•
 EXER.ClSES
124 DIMENSION TtfEORY , rna ]},16. Let B S A be integral doma · . 125
Le b . ms wu}z B ·
• • ,¿ L A be a Noetherian local ring. Tlzen A is regular if and . tegral over B . Let m e a max zma/ ideal orA 1 Integral/y closed d
111 d d' A d' , anc le t n an A
Propos111011 11.2.,. e1 'J
zs. n1aximal an tm m = tm Bn. = tn " B· -rh
1 , en n

if Á is regular. ~· N h ·
1
on Y' ) d (ll 19) we know that A 1s a oet cnan local ri ng if. This is an easy consequence of the result5 f
Proof. By (10..16), (~ · ~ ~ and. with 1ñ as maximal ideal. Now use (10.22)
02
5 proo. · al'="Y (5.8). Next if
rnaxltn l:l
Chapter 5. F'
trst n is
°
of the same d¡menswn) ,..., G· (A} and the result follows. •
which asserts that Gm(A = m ... . • m :::::~ q 1 :::::~ q2 ::::;, • • • => qd
.vhat we have said above that A ts also an mtegral
ks l) It foUows firom ' . strict chain of primes in A, its intersection with B 15
. b (1)
Remar · . a1l aking this means that (loca11Y) JS ~ Y(5.9) a strict chain of
domain. Geometnc . y spe pnrnes
non-singularity => analytic irreducibility n ::::> lJ 1 ::::;, P2 ::::> • • • => p
• • d• (2)
. 1 point there is only one analytic "branch,.
or that, at a non-smgu ar ' . . . This proves d1m Bn ~ dtm A m. Conversely given the strict h .
(S.16), lift this to a chain (1) (necessarily strict): thus di m ~ mat~""" (d ~1mweBn.
2
· fi Id k mapping Isomorphtcally onto A / m (the geometnc can, by
2) If A(col ta)L~S a r:s
0
22
1
that Á ¡5 a formal power series ring over k in d in-
case) then 1 · IIDP 1
• f · 1 · We can now proceed to :
determinates. Thus the completions .of local ~mgs o non-smgu ar pomts on
d-dimensional varieties over k are all tsomorphtc. Proor of (11 .25). By the Normalization Lemma (Chapter 5 Exerc· l6)
'J • • ' tse , we can
find a polynomt.al. nng B = k[x¡, . : . , x 4 ] contained in A(V) such that d =
· Let A - k[" "" ] (k any fieid x 1 independent indeterminates);
Examp1e. - "'~ h . . . ' .~ " . ' " . . dim Vand A(V) ts mtegral o ver B. St?ce B is integrally closed (remark following
let m = (x1 , • • • , x"). Then Am (the local nn~ of .affi~e spac~ k at the ongm) (5.12)) we can apply (11.26) and thts reduces our task to proving (11.25) for
¡5 a regular local ring: for Gm(A) is a polynomml nng m n vanables. the ring B, i.e. for affine space. But any point of affine space can be taken as
the origin of coordina tes and, as we have already seen, k[x¡, ... , xd] Iocalized
TRANSCENDENTAL DIMENSION at the maximal ideal (x h . . . , xd) is a local ring of dimension d. •
We shall conclude this brief treatment of dimension theory by showing how the Corollary 11.27. For every max imal ideal m of A( V) we have
dimension of local rings connects up with the dimension of varieties defined
dim A(V) = dim A(V)m.
classically in terms of the function field.
Assume for simplicity that.k is an algebraically closed field and let V be an Proof. By definition we have dim A( V) = supmdim A(V)sn. But by (11 .25)'
irreducible affine variety over k. Thus ~he coordinate ring A(V) is of the form all A(V)m have the same dimension. •
A( V) = k[x11 ••• , Xn]/p
where ~ is a prime ideal. The field of fractions of the integral domain A( V) is EXERCISES
called the field of rational functions on Vand is denoted by k( V) . It is a finitely·
generated extension of k and so has a finite transcendence degree over k-the l. Let fE k[x1, . . . , xn ] be an irreducible polynomial over an aJgebraically dos~~
maximum number of aJgebraically independent elements. This number is field k. A point P on the variety f(x) = O is non-singular <=> not all the partia
de~ned to be the dimension of V. Now recall that, by the Nullstellensatz, the derivatives offox, vanish at P. Let A = k[xiJ . .. , Xn ]f(f), and let m .be ~e
pomts of V correspond bijectively with the maximal ideals of A( V). lf P is a maximal ideal of A corresponding to the point P. Prove that Pis non-smgu ar
point with maximal ideal m we shall call dim A(V)m the local dimension of V Am is a regular local ring.
<=>
at P. We propose to prove [By (11.18) we have dim Am = n - l. Now
nt/m ~ (X¡, . . . , Xn)/(X¡, . · ·, Xn)
2
2 + (/)
TMorem 11.25. For any irreducible variety V over k the local dimension of V
at any point is equal to dim v. and has dimension " - 1 if and only if / rF (Xtt · · ·, xnr~.]
2 I the homomorphism
Remark. .we already know by (11.21) that dim V ~ dim A for all m. The ' n 01.21) assume that A is complete. Prove that . d that A is a
proble~ 15 to prove the opposite inequality and for this mpurpose the rnain k[[~ 1 , · · ·, td]] ~ A given by t, ~ x, (1 ~ i ~ d) is injectlvc an
l
emma .1s: ' fimtely-generated module over k[[t 1 , ••• , Id]]. [Use <10·24).]
 DJWENSION THEOR y
126
"e) t 0 non-aJgebraically-closed fields. [If k is thc algcbraic 1
3• Extend (1 J,¿,J
r.[ mtegra 1 over k [x1, ... , Xn 11
. .
x 115 •
e asure
of k, thcn " Xh • • ·' • n
f Noetherian domain of infinite dimension (Nagata). Lct k b
1
4. An cxamdJpteAo a k[x x" . , Xn, • •• ] be a polynomial ringo ver k in a cou t be a
&Id an e = 1t "' • • • n a · !y
'ndeterminates. Let m1, m 2, . . . be an mcrcasing seque
¡nfinitc sct of J r . nce or
. i t gers such that m, + 1 - m, > m, - m, - t .or all ' > l. Lct h
pos1.tivc ne · f 1 . Index
and Jet s be the comp ement m A o t 1c umon of thc ideal ,
't-'t :::::
) 1
(X•+l•···•XIIIt+l d h r h S ' )' . Spt·
1
Each .t.lr is 3 prime ideal an t ere. ore t e se~ •s m u hplJcativcly c1oscd.
. S -1 A is Noetherian by Chapter 7, Exerc1se 9. Eaeh S - 1 p1 has he'
Thc nng . _1 1g11t
equal to mr+ t - m., hence dJm S A = co.
S. Reformulate (1 1. 1) in terms of the Grothendieck group K(A 0 ) (Chaptcr 7• Additive function, 23 Gcnerators of a module 20
Adie topology, 105 Grothendieck group, 88•
Excrcisc 25).
Algebra, 30
6• Let A be a ring (not necessarily Noetherian). Prove that homomorphism, 30 Height, 120
1 + dim A ~ dim A[x] ~ 1 + 2 dim A .
Annihilator ideal, 8, 19 Hcnsel's lcmma, 115
Artinian, module, 74 Hilbert basis theorem 81
[Let/: A- A(x] be the embedding and consider the fiber off* : Spec (A[x]) -.. ring, 76 Hilbert function, 118 '
Spec (A) over a prime ideal p of A. This fiber can be identified with the spectrum Artin-Rees Jemma, 107 Hilbert Nullstellensatz, 67, 69, 82, 85
of k ®.. A[x] ~ k[x], where k is the residue field at ~ (Chaptcr 3, Exercise 21),
and dim k(x] = l. Now use Exercise 7(ii) of Chapter 4.] Boolean ring, 11 Ideal(s), 2
coprime, 7
7. Let A be a Noethcrian ring. Then Chain conditions, 74 decomposable, 52
Chain of submodules, 76 direct product of, 7
dim A[x] = 1 + dim A, Cokernel, 19 fractional, 96
and hencc, by induction on n, Complete, 105 generated by, 5
Completion, 102 intersection of, 6
dim A[x1, . . . , Xn] = n + di m A. Composition series, 76 invertible, 96
[Let 4' be a prime ideal of height m in A. Then there exist a11 ••• , am e p sueh that Constructible topology, 48 maximal, 3
~ is a minimal prime ideal belonging to the ideal a = (a 1 , ••• , am). By Exercisc 7
Contraction, 9 primary, 50
ofChapter 4, ~[x] is a minimal prime ideal of a[x] and therefore height ~[x] ~m. Dedekind domain, 95 prime, 3
On the other hand, a chain of prime ideals ~o e ~ 1 e . . . e ~m = lJ givcs rise Dimension, 90 principal, 11
to a chain 4'o[x] e ··· e ~m[x] = ~[x], hence height ~[x] ~ m. Hence height Discrete valuation ring, 94 product of, 6
~[x] = height ~. Now use the argument of Exercise 6.] Domain, integral, 2 quotient, 8
principal ideal, 5 sum of, 6
Image, 2
Exact sequence, 22 Integral, A-algebra, 60
Extension of an ideal, 9 closure, 60
element, 59
Field, 3
1ntegrally closed domain, 60
residue, 4, 43
Filtration, 105 Kernel, 2, 18
Finite, A-algebra, 30
type, 30 Length, 76
Finitely-generated 30 Limit, direct, 32
Flat, 29 ' inverse, 103
faithfully, 29 Local ring, 4
Fractions, ring of, 36 Localization, 38
127
 J28 JNDEX
Ring, 1
Modular Jaw, 6
absolute1y flat, 35
Module(s), l 1 Boolean, 11
direct product of, 20
discretc va1uatio n, 94
direct sum of, 20
graded, 106
faithfuJ. 20
finiteJy.generated, 20 homomorphism, 2
local, 4
flat~ 29
of fractions, 36
free, 21 quotient, 2
graded, 106
homomorphism, 18 semi-local, 4
sub, 2
product of, 19
valuation, 65
quotient, 18
sub, 18
sum of, 19 Satu ratcd , 44
Multiplicatively closed set. 36 Scalars, extcnsion of, 27
restriction of, 27
Nakayama's Jemma, 21 Spectrum, maximal, 14
Nilpotent, 2 prime, 12
Noetherian, module, 74 Support, 46
ring, 76 Symbolic powcr, 56
Normalization lemma, 69
Tensor product, of algebras, 30
Parameters, system of, 122 of mod ules, 24
Poincaré series, 116 Torsion, element, 45
Prirnary, decomposition, 51 submodule, 45
ideal, 50
Prime ideal(s), 3 UniL, 2
associated, 52
embcdded, 52 Valuation ring, 65
isolated, 52 Yarieties, a ffinc algebraic, 15

Radical, Jacobson, S Za ris ki, ring, 1 14

nil, S to pology, 12
of a submodule, 57 Zero·divisor, 2
Re¡ular local ring, 123 Zorn 's lemma , 3