MEMORY SYSTEMS

Human memory is composed of three interconnected memory stores. Information from our
senses is initially stored in sensory memory (SM). Information is retained long enough for us
to interpret it and to decide which parts of it are important enough to pay attention to and
transfer to working memory (WM), where we can continue to process it. Information in LTM is
stored predominantly in terms of its meaning and this memory store is often compared to a
library whose contents are organized in several meaningful ways.

 DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE SYSTEMS OF MEMORY

 2 TYPES OF SENSORY MEMORY

1) Iconic Memory
 Sensory input to the visual system goes into iconic memory
 Iconic memory has duration of about 100 ms. one of the times that iconic
memory is noticeable is when we see “light trails.” This is the phenomenon
when bright lights move rapidly at night and you perceive them as forming a
trail; this is the image that is represented in iconic memory.
2) Echoic Memory

 Echoic memory is the branch of sensory memory used by the auditory system
that can hold a large amount of auditory information for 3–4 seconds. This
echoic sound is replayed in the mind for this brief amount of time immediately
after the presentation of the auditory stimulus.
 SHORT-TERM MEMORY
 Short-term memory is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in
an active, readily available state for a brief period.
  How long storage lasts depends on conscious effort from the individual; without
rehearsal or active maintenance, the duration of short-term memory is believed
to be on the order of seconds.
 SHORT-TERM MEMORY & CHUNKING
A. Short-term memory
 The short-term memory has a limited capacity, which can be readily
illustrated by the simple expedient of trying to remember a list of random
items (without allowing repetition or reinforcement) and seeing when errors
begin to creep in.
 The number of objects an average human can hold in working memory
(known as memory span) is between 5 and 9 (7 ± 2) sometimes referred to as
Miller's Law).
B.

Chunking
Chunking is the organization of material into shorter meaningful groups to
make lead to an increase in the short-term memory capacity. With chunking,
each chunk represents just one of the 5 - 9 items that can be stored in short-
term memory, thus extending the total number of items that can be held.
Example:
i. a hyphenated phone number, split into groups of 3 or 4 digits, tends to
be easier to remember than a single long number. the ideal size for
chunking of letters and numbers, is three

 TAXONOMY OF LONG-TERM MEMORY

 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LONG-TERM MEMORY

 Explicit memory is a memory that can be intentionally and consciously recalled.
Implicit memory is an experiential or functional form of memory that cannot be
consciously recalled. Unlike explicit memory that can be recalled, implicit
memories are linked to subconscious mechanisms.
  A person is using implicit memory when his/her previous experiences aid the
performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous
experiences.

Example:
i. A person would use his/her implicit memory to ride a bike or drive a car
because he/she can do so without having to consciously think about it.

 EXPLICIT LONG-TERM MEMORY

 Explicit memory are those experiences and information that a person must
consciously think about to remember.

Example:

i. When a person is trying to intentionally remember something such as the

name of someone he/she met or a list of items to pick up at the store, this
information is stored in his/her explicit memory.

 It would include consciously remembered knowledge or experiences such as

information, episodes or events. There are two types

a) Episodic memory
 refers to information that is remembered within a temporal and/or spatial
context

Examples:

i. When you read a list of words to a subject and then ask him or her
to recall the words a minute later, the patient must retrieve a
specific list of words presented in a specific temporal (1 minute
previously) and spatial (same examining room) context.
ii. Remembering what you had for breakfast this morning or when you
last saw a physician would require retrieval from episodic memory

b) Semantic memory
 refers to one’s fund of general knowledge that is not dependent upon
contextual cues for its retrieval
 has been proposed to exist as a representation of knowledge based on an
organized network of inter-related categories, concept and attributes.

 3 TYPES OF IMPLICIT LONG-TERM MEMORY

A. Procedural memory

 Procedural memory is implicit memory for skills and motor movements performed
without conscious awareness.
Example:
i. Activities include walking, riding a bike, tying shoes, making a sandwich,
and reading.

B. Classical conditioning

 Classical conditioning refers to the unconscious awareness of an association of

one stimulus with another stimulus.
 The memory for the association is demonstrated when the conditioned stimulus
begins to create the same response as the unconditioned stimulus did before the
learning.

Examples:

i. If a person hears a dinner bell ring, it may create a naturally occurring

response such as excitement or salivation.
ii. Another example is if a person heard there was going to be a test, he/she
begins to get tense and nervous
C. Priming
 Priming is a non-conscious effect in which exposure to one stimulus influences the
response to another stimulus due to prior experience.
 Since it occurs outside of your conscious awareness, it is implicit memory. Often,
a person does not consciously recall seeing the priming stimulus that affect your
action.

Example:
i. If ask to state an animal that begins with the letter “D”, most people
would choose “dog” because it probably the most popular. However,
some people may choose “deer” because of particular connection.