WRITTING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

By
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wan Fauziah bt Wan Yusoff

_____________________________________________________________________
1. Abstract
 An abstract is a shortened version of the paper
 Contain all information necessary for the reader to determine.
 Usually between 200 and 300 words.

Four major criteria of abstract are:

i. Introduction (purpose)- state the purpose very clearly in the first or

second sentence.
ii. Methods - Name or briefly describe the basic methodology used without
going into excessive detail-be sure to indicate the key techniques used.
iii. Results – is the major findings including key quantitative or qualitative
results or trends from report those results which answer the questions of
the study, report identify trends, relative change or differences, etc.
iv. Discussion and conclusion - a brief summary of study interpretations and
conclusions. This part present interpretation of the results, and provide
comparative analysis with results of previous research, methods used to
obtain the data. This will allow the reader to have a diversified view of
the subject, and a better understanding of validating research.

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Example:

The board of directors is acknowledged as one of the most important internal

corporate governance structure. This paper reports an exploratory and qualitative
study of the characteristics of an effective board by the Malaysian corporate leaders.
The results are derived from semi structured interviews with 41 directors of top 100
Malaysian Public Listed Companies (PLCs). Four characteristics of an effective
board perceived to be important discovered in this study include the board that has;
(1) the right memberships, (2) the right culture; (3) clear roles and responsibilities;
and (4) the right structures. This paper concludes that although the majority of the
existing board effectiveness research has focused on board composition and structure,
the behavioural aspect of the board in particular, the membership and culture of the
board, are the most important components of an effective board. This has
implications for those seeking to expand further research in corporate governance
area. Finally, this paper provides a basis for characteristics of an effective board that
can be applied by the Malaysian corporate governance regulators and policy-makers
in enhancing Malaysian corporate governance policies.

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 Chapter 1

1.0. Introduction
 The introduction gives an overall review of the paper.
 Start with a broad context, gradually narrowing down to research problem,
objective and hypothesis. A good introduction explains to solve the research
problem, and creates ‘leads’ to make the reader want to delve further into
your work..

Example:
In dynamic business environments, the roles of both current and emerging boards of
directors are under pressure as they seek to undertake challenging responsibilities.
Boards of directors today are expected to perform more than monitoring company
performance (Finegold, Benson & Hecht, 2007). They need to provide strategic advice
and help to manage a firm during a crisis (Daily, Dalton & Canella, 2003). In ensuring
that they perform the above roles effectively, a number of scholars have acknowledged
the importance of competent board members who can contribute intelligently towards
the sustainability of firms’ functions (Forbes & Milliken, 1999; Carpenter & Westphal,
2001; Carter & Lorsch, 2004; Leblanc & Gillies, 2005; Huse, 2005; Levrau & Van den
Berghe, 2007a). Due to the importance of members of boards of directors, it is vital to
identify the characteristics that make them effective. As Coulson-Thomas (1992) urged,
for these reasons the attitudes and behaviours of directors are of more than academic
interest, with Leblanc (2003) pointing out that their impacts are likely to influence
corporate morale and, in turn, overall performance. In addressing this issue, the present
study focuses on investigating the characteristics of members of boards of directors and
their effectiveness in achieving company objectives within the top 100 Malaysian
Public Listed Companies (PLCs).

The present chapter provides an overview of the study covering seven sections as
follows:
1.1 Context of the study
1.2 Problem statement on the importance of boards of directors
1.3 Objective for the study
1.4 Scope of the study
1.5 Significance of the study
1.6 Operational definitions
1.7 Structure of the thesis
1.8 Summary

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1.1 Context of the study

 The main purpose is to capture the readers’ attention;

 to introduce the present study (by giving context of the study).
 has to be written to convince the readers that the chosen area of research is
important and will make a contribution to the field.

 It states how the findings can make a difference and why it is important that
the research needs to be carried out. Essentially,

 it answers the following questions: Why is this research important? Who will
benefit? Why do we need to know this? Why does this situation, method,
model or piece of equipment need to be improved?

Example :

Malaysia is one of the most successful non-western countries to have achieved a

relatively smooth transition to modern economic growth during the last century (The
World Bank, 2005a). Since independence in 1957, Malaysia has moved from an
agriculturally-based economy to a more diversified and export-oriented economy that
includes consumer products, electrical and electronic goods and agricultural products
(Economic Planning Unit, 2006). As a result of recent economic development,
Malaysia has made significant progress towards achieving advanced country status
underpinned by strong economic growth (6.0% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in
2006) comparable with that of other developed countries such as Korea, Singapore
and Taiwan (International Monetary Fund, 2007). This was to a great extent due to
the rapid expansion of the capital market of Malaysian. In 2008, the Malaysian capital
market turnover reached a total capitalisation of Ringgit Malaysia (RM) 877 billion
(AUD 370 billion). This contributed 4.5 per cent of the 5.5 per cent of Malaysian
GDP (Economic Planning Unit, 2008).

The success of Malaysian economic development has been widely acknowledged to

have resulted from various government efforts (Yaacop, 2004), in which the
government has maintained macroeconomic stability and growth by providing
prudent economic and fiscal policies relating to trade, competition, regulations,

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 financial systems, capital markets, and technology and innovation, (Economic
Planning Unit, 2007). For instance, in the Ninth Malaysia Plan the government
focused on strengthening existing economic sectors and generating new knowledge-
intensive activities in information and communications technology, biotechnology
and the services sectors. This plan provides a blueprint of strategies and programs that
are geared towards realising the economic and social objectives of the country. Part of
this plan is to strengthen corporate governance in Malaysia.

In relation to corporate governance, unlike developed countries including the USA,

UK and Australia, Malaysia has been characterised by an insider system of corporate
governance with high levels of ownership concentration, crossholdings and
significant participation of owners in management (The World Bank, 1999; 2005a;
Cleassens, Djankov & Lang, 2000; Khatri, Leruth & Piesse, 2002). The World Bank
(2005a) reported that, in more than half of Malaysian PLCs, the five largest
shareholders own 60 per cent or more of company equity. The largest shareholder
groups among the top five shareholders in Malaysia are nominee companies (45.6%),
followed by non-financial companies (25.1%) and the government (17.2%). The
majority of nominee shareholdings are owned by family enterprises (The World
Bank, 2005a). Further, within the top 20 per cent, 85 per cent of Malaysian PLCs
have owner-managers (Cleassens, Djankov & Lang, 2000). With this structure being
widespread, the major shareholders control most companies’ decision-making,
including the appointment of board members (Dogan & Smyth, 2001; Gomez, 2005;
On Kit & Tan, 2007). As a result, the characteristics of board members of Malaysian
PLCs have been found to be quite diverse. Further reports of Malaysian corporate
governance and boards of directors are presented in Chapter 2.

1.2. Problem Statement and research questions

 A problem statement is a clear description of the issue(s)

 it includes a vision, issue statement, and method used to solve the problem.
 A problem statement is a clear concise description of the issue(s) that need(s)
to be addressed by a problem solving team.
 It is used to center and focus the team at the beginning, keep the team on
track during the effort, and is used to validate that the effort delivered an
outcome that solves the problem statement.

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Example
The inherent value of student outcomes assessment seems to be widely recognized
after nearly 20 years of work to promote it. Few committed educators and
administrators deny that understanding what and how students are learning on an
ongoing basis can strengthen the teaching and learning mission of any higher
education institution. While critique of assessment is forthcoming to fulfill a real
need to understand what this reform means in education (Hargreaves, Earl, &
Schmidt, 2002; Slevin, 2001; Spademan, 1999), assessment pressures have not
abated. Calls for accountability from outside the academy add to a sense of urgency
for proponents who see assessment as having great potential to improve the
productivity and quality of higher education at a time of increasing competition,
waning public support, and retrenchment (Ewell, 2001; Zemsky & Massy, 1995).

One oft-stated goal of the assessment movement is for the higher education
community to use assessment processes to articulate clearly the nature and value of
conferred degrees in terms of the knowledge, abilities, and dispositions of graduates
(Astin, 1991; Boyer, 1990; Holyer, 1998; Terenzini, 1986). Ideally, institutions
gather and use evidence of student learning and that which promotes or prevents it to
shape institutional missions and planning and to guide critical choices about
curriculum and instruction (AAHE, 1992; Palomba & Banta, 1999.) This is a tall
order, but one that higher education has not avoided as institutions of all kinds have
implemented assessment (Banta & Associates, 1996; El-Khawas, 1995).

Despite widespread adoption, assessment has not lived up to its promise to provide
means for accountability and improvement (Angelo, 2000; Gelmon, 1997; Peterson &
Augustine, 2000; Ratcliff & Associates, 1995; Tucker, 1999). Angelo notes a “shared
sense among critics and adepts alike that our assessment efforts are not making
enough of a difference, or the right kinds of differences” (2000, p.1). There is
empirical evidence to validate this “shared sense” that the assessment movement is
not fulfilling its promise to make institutions both more accountable and better.
Based on the results from a nationwide survey, the National Center for Postsecondary
Improvement (NCPI) concluded that assessment “initiatives appear to have had little
impact on how institutions have supported or used student assessment to improve
their academic performance” (1999, p. 56).

The initial optimism of assessment advocates may seem unfounded now. Although
faculty have been assessing student learning for a long time, there are still shifts to be
made because it has not been common practice to assess for anything other than
content knowledge in a single course for the purpose of assigning grades. Moving
assessment out of individual classrooms and into the collective consciousness of
faculty is a major shift that affects the day-to-day lives of those who work in
university settings (Phoenix, 2000).

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The daunting task leaders and assessment advocates share is to simultaneously stress
how assessment is at once consistent with faculty work and transformative of it,
demanding a higher degree of collective action and responsibility for student learning
(Schilling & Schilling, 1998; Wergin, 1995). The necessary changes are both subtle
and pervasive as the best assessment practices require changes in faculty roles and
responsibilities and in the relationships that faculty have with each other and with
students.

Often the academic department is the site where desired outcomes for students are
identified and negotiated and plans to assess for these outcomes are made (Banta &
Associates, 1996; Nichols, 1995a; Peterson & Einarson, 1998; Wergin & Swingen,
2001). Ideally, systematic assessment provides useful evidence for departmental
decision making about curriculum and instruction as it has traditionally done for
individual courses. When departments take assessment on, faculty are left to develop
ways to share responsibilities for achieving learning outcomes so that everyone in the
department understands their role in developing and refining these outcomes and
makes choices to realize them.

Because complex student outcomes require agreement about what is most important
and multiple learning opportunities over time to develop, assessment must be the
shared responsibility of everyone in the department. Yet existing work norms make it
unlikely that the assessment focus has shifted from courses to the department level.
To enable the kind of discourse about learning in which faculty articulate the nature
and value of the degrees in their discipline and carry their work through in curricular
choices, shared responsibility will need to become a new norm for faculty work.

Even if willing faculty want to implement assessment, the traditional collegial model
of decision-making in which professors function as a confederation of individuals
rather than as members of a community limits assessment implementation and use of
evidence to individual courses at each professor’s discretion (Huba & Freed, 2000;
Wergin & Swingen, 2001.) These norms of "hollowed collegiality" must change to
enable assessment to take hold as an integral part of faculty work (Massy, Wilger, &
Colbeck, 1996.) The shift away from such norms begins with individuals who choose
to do something different, creating the possibility of spreading new ways of working
(Palmer, 1998.)

Further compounding assessment implementation is the inherent complexity of

faculty work. Faculty in institutions of all kinds must balance higher education’s
three traditional missions: research, teaching, and service. This is especially true now
in a higher education climate that has seen the research mission of the university grow
to the detriment of both teaching and service in institutions of all kinds. Nowhere are
the challenges to assessment implementation greater than in the research university
where in fully one third of undergraduates receive the baccalaureate degree (Kuh &
Huh, 2001).

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 For the faculty members in institutions of all kinds who have tried to make
assessment of student learning integral to their work, compromises in the form of
changes to professional roles, responsibilities, and relationships have almost certainly
been necessary. It may be essential to understand how these individual shifts have
altered the daily lives of the faculty who are pioneering the integration of student
outcomes assessment as well as how their choices may begin to affect departmental
norms. Conversely, it will be necessary to understand how existing faculty work
norms shape the assessment choices that departments make and alter assessment
ideals to meet work realities as faculty perceive and experience them.

The changes necessary to promote assessment are fundamental and unlikely to result
from merely adding assessment to traditional perspectives on faculty work and the
patterns it has engendered (Fairweather, 1993, 1996). It will be necessary to
reconceptualize the relationship between assessment and faculty work as dynamic and
reciprocal, causing faculty to change the ways in which they assess student learning
as well as the ways in which they work individually and collectively. Based on the
above mentioned problem this study is therefore to answer two questions:

1. What is the type of assessment system used by the university?

2. How does it effect the students’ academic performance performance?

1.3. Purpose or Objectives

The formulation of objectives will help you to:
 Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials);
 Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for
understanding and solving the problem you have identified; and
 Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases.

 Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem.

 For example, if the problem identified is low utilization of child welfare
clinics, the general objective of the study could be to identify the reasons
for this low utilization, in order to find solutions.

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 The general objective of a study states what researchers expect to achieve
by the study in general terms.

 The specific objectives - break down a general objective into smaller,

logically connected parts

Example:
General Objective
To explore to what extent community home-based care (CHBC) projects in
Zimbabwe provide adequate, affordable and sustainable care of good quality to
people with HIV/AIDS, and to identify ways in which these services can be
improved.

It was split up in the following specific objectives:

 To identify the full range of economic, psychosocial, health/nursing care
and other needs of patients and their families affected by AIDS.
 To determine the extent to which formal and informal support systems
address these needs from the viewpoint of service providers as well as
patients.
 To determine the economic costs of CHBC to the patient and family as well
as to the formal CHBC programmes themselves.
 To determine how improved CHBC and informal support networks can
contribute to the needs of persons with AIDS and other chronically and
terminally ill patients.
 To use the findings to make recommendations on the improvement of
CHBC to home care providers, donors and other concerned organisations,
including government.

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1.4 Scope/approach

This section defines the boundaries or limitations upon which the research has
been confined to, addressing the following questions arising: Is there any aspect
of the problem the researcher will not discuss? Is the study limited to a specific
geographical area or to only certain aspects of the situation?

1.5 Significance of the study

 This section is important to enable the reader to understand the contributions

or implications from the study. Generally, contributions of the study can be
in two forms:
 Contribution to the body of knowledge – in what aspects the study
contributes to the body of knowledge in a particular area. The contribution
can be in various forms such as expanding the literature review, building a
new research model, or develop a new method of study.
 Contribution to practical – how does the result of the study can be used in a
real situation for further improvement or policy makers.

Example:

This study will lead to a significant contribution to this area as:

i. This study will inform various Malaysian corporate governance policy makers,
corporate boards, and academic researchers on the importance of promoting
guidelines on the characteristics of directors;
ii. This study will also further inform the importance of having a well-resourced
guideline of directors’ characteristics, and the effect that this may have on boards
effectiveness;
iii. Finally, this study is expected to advance knowledge regarding the establishment of
guideline pertaining to characteristics of effective individual directors and boards of
directors. Such information may assist Malaysian regulators when formulating
future corporate governance policies.

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1.6. Operational definition

 Include all terminology used throughout the paper. For example:

Demographic characteristics
Demographic characteristics include age, gender, ethnic groups, tenure and number of
directorships (Hambrick & Manson, 1984; Zahra & Pearce, 1989; Westphal & Milton,
2000).

Competencies refer to individual capabilities or abilities to perform particular roles

(Boyatzis, 2008). These include knowledge and skills, educational qualifications and
industry experience (Hambrick & Manson, 1984; Coulson-Thomas, 1992; Milliken &
Martins, 1996; Forbes & Milliken, 1999, Conger et al., 2001).

1.7 Organization of the thesis

 Telling the readers the overall chapter of the thesis

1.8 Summary

 Finally, the introduction chapter end-up with summary. In this section, the
entire above component will be summaries.

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 Chapter 2: Literature Review

 The purpose of literature review is to enable the reader to understand and

investigate the problem of the study.
 A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area,
and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time
period

 Strategies for writing the literature review

 Find a focus

 Construct a working project statement

 Consider organization

o First, cover the basic categories

o Organizing the body – According to Chronological, trend,
thematic(Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or
issue, current situation.

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Example for introduction part
2.0 Introduction
With the corporate failures of the last decade, both academic and financial practitioners
have begun to recognise the importance of boards of directors to corporate governance.
The roles of boards of directors are challenging as they seek to discharge a diversity of
roles and responsibilities in a dynamic business environment. Boards are expected to
perform a variety of functions including monitoring of management to mitigate agency
cost (Fama & Jensen, 1983; Johnson, Daily, & Ellastrad, 1996; Dallas, 2001; Harris &
Raviv, 2004), providing and giving access to resources (Preffer & Salancik, 1978;
Hilman & Dalziel, 2003) and providing strategic direction to the firm (Tricker, 1984;
Conger & Lawler, 2001; Kemp, 2006). Carpenter and Westphal (2001) urged that a
board should be studied as a team of individuals who combine their competencies and
capabilities and contribute towards executing a company’s governance. Given the
increasing importance of the individual members of boards of directors, it is important
to identify the characteristics of board members that make one more effective than
another.

This chapter provides a review of theoretical and empirical studies on boards of

directors. It serves the purpose of demonstrating a diversity of approaches to studying
boards of directors and the importance of studying the characteristics of such boards.
This chapter is organised into five part parts:
2.1 Meaning of board effectiveness
2.2 Theories on the importance of effective board
2.3 Determinant of effective boards
2.4 Members of boards of directors
2.5 The effect of board of director on firm performance
2.6 Summary

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 Chapter 3: Methodology
 Methodology is the analysis of the principles of methods, rules, and postulates
employed in a study.
 it explains research design
 it also explain the way in which the data are collected for the research project.

Research Approach
 Quantitative research – numerical data
 Qualitative research – non numerical data. involves analysis of data such as
words (e.g., from interviews), pictures (e.g., video), or objects (e.g., an artifact).
 Mixed methods – combination of qualitative and quantitative.

Qualitative Quantitative

The aim is to classify features,

The aim is a complete, detailed count them, and construct statistical
description. models in an attempt to explain
what is observed.

Researcher may only know roughly in Researcher knows clearly in

advance what he/she is looking for. advance what he/she is looking for.

Recommended during earlier phases of Recommended during latter phases

research projects. of research projects.

All aspects of the study are

The design emerges as the study
carefully designed before data is
unfolds.
collected.

Researcher uses tools, such as

Researcher is the data gathering
questionnaires or equipment to
instrument.
collect numerical data.

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 Data is in the form of words, Data is in the form of numbers
pictures or objects. and statistics.

Subjective – individuals Objective - seeks precise

interpretation of events is important measurement & analysis of target
,e.g., uses participant observation, in- concepts, e.g., uses surveys,
depth interviews etc. questionnaires etc.

Qualitative data is more 'rich', time Quantitative data is more efficient,

consuming, and less able to be able to test hypotheses, but may
generalized. miss contextual detail.

Researcher tends to become Researcher tends to remain

subjectively immersed in the subject objectively separated from the
matter. subject matter.

(the two quotes are from Miles & Huberman (1994, p. 40). Qualitative Data Analysis

Types of research

o Descriptive research:- A type of research in which we well known about

problem but do not have knowledge about solution this research we do for
solution.
i. Survey research –
Purpose is to explore and describe
Type of research in which we don't know the problem as well as solution
we have to get all the information about problem first in which we go for
further analysis.
Do not investigate relationship between variables
Examples – public opinion survey, community survey (general survey)

ii. Development study (longitudinal study)

Survey taken at several points in times

iii. Case studies

Same purpose as above i & ii but smaller sample size
More in-depth into certain phenomena
Often involves direct observation and interview
Include single subject research, single units or company
iv. Correlational research

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 A study that investigates the connection between two or more
variables within the same group of sample
Two types :-
concurrent (relationship draw from the same point of time)
Predictive correlation (knowing an earlier data can led to
prediction of later set.

o Experimental research

 Cause and effect research

 Experiments on causal relationships investigate the effect of one or more

variables on one or more outcome variables.

 This type of research also determines if one variable causes another

variable to occur or change.

 Control the treatment and extraneous variable to control the dependent

variable

 Two types

- True experimental research

- Quasi-experimental research

Sampling

A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied

to gain information about the whole(Webster, 1985). When dealing with people,
it can be defined as a set of respondents(people) selected from a larger
population for the purpose of a survey.

A population is a group of individuals persons, objects, or items from which

samples are taken for measurement for example a population of presidents or
professors, books or students

Types of Sampling

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o Non-probability samples

Probability of being chosen is unknown. Cheaper- but unable to generalize

and potential for bias

 Convenience samples (ease of access) - sample is selected from elements

of a population that are easily accessible

 Snowball sampling (friend of friend….etc.)

 Purposive sampling – based on judgemental. You chose who you think
should be in the study
 Quota sample

o Probability samples

1. Simple random sampling

2. Systematic selection (interval sampling)
3. Stratifies sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Multi-stage sampling

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 Snowball sampling

Simple Random sampling

18
Stratifies Sampling

19
Cluster sampling

20
Systematic Sampling

21
Multi-stage sampling

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Chapter 4: Results

This part reports findings of the study. The report can be in various forms
depending on types of study. For quantitative study, the results usually were
presented in a form of numerical data. While, results for qualitative study are
more descriptive, this based on respondents’ points of view.

Chapter 5: Discussion and conclusion

This part is the linkage between the findings and literature review. It is
important to inform the reader whether the results of the study conform or
contrast with previous study or literature. It is also enable the author to place
his or her point of views in regard to the study.

The last part of the paper usually consists of summary of the study, the
implication of study and suggestion for future research.

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References
Styles of reference usually depend on each journal. For social science paper two
common style of reference are; Harvard style and American Psychological
Association (APA). Therefore, before publishing any paper or article the author
should check which style is applicable.

Although both styles have some differences, one common aspect is both require list of
references to be in alphabetical order.
_____________________________________________________________________
References

Babbie, E. (2002). The basics of social research. Belmont. California: Thomson

Learning.

Oshima, A, & Hogue, A. (2007) Introduction to academic writing 3rd Edition.

Pearson/Longman; New York.

The Writing Centre (2008). How to write a literature review. Avaliable at:
www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/.

24
Sample of Literature review

For over three decades, scholarship on the American presidency has taken place beneath the
shadow of Richard Neustadt's Presidential Poweri ii[1] , first published in 1960 and
periodically updated since that time. Neustadt's book can be seen to also exist beneath a
larger shadow cast by the developing notion of a modern presidency that dated from the
administration of Franklin Roosevelt and that represented a transformation from the previous,
more traditional presidency.iii [2] This modern presidency recognized the informal leadership
powers of the president and argued that these powers overshadowed the formal constitutional
powers of the traditional presidency, and that they were especially necessary for effective
government. Neustadt's book also displaced Edward S. Corwin's The President: Offices and
Powers as the dominant work in presidential scholarship. Corwin describes his work as
"primarily a study in American public law," and its central theme as "the development and
contemporary status of presidential power and of the presidential office under the
Constitution" which did not ignore "the personal and political aspects of the subject."iv [3]
Neustadt explicitly rejects this approach, defining his theme rather as "personal power and its
politics: what it is, how to get it, how to keep it, how to lose it," and further declaring "this is
not a book about the Presidency as an organization or as legal powers or as precedents or as
procedures.”v [4] Neustadt's approach represents a fundamental shift of emphasis in
scholarship on the presidency and it has had a profound influence on subsequent
scholarship.vi [5]

This emphasis on presidential power floundered under the perceived irresponsible

usurpations of power evidenced in Lyndon Johnson's Vietnam policy and Richard Nixon's
campaign irregularities that resulted in the Watergate break-in by people associated with his
White House and campaign organizations. Scholarship on the presidency began to seek an
antidote to uncontrolled presidential power, which eventually led back to the Constitution.
This paper will consider some of the scholarship of the past fifteen years that represents a
return to the Constitution as a primary source of presidential power and authority. It will also
address some of the alternative viewpoints as well as critiques and some derivative
scholarship. As a focal point, I have chosen an essay by Joseph M. Bessette and Jeffrey Tulis,
"The Constitution, Politics, and the Presidency," and scholarship that has followed from that
essay as well as closely associated efforts. Bessette and Tulis' essay provides a clearly stated
review of recent presidential scholarship as well as a foundation for rehabilitating the
Constitution as a continuing source of political and legal guidance for the American
presidency within the framework of constitutional separation of powers. They hark back to
Corwin and his public law approach to presidential scholarship, but theirs is not simply a
restatement of Corwin. Instead, Bessette and Tulis encourage a re-combining of the then
divergent legal and political approaches to study of the presidency, a joining that recognizes
the legal limitations upon the office while at the same time acknowledging the political range
of activities available to the President, some of them even extra-legal when necessity dictates,
that are built into the Constitution and operate daily through the doctrine of separation of
powers.vii [6] This essay, while perhaps not the source of a significant body of research,

25
nonetheless clearly stakes out the territory within which a significant body of scholarship has
developed.

Formal Constitutionalist

I have chosen the title formal constitutionalist for that scholarship following from and
associated with Bessette and Tulis' understanding. These scholars demonstrate a consistent
attachment to and respect for the forms embodied in the Constitution. Authority and power
for the president flow from the Constitution itself, not from informal and extra-constitutional
attributes or from the necessity to deal with a changed world. In theft view, the Constitution
provides for the exercise of personal power, as well as for the exigencies that spring from
development and necessity. Scholarship in this category includes the work of Harvey
Mansfield, Jr., Jeffrey Tulis, David Nichols, and Terry Eastland in addition to the essay by
Bessette and Tulis.

Bessette and Tulis

In "The Constitution, Politics, and the Presidency," Bessette and Tulis argue two main
points. First, political behavior can be founded upon, and is perhaps best founded upon, the
Constitution. The day to day operations of government which include the bargaining,
negotiating, power plays, and conflict between the separate branches, not only take place
within the constitutional framework, but are shaped by that framework. Because political
actions must be consistent with constitutional guidelines, "the necessity to find some
constitutional grounds for questionable political acts may itself influence the selection or
character of the actions.''viii [7] Thus, various questions of policy as well as the propriety of
actions are informed by constitutional considerations, though they may be so routine as to be
overshadowed by the question of the moment. The president acts within these constraints, as
do the other branches of government, and endeavors to achieve his goals, pursuing that end as
a guardian of the constitutional forms in his own right.ix [8] The president has considerable
leeway within which to act, with the fundamental imperative at one end to preserve the office
of the presidency from being overpowered, and the requirement to consider the possibility of
strong attempts by the other branches to rein in an executive run amok. The constitutional
separation of powers allows for vast differences in presidential personality, ambition, and
leadership within the aforementioned limits.x [9]

The second major point Bessette and Tulis wish to make is regarding the nature of the
executive. The executive by design is the branch of government endowed with the energy and
unity to act on bold designs as well as to react quickly to emergency, crisis, or threat.xi [10]
This energy in the executive, which is very similar to the prerogative power identified by
John Locke in his Second Treatise On Government, is difficult to bring under the control of
law. Necessity or circumstance may dictate a course of action that requires extra-legal action
by the executive in a good cause. A tension thus resides in the executive, as witnessed by
Abraham Lincoln's extraordinary actions during the Civil War, actions justified by the very
laudable goal of preserving the Constitution, the union, and republican government.xii [11]
These type of extraordinary actions are outside the realm of control by law. Therefore the
genius of the Constitution is seen in its "competing structures of power which would have

26
both the inclination and the means to oppose aggrandizement by any one branch.''xiii [12]
The executive will be constrained from acquiring excessive power through political, not
legal, means. This political control is found at its origin in the Constitution, not in informal
powers, or other extra-constitutional sources. In this way, the Constitution provides means to
cope with necessity that are consistent with constitutional government.

The Ambivalent Executive

Harvey Mansfield has written extensively on the executive, generally on topics that
would fall under Bessette and Tulis' second main point regarding the nature of the executive.
Mansfield traces the history of the executive in political thought to demonstrate that the
executive we know as the American President is primarily a product of modern political
thought, and that the presidency is ambivalent in the sense that it is both limited and
unlimited by law which creates a tension in the office by its very nature. Still, the executive is
not suitable for the United States until it is made compatible with republican government.xiv
[13]

The executive power as we know it, Mansfield argues, is foreign to the political
thought of Aristotle, and does not begin to take recognizable shape until the writings of
Machiavelli. Aristotle did not speak of different powers in government, but rather different
elements that made up the regime. These different elements consisted of the deliberative, that
of offices or magistracies, and the judging element. These elements of the regime bear a
resemblance to American separation of powers on their face, but are really not
commensurate.xv [14] These elements of Aristotle's regime clearly mixed the powers which
in American government are institutionally separated, and Aristotle clearly stated that the
deliberative was the sovereign element. The deliberative element in particular exercised
powers that would cross the boundaries of all three separate powers outlined in the American
Constitution. The magistracies, those powers we would associate most readily with the
executive, were many, divided, and subordinate to the deliberative element. Not until the
writings of Machiavelli do we begin to see the executive take shape, but primarily in a fear-
and awe-inspiring form. The executive recognizes no limits but necessity.xvi [15] Locke
softens the executive by making this power subordinate to the legislature, the supreme power,
and the law, but also grants the executive a power of prerogative to act outside the law when
necessity dictates.xvii [16] Montesquieu softens the executive still further by placing the role
of punishment in another separate power, the judiciary. The most fearful of executive powers,
punishment, is then made acceptable to democrats through the judicial institution of the jury,
judgment by one's peers.xviii [17]

The executive, then, is ambivalent, or pulled in two direction by the very character of
the office. As the executor of the laws, the executive is subordinate to those that make the
law, but in order to carry out the force of law against recalcitrant violators of the law, extra-
legal measures must be available to ensure that the law is in fact enforced. The president is at
one and the same time endowed with an office limited by law and powers that go beyond law
according to the dictates of necessity.xix [18] The task remains to make the president
compatible with republican government. The solution is found in representation, by which
"the people choose to limit themselves; they choose not to govern directly themselves."xx

27
[19] Representation incorporates a filtering effect between the people and government which
encourages the selection of worthy individuals as representatives and insulates those same
representatives from the temporary passions of the people. The executive is thus not tempted
into demagoguery by the clamoring will of the people, and is held in check by the separate
and co-equal branches of the government.

The Rhetorical Presidency

The argument that the presidency had evolved into a rhetorical presidency was first
developed by James Ceaser, Glen Thurow, Jeffrey Tulis, and Joseph Bessette in a 1981
article entitled "The Rise of the Rhetorical Presidency?xxi [20] This theme was picked up
and carried on by Jeffrey Tulis.~ in a number of articles, and in a book entitled The
Rhetorical Presidency.xxii [21] The rhetorical presidency is viewed by these scholars as not
merely a matter of style, but as a serious modification of the constitutional order. As such this
vein of scholarship fits under the first main point of the Bessette and Tulis essay, the
constitutional source of political behavior.

The rise of this rhetorical presidency, Ceaser and his co-authors assert, is founded on
three developments: "(1) a modern doctrine of presidential leadership, (2) the modern mass
media, and (3) the modern presidential campaign.”xxiii [22] The most important of these
three is the change in doctrine, for through the nineteenth century presidential rhetoric was
more circumspect and confined to communications within government or ceremonial
speeches. Not until the twentieth century did the president begin to appeal directly to the
people on policy grounds in order to pressure Congress from below.xxiv [23] An emphasis
upon popular presidential rhetoric can result in an "opinion that speaking is governing,"xxv
[24] and become so routine as to be disregarded.xxvi [25]

A further complication arises as expert communication within government begins to

conflict with popular rhetoric from the president to the public at large. Tulis points out that
"the arguments presidents make to the people are different from those they make to
Congress," and "each kind of argument can be used to impeach the other.''xxvii [26] The
result is to "delegitimate" the office to a certain degree for subsequent presidents, and to
weaken the office by unreasonably raising public expectations to the point that government
cannot fulfill those expectations, creating a rising cynicism in the public.xxviii [27]

The constitutional issue brought to the fore by considerations on the rhetorical

presidency is the disjunction between traditional presidential practice within constitutional
limits, and a new practice of direct public appeal which circumvents the constitutional design
of separated powers. Tulis argues that Woodrow Wilson in effect superimposed this new
practice over the traditional practice which was consistent with constitutional forms. By
superimposing a new constitutional understanding upon the foundation of the old
constitutional understanding without amending or modifying the Constitution itself, an
inevitable tension resulted between the two fundamentally opposed positions.xxix [28] Thus,
the presidency today is fundamentally different today than a century ago, but because of the
tension between opposed understandings of the proper source of presidential authority, the

28
task of governing is made more difficult, is undermined, and breeds a virulent public
cynicism toward the government.

The Energetic Executive

Terry Eastland argues that presidential authority comes unequivocally from the
Constitution, and that the powers granted by the Constitution are altogether sufficient for the
requirements of daily governing as well as for contingencies of an extraordinary nature.xxx
[29] Eastland forthrightly declares that his "book may be read as a corrective to Presidential
Power, a constitutional corrective, to be precise." He specifically takes issue with Neustadt's
assessment of separation of powers as "separated institutions sharing power."xxxi [30] The
powers, as vested in the Constitution, Eastland argues, are of three different kinds according
the understanding of separation of powers held by the framers, not one undifferentiated mass
shared among the different branches as Neustadt argues. Eastland, thus falls under that first
main point made by Bessette and Tulis in their essay.

Eastland draws heavily from Mansfield, Bessette, and Tulis as he lays out his
approach to the presidency. He does not, however, go so far as to accept the appellation of
rhetorical in regard to the presidency. Rhetoric plays a signal role in the exercise of
presidential power, and therefore, he eschews the term rhetorical presidency because of the
pejorative sense it conveys.xxxii [31]

The presidency portrayed in Energy in the Executive is forceful and active in the roles
of legislative leadership, protection of the executive, administration of the bureaucracy, and
appointment of judges. In this assessment of the Reagan and Bush presidencies, Eastland is
quite apparently arguing for acceptance of an active and powerful president among
conservatives. Despite this apparent partisanship, Eastland does provide a forcefully argued
defense of an explicitly constitutional presidency.

The Mythical Modern Presidency

The concept of the modern presidency as a fundamentally different institution than the
traditional nineteenth-century presidency is powerful and widely held, as discussed
above.xxxiii [32] David K. Nichols attempts to debunk the myth of this modern presidency.
His is an explicitly constitutional argument, in which he asserts that all the attributes of the
modern presidency have their source in the Constitution.xxxiv [33] Nichols asserts that the
true change "is that recent Presidents do more than previous Presidents, but that is traceable
to the simple fact that modern American government as a whole does more."xxxv [34]
Nichols also considers the central fact of the president's place in the constitutional order, and
thus falls under Bessette and Tulis' first main point.

This argument is different than most of those already examined in this category in that
there is no fundamental transformation in the executive office, either constitutional or extra-
constitutional. The problem of the modern presidency is that it has forgotten its constitutional
roots. This failure works to undermine the authority of the presidency, since "by failing to
recognize the constitutional origins of the major elements of the modern Presidency, the

29
doctrine of the modern Presidency ignores the extent to which the Constitution shapes
contemporary political behavior."xxxvi [35] Further, Nichols argues that the modern problem
is not with the presidency, "but that we expect too much of the government."xxxvii [36]

Alternatives to Formal Constitutionalism

The formal constitutionalists, as I have chosen to refer to them, have produced a

significant body of literature. Theirs, however, is not the only body of literature that
challenges the reining orthodoxy of the modern presidency. Two scholars, Stephen
Skowronek and Jean Schroedel, represent an historical and developmental approach to the
presidency that transcends the limits of periodization inherent in concepts such as the modern
presidency. Skowronek has developed the concept of the presidency in political timexxxviii
[37] while Schroedel has developed the concept of dynamic constitutionalism.xxxix [38]
Sidney Milkis, on the other hand, defines the modern presidency by its separation from the
informal constitutional link of political parties.xl [39] He argues that the modern presidency
was a conscious creation of Franklin Roosevelt by severing the party connection and creating
a direct connection between government and the public through programmatic activism that
undermined the role of political parties.

The Presidency in Political Time

The concept of the presidency in political time centers on three simultaneous

"dynamics" or "orderings." These are the constitutional or persistent, the organizational or
emergent, and the political or recurring orderings.xli [40] Through the course of the
argument, Skowronek makes clear that the focus of his scholarship are on the emergent and
recurring orderings. Progress and development occurs along the emergent time line, which he
designates secular time. The recurring birth, life and death of political regimes occurs in
cycles of political time. One examines similar presidents across time by their position within
regime cycles, so, for example, Jefferson can be compared with Franklin Roosevelt as a
regime founder.xlii [41] This model breaks the grip of the modern presidency by
incorporating all presidents in a comprehensive treatment. With its focus on development and
political regimes as the active elements, Skowronek is primarily interested in successful
policy making, or in comparison, relative success in policy making.

The constitutional, or persistent, ordering maintains a relatively static position in

Skowronek's model. The Constitution provides a foundation upon which the action occurs,
but remains static in comparison to both political and secular time. The constitutional realm is
where "each new president seizes control of the formal powers of his office and attempts to
exercise them in his own right,''xliii [42] and it is a link "between presidents past and present
in a timeless and constant struggle over the definition of their institutional prerogatives."xliv
[43]
There is then no sense, then of a constitutional crisis or failure as seen in the formal
constitutionalists. The Constitution apparently continues to exert the same forces and perform
the same role over time despite whatever political or developmental changes occur. In this
Skowronek is similar to David Nichols, though Nichols formulates a much more active role
for the Constitution in daily political behavior than does Skowronek.

30
Dynamic Constitutionalism

Dynamic constitutionalism is more of a systemic approach than Skowronek's; it

incorporates the daily influence of constitutional arrangements in policy making between
Congress and the president, and it appears to be much more respectful of formal
constitutional limits. Schroedel differs from the formal constitutionalists in maintaining a
focus on governing through policy making, emphasizing the instrumental influences of
electoral politics, and retaining Neustadt's conception of the separation of powers as
"separated institutions sharing power."

The argument focuses upon the comparative formal legislative powers of Congress
and the president. Dynamic constitutionalism recognizes that the fundamental power of
legislating resides in Congress, and that the president has relatively little power to legislate,
formally. The legislative initiative remains with Congress.xlv [44] This seems a reasonable
assertion, but may denigrate the significant presidential power over legislation through the
formal power of the veto. Further, the electoral dynamics of the presidency, long term and
national constituency, act to limit the depth of presidential involvement in initiation of
legislation.xlvi [45] Dynamic constitutionalism incorporates a much needed return to the
Constitution in discussing government policy making, but, at least as presented in
"Legislative Leadership Over Time," may fail to capture the full influence of constitutional
politics upon initially defining legitimate policy options.

Parties and Presidents

The political parties are an extra-constitutional development in American politics.

They became the mechanism through which presidents were nominated and supported
through the campaign. Parties became the institution through which citizens by and large
interacted with the government, and they were a source of loyal personnel from which a new
administration could staff itself. Sidney Milkis argues that Franklin Roosevelt set about
consciously severing the presidency from this party link.xlvii [46] This was accomplished
through two means. First, Roosevelt set about modifying Democratic Party rules, specifically
convention rules for the selection of a presidential candidate.xlviii [47] The second initiative
was to reform the executive branch toward the goal of enlightened administration. This was
achieved in 1939 through the Executive Reorganization Act which resulted in the capacity of
the president to "govern in the absence of party government.''xlix [48] This resulted in the
growth of administrative government in pursuit of fulfilling a programmatic agenda. The
burgeoning growth of government under Lyndon Johnson's Great Society in pursuit of
programmatic aims, and the attempts by Richard Nixon to outflank a recalcitrant, opposition
Congress through administrative government are both results of the modern presidency
established by Franklin Roosevelt.l [49]

31
 Sample of methodology chapter
Overview

This research was conducted in order to determine whether personality questionnaire

play a significant role in the recruitment and appraisal of the employees. The advantages and
disadvantages as well as the reliability of this instrument were also part of the objectives. In
order to answer these research goals, the researcher opted to obtain the view of human
resource employees in line with this topic. Specifically, a total of 60 respondents from 10
companies within London were randomly selected to make up the sample. Selected
participants answered a survey questionnaire structure in Likert format. Data gathered from
this research instrument were then computed for interpretation. Along with primary data, the
researcher also made use of secondary resources in the form of published articles and
literatures to support the survey results.

Research Design

The descriptive method of research was used for this study. To define the descriptive
type of research, Creswell (1994) stated that the descriptive method of research is to gather
information about the present existing condition. The emphasis is on describing rather than
on judging or interpreting. The aim of descriptive research is to verify formulated hypotheses
that refer to the present situation in order to elucidate it. The descriptive approach is quick
and practical in terms of the financial aspect. Moreover, this method allows a flexible
approach, thus, when important new issues and questions arise during the duration of the
study, further investigation may be conducted.

Descriptive research on the other hand is a type of research that is mainly concerned
with describing the nature or condition and the degree in detail of the present situation. This
method is used to describe the nature of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study and to
explore the cause/s of particular a phenomenon. The aim of descriptive research is to obtain
an accurate profile of the people, events or situations. With this research type, it is essential
that the researcher already has a clear view or picture of the phenomena being investigated
before the data collection procedure is carried out. The researcher used this kind of research
to obtain first hand data from the respondents so as to formulate rational and sound
conclusions and recommendations for the study. The descriptive approach is quick and
practical in terms of the financial aspect.

In this study, the descriptive research method was employed so as to identify the role
and significance of using personality questionnaire in recruiting and selecting employees
during the time of research. The researcher opted to use this research method considering the
objective to obtain first hand data from the respondents. The descriptive method is
advantageous for the researcher due to its flexibility; this method can use either qualitative or
quantitative data or both, giving the researcher greater options in selecting the instrument for
data-gathering. The aim of the research is to determine the role of personality questionnaire

32
in human resource processes as well as the advantages and disadvantages of using
psychometric testing in the recruitment and appraisal of employees; the descriptive method is
then appropriate for this research since this method is used for gathering prevailing
conditions.

The research is using human resource management employees as respondents from

ten companies in London in order to gather relevant data; the descriptive method is then
appropriate as this can allow the identification of the similarities and differences of the
respondents’ answers. For this research, two types of data were gathered. These included the
primary and secondary data types. The primary data were derived form the answers the
participants gave during the survey process. The secondary data on the other hand, were
obtained from published documents and literatures that were relevant to personality
questionnaire. With the use of the survey questionnaire and published literatures, this study
took on the combined quantitative and qualitative approach of research. By means of
employing this combined approach, the researcher was able to obtain the advantages of both
quantitative and qualitative approaches and overcome their limitations.

Quantitative data collection methods are centred on the quantification of relationships

between variables. Quantitative data-gathering instruments establish relationship between
measured variables. When these methods are used, the researcher is usually detached from
the study and the final output is context free. Measurement, numerical data and statistics are
the main substance of quantitative instruments. With these instruments, an explicit
description of data collection and analysis of procedures are necessary. An approach that is
primarily deductive reasoning, it prefers the least complicated explanation and gives a
statement of statistical probability. The quantitative approach is more on the detailed
description of a phenomenon. It basically gives a generalization of the gathered data with
tentative synthesized interpretations.

Quantitative approach is useful as it helps the researcher to prevent bias in gathering

and presenting research data. Quantitative data collection procedures create epistemological
postulations that reality is objective and unitary, which can only be realized by means of
transcending individual perspective. This phenomenon in turn should be discussed or
explained by means of data analysis gathered through objective forms of measurement. The
quantitative data gathering methods are useful especially when a study needs to measure the
cause and effect relationships evident between pre-selected and discrete variables. The
purpose of the quantitative approach is to avoid subjectivity by means of collecting and
exploring information which describes the experience being studied.

Quantitative methods establish very specific research problem and terms. The
controlled observations, mass surveys, laboratory experiments and other means of research
manipulation in qualitative method makes gathered data more reliable. In other words,
subjectivity of judgment, which is not needed in a thesis discussion, can be avoided through
quantitative methods. Thus, conclusions, discussion and experimentation involved in the
process are more objective. Variables, both dependent and independent, that are needed in the
study are clearly and precisely specified in a quantitative study. In addition, quantitative

33
method enables longitudinal measures of subsequent performance of the respondents. Fryer
(1991) noted that qualitative researchers aim to decode, describe, analyze and interpret
accurately the meaning of a certain phenomena happening in their customary social contexts.
The focus of the researchers utilizing the framework of the interpretative paradigm is on the
investigation of authenticity, complexity, contextualization, mutual subjectivity of the
researcher and the respondent as well as the reduction of illusion.

Contrary to the quantitative method, qualitative approach generates verbal

information rather than numerical values (Polgar & Thomas, 1995). Instead of using
statistical analysis, the qualitative approach utilizes content or holistic analysis; to explain
and comprehend the research findings, inductive and not deductive reasoning is used. The
main point of the quantitative research method is that measurement is valid, reliable and can
be generalized with its clear anticipation of cause and effect (Cassell & Symon, 1994). Being
particularistic and deductive in nature, quantitative method is dependent on the formulation
of a research hypothesis and confirming them empirically using a specific data set (Frankfort-
Nachmias & Nachmias, 1992). The scientific hypothesis of a quantitative method holds no
value. This means that the researcher’s personal thoughts, subjective preferences and biases
are not applicable to this type of research method.

The researcher opted to integrate the qualitative approach in this study due to its
significant advantages. The use of qualitative data gathering method is advantageous as they
are more open to changes and refinement of research ideas as the study progresses; this
implies that qualitative data gathering tools are highly flexible. Moreover, no manipulation of
the research setting is necessary with this method; rather than employ various research
controls such as in experimental approaches, the qualitative data gathering methods are only
centered on understanding the occurring phenomena in their naturally occurring states. Aside
from these advantages, researchers use qualitative data-gathering tools as some previous
researchers believe that qualitative data are particularly attractive as they provide rich and
well-grounded descriptions and explanations as well as unforeseen findings for new theory
construction. One of the notable strengths of the qualitative instruments is that they evoke a
more realistic feeling of the research setting which cannot be obtained from statistical
analysis and numerical data utilized through quantitative means. These data collection
methods allow flexibility in conducting data gathering, research analysis and interpretation of
gathered information. In addition, qualitative method allows the presentation of the
phenomenon being investigated in a more holistic view.

Participants

In order to determine whether personality questionnaire does play an important role in

conducting human resource processes, a total of 40 respondents were asked to participate. To
achieve pertinent information, certain inclusion criteria were imposed. The participants
qualified for sample selection must be staff or employees of their respective companies’
human resource department. This qualification ensured that the participants understand the
nature of personality questionnaire and its use for employment, making the survey items easy
for them to accomplish. The respondents were selected from eight companies in London,

34
thus, a total of five employees were selected for every company; as the study also aimed to
determine whether personality questionnaire play an important role in conducting recruitment
and appraisal procedures, the researcher did not consider choosing companies that are
actually applying this mode of employee selection or evaluation.

Simple random sampling was done for the sample selection. This sampling method is
conducted where each member of a population has an equal opportunity to become part of the
sample. As all members of the population have an equal chance of becoming a research
participant, this is said to be the most efficient sampling procedure. In order to conduct this
sampling strategy, the researcher defined the population first, listed down all the members of
the population and then selected members to make the sample. For this procedure, the lottery
sampling or the fish bowl technique was employed. This method involves the selection of the
sample at random from the sampling frame through the use of random number tables
(Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2003). Numbers were assigned for each employee in the master
list. These numbers were written on pieces of paper and drawn from a box; the process was
repeated until the sample size was reached.

Instruments

The survey questionnaire was used as the main data-gathering instrument for this
study (See Appendix A). The questionnaire was divided into two main sections: a profile and
the survey proper. The profile contains socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents
such as age, gender, civil status, the number of years they had served the company as well as
their assigned job position. The survey proper explored the perceptions of employees on
personality questionnaire, particularly on its usability and reliability as an employment
selection and appraisal tool. The questionnaire proper section also contains questions that
identify the advantages and disadvantages of using personality questionnaires in the
department. The questions were structure using the Likert format. In this survey type, four
choices are provided for every question or statement. The choices represent the degree of
agreement each respondent has on the given question. The scale below was used to interpret the
total responses of all the respondents for every survey question by computing the weighted
mean:

Range Interpretation

3.01 – 4.00 Strongly Agree

2.01 – 3.00 Agree
1.01 – 2.00 Disagree

0.00 – 1.00 Strongly Disagree

35
 The Likert survey was the selected questionnaire type as this enabled the respondents to
answer the survey easily. In addition, this research instrument allowed the research to carry out
the quantitative approach effectively with the use of statistics for data interpretation. In order to
test the validity of the questionnaire used for the study, the researcher tested the questionnaire
to five respondents. These respondents as well as their answers were not part of the actual
study process and were only used for testing purposes. After the questions have been
answered, the researcher asked the respondents for any suggestions or any necessary
corrections to ensure further improvement and validity of the instrument. The researcher
revised the survey questionnaire based on the suggestion of the respondents. The researcher
then excluded irrelevant questions and changed vague or difficult terminologies into simpler
ones in order to ensure comprehension.

Data Processing and Analysis

After gathering all the completed questionnaires from the respondents, total responses
for each item were obtained and tabulated. In order to use the Likert-scale for interpretation,
weighted mean to represent each question was computed. Weighted mean is the average
wherein every quantity to be averages has a corresponding weight. These weights represent
the significance of each quantity to the average. To compute for the weighted mean, each
value must be multiplied by its weight. Products should then be added to obtain the total
value. The total weight should also be computed by adding all the weights. The total value is
then divided by the total weight. Statistically, the weighted mean is calculated using the
following formula:

or

Ethical Considerations

As this study required the participation of human respondents, specifically human

resource professionals, certain ethical issues were addressed. The consideration of these
ethical issues was necessary for the purpose of ensuring the privacy as well as the safety of
the participants. Among the significant ethical issues that were considered in the research
process include consent and confidentiality. In order to secure the consent of the selected
participants, the researcher relayed all important details of the study, including its aim and
purpose. By explaining these important details, the respondents were able to understand the
importance of their role in the completion of the research. The respondents were also advised
that they could withdraw from the study even during the process. With this, the participants
were not forced to participate in the research. The confidentiality of the participants was also
ensured by not disclosing their names or personal information in the research. Only relevant
details that helped in answering the research questions were included.

36
37