Pineal Gland

• Lies in posterior portion of the roof of 3rd

ventricle (epithalamus)
• Pinealocytes – make melatonin from serotonin
• Melatonin – released at night to make us
drowsy
– Sets body circadian rhythm (body time clock)
– Activated by lack of light (darkness)
• Highest at night, lowest at day
– May play role in timing of human sexual maturation
• Slows maturation of sperm, oocytes, sexual organs
 Pancreas
• Located in abdominopelvic cavity between
the stomach and small intestine
• Slender, pink organ w/lumpy consistancy
• Mixed gland – exocrine & endocrine functions
– Exocrine gland – manufactures digestive
enzymes and uses ducts to deliver to small
intestine
• 99% of organ
– Endocrine gland – manufactures hormones
• 1% of organ
Pancreatic Islets (Islets of Langerhans)

52
• Normal glucose levels – 70-110mg/dL
Pancreas
• Low glucose levels = alpha cells respond by producing glucagon
Glucagon causes:
1. Glycogen broken down into glucose (simple sugar)
2. Fat to be converted into fatty acids in adipose
3. Liver to synthesize and release more glucose

• High glucose levels = beta cells respond by producing insulin

Insulin causes:
1. Target cells to uptake more glucose
2. ATP formation from glucose
3. Extra glucose converted into glycogen
4. Amino acid absorption and protein synthesis
5. Triglycerides synthesis in adipose
 *** How is homeostasis established from high/low glucose levels?

Glucose
Homeostasis
using Glucagon
and Insulin

Hormones display
antagonistic effects

Hormones use direct

endocrine regulation
 know types of stress
Stress
• Any condition that threatens homeostasis
• Physical stress – illness or injury, lack of
nutrients, lack of O2, etc.
• Emotional stress – depression, anxiety,
neurological or worrying
• Environmental stress – extreme temperatures
• Metabolic stress – acute starvation
• General Adaptation Syndrome – “Stress
Response”
– Pattern of hormonal & physiological adjustments
– In response to stress-causing factors
 1. Alarm Phase
know characteristics of 3 stress response phases

• Immediate sympathetic
response
• E & NE released
• Energy reserves mobilized
– Glucose
• Increased mental alertness
• Increased heart rate and
respiratory rate
 2. Resistance Phase
• Occurs if stress lasts longer than
a few hours
• Glucocorticoids dominant
hormones
– Glucose production
• ACTH, GH, ADH, MCs secreted
– Mobilize metabolic reserves
• Lipids, amino acids
– Conservation of glucose for
neural tissue
– Conservation of salts, water
3. Exhaustion Phase
• Homeostatic regulation breaks down
• Organs systems fail
• Mineral imbalances
• Exhaustion of lipids
• Breakdown of structural proteins
• Cardiovascular damage
• Cannot maintain fluid & electrolyte
balance
• Cannot maintain blood glucose
concentrations
 Diseases/Conditions
• Acromegaly – oversecretion of GH in adults
– Facial features distorted due to excessive bone growth
• Hyperthyroidism (Graves Disease) – overproduction of
thyroid hormones
– Cured by drugs or destruction of part of gland
• Hypothyroidism – problem of thyroid gland
– Treated w/ thyroid drugs
• Goiter – enlargement of thyroid gland by insufficient
amounts of iodine in system
• Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) – changes in mood,
eating habits, sleeping patterns
– Lack of sunlight = lack of melatonin production
 People with Dwarfism
Endocrine which results from a
Growth Hormone
Disorders hyposecretion
 Diabetes
• Type I diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent) is
an autoimmune disorder in which the immune
system destroys pancreatic beta cells
– Inadequate insulin production

• Type II diabetes mellitus (non-insulin-

dependent) involves insulin deficiency or
reduced response of target cells due to change
in insulin receptors
– Insulin resistance
– Associated with obesity