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External Flows
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External Flows
•  Considers bodies fully immersed in a fluid
stream.
•  In external flows we are concerned with fluid
drag forces and lift forces.
•  Analysis of lift and drag is usually facilitated by
defining lift and drag coefficients.
•  These are often experimentally obtained, but
some laminar flow results are theoretical.
•  These are used in momentum (force) balances.

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows
•  Consider the following system:

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows
•  Pressure distribution around a car. Drag
is the integrated force opposing motion.

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows
•  Boundary Layers: are thin fluid layers
attached to the surface of a body where
changes in the velocity are greatest.

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows
•  The boundary layer is a layer of fluid with
variable thickness:

•  The shear stress is approximately

obtained from:
∂u U
τ (x) = µ ~µ
∂y wall δ

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

€
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External Flows
•  The flat plate immersed in a fluid stream is the
most fundamental problem of fluid mechanics.
•  It can be analyzed using a control volume mass
and momentum balance:

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows
•  Boundary Layer Characteristics:
δ
–  Displacement thickness
∞
⎛ u ⎞ ⎛ u ⎞
δ * = ∫ ⎜1 − ⎟ dy ≈ ∫ ⎜1 − ⎟ dy
0
⎝ U ⎠ 0
⎝ U ⎠
–  Boundary layer thickness, δ

∞ δ
u ⎛ u ⎞ u ⎛ u ⎞
–  Momentum thickness θ = ∫ ⎜1 − ⎟dy ≈ ∫ ⎜1 − ⎟dy
0 U
€ ⎝ U ⎠ 0 U
⎝ U ⎠

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows
•  Momentum Integral Equation:
–  Derived for a boundary layer with free stream
velocity U(x)
τw d dU
= (U θ ) + δ U
2 *
U = U(x)
ρ dx dx

–  When U = constant (parallel flow)

€τ d δ
u ⎛ u ⎞
2 d
w
= (U θ ) = U
2
∫ U ⎜⎝1 − U ⎟⎠dy U = constant
ρ dx dx 0

–  We assume profiles and solve approximately

€

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows
•  The drag coefficient is defined as (Rex >1000):

τx 0.664 δ 5 ρUx
C f ,x = = = Re x =
1 Re x
ρU 2 x Re x µ
2
•  These are the exact solutions from Table 9.2.
•  The mean drag €(to get total drag) is obtained
€
by integrating the shear stress over the plate:
τw 1.328 ρUL
Cf = = Re L =
1 Re L µ
ρU 2
2

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

€
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Example - 31
•  A plate is of dimensions L x 5L is oriented
in a parallel stream in both the long
direction and short direction. Determine
the ratio of the total drag force assuming
laminar flow.

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows
•  Effect of Turbulence

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows
•  Turbulent Skin Friction:
–  Fully turbulent boundary layer (x > 0)
τx 0.0594
C f ,x = = Re x > 500,000
δ 0.38 1 2
1/ 5
Re x
≈ 1/ 5 ρU
x Re x 2
τw 0.0742
Cf = = Re L > 500,000
1 1/ 5
Re L
ρU 2
€ 2
€ –  Initially laminar and proceeding to turbulent (x >0),
see slide #6.
τw 0.0742 1740
€ Cf = = − Re L > 500,000
1 1/
Re L 5
Re L
ρU 2
2

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

€
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External Flows
•  Flat Plate Skin Friction

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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Example - 32
•  Compute the drag on the keel of a sail
boat moving through water at 0.5 m/s.
The keel has a height H = 200 cm, and
variable width. The width at the free end is
75 cm, while the width at its base
(attached to the boat) is 150 cm. Solve
assuming a mean width. Discuss how the
exact solution is obtained using
integration.

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows
•  Drag in general consists of two components:
–  Skin Friction (shear stress)
–  Profile or Form Drag (pressure forces)
•  We analyze total drag using a drag coefficient
CD defined as:
FD / A
CD =
1 ρU 2
2
–  A is usually the profile area (projected shadow area)
•  Drag coefficients depend on Reynolds number,
€
surface roughness, and Mach number.

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows
•  Sphere
24 6
CD = + + 0.4 0.01 < Re D < 250,000
Re D 1+ Re D

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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Example - 33
•  Compute the terminal velocity of a falling
sphere of 10 mm diameter, if only gravity,
buoyancy, and friction are the dominant
forces. Perform you calculations for air,
water, and oil.

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows
•  Cylinder
10
CD = 2 / 3 +1 0.1 < Re D < 250,000
Re D

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows
•  Plate Normal to Flow

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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External Flows
•  Streamlining: the trade off between
pressure (form) drag and skin friction:

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka

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Example - 34
•  Find the drag force and bending moment
which are exerted on a large flag pole in a
50 km/hr wind, if the pole, spherical cap,
and flag have the following dimensions:
Dpole = 15 cm, Lpole = 15 m, Dcap = 25 cm,
Wflag = 11 m, Hflag = 4.5 m. Make a
sketch and label the system accordingly
with all forces.

ENGR 5961 Fluid Mechanics I: Dr. Y.S. Muzychka