CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background

Chemistry can be defined as the study of everything about matter, such as the nature,
composition, properties, changes and energy that accompanies the changes. In chemistry is discussed
about chemical bonds. Chemical bonding is a bond that occurs due to the attraction between bonding
particles. With the existence of these chemical bonds, both chemical properties and physical
properties of compounds, such as can conduct electricity, polarity, reactivity, molecular shape, color,
high boiling point magnetic properties.

Chemical compounds are formed from two or more atoms that join or bind to one another. This
merger will produce molecules or compounds that are simple or complex. These atoms are bound to
each other in compounds due to the force of chemical bonds. The emergence of theories about
chemical bonds is caused by the existence of noble gas element groups, namely in group VIIIA in the
periodic system. The noble gas element group shows a very small tendency to form chemical
compounds, this is because the noble gas element is stable, it is very difficult to react with other
elements to form compounds and have octet and duplet valence electrons. In nature, many substances
are found, both in the form of elements and compounds. The presence of these substances is
determined by the stability of the substance itself. If a substance is stable then we will find it in the
form of free elements, but if the substance is unstable then we will find it in the form of compounds.
An atom joins another atom through a chemical bond so that it can form compounds, both covalent
compounds and ionic compounds. Most elements in nature are in the form of compounds, not as free
elements like noble gases. This shows the tendency of relatively unstable atoms to form more stable
compounds than the free element atoms.

Therefore, it is very important for us to be able to know and learn about chemical bonds. Because
in everyday life, we will never be separated from things related to chemical bonds.

B. Problems Formulations

Based on the background and the limitation issue, the problems discussed can be formulated as
follows:

 What is chemical bonding ?

 What is covalent bonding ?

  What is molecular shapes and VSEPR theory ?

 What is hydrogen bonding ?

 What is metalic bonding ?

C. Destination

 To know what is meant about chemical bonding

 To know what is covalent bonding

 To know molecular shapes and VSEPR theory

 To know what is hydrogen bonding

 To know what is metalic bonding

 CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

A. Chemical Bonding

Chemical bonding is a strong attractive force between certain atoms joining to form molecules or
a combination of ions so that the state becomes more stable. Two or more atoms can form a molecule
through chemical bonds. Chemical bonds occur because of the combination of atoms, which form
molecules of compounds that correspond to octet rules.

The development of the periodic table and concept of electron confi guration gave chemists a
rationale for molecule and compound formation. This explanation, formulated by Gilbert Lewis,† is
that atoms combine in order to achieve a more stable electron confi guration. Maximum stability
results when an atom is isoelectronic with a noble gas.

When atoms interact to form a chemical bond, only their outer regions are in contact. For this
reason, when we study chemical bonding, we are concerned primarily with the valence electrons of
the atoms. To keep track of valence electrons in a chemical reaction, and to make sure that the total
number of electrons does not change, chemists use a system of dots devised by Lewis called Lewis
dot symbols.

B. Covalent Bonding

Although the concept of molecules goes back to the seventeenth century, it was not until early
in the twentieth century that chemists began to understand how and why molecules form. The fi rst
major breakthrough was Gilbert Lewis’s suggestion that a chemical bond involves electron sharing by
atoms. He depicted the formation of a chemical bond in H2 as

H∙ + ∙H → H : H

This type of electron pairing is an example of a covalent bond, a bond in which two electrons
are shared by two atoms. Covalent compounds are compounds that contain only covalent bonds. For
the sake of simplicity, the shared pair of electrons is often represented by a single line. Thus, the
covalent bond in the hydrogen molecule can be written as HOH. In a covalent bond, each electron in a
shared pair is attracted to the nuclei of both atoms. This attraction holds the two atoms in H2 together
and is responsible for the formation of covalent bonds in other molecules.

Covalent bonding between many-electron atoms involves only the valence electrons. Consider the
fluorine molecule, F2. The electron configuration of F is 1s2 2s2 2p5. The 1s electrons are low in
energy and stay near the nucleus most of the time. For this reason they do not participate in bond
formation. Thus, each F atom has seven valence electrons (the 2s and 2p electrons). According to
Figure 9.1, there is only one unpaired electron on F, so the formation of the F2 molecule can be
represented as follows:

Note that only two valence electrons participate in the formation of F 2. The other, nonbonding
electrons, are called lone pairs—pairs of valence electrons that are not involved in covalent bond
formation. Thus, each F in F2 has three lone pairs of electrons:

The structures we use to represent covalent compounds, such as H2 and F2, are called Lewis
structures. A Lewis structure is a representation of covalent bonding in which shared electron pairs
are shown either as lines or as pairs of dots between two atoms, and lone pairs are shown as pairs of
dots on individual atoms. Only valence electrons are shown in a Lewis structure.

Let us consider the Lewis structure of the water molecule. The Lewis dot symbol for oxygen with two
unpaired dots or two unpaired electrons, so we expect that O might form two covalent bonds. Because
hydrogen has only one electron, it can form only one covalent bond. Thus, the Lewis structure for
water is

In this case, the O atom has two lone pairs. The hydrogen atom has no lone pairs because its only
electron is used to form a covalent bond. In the F2 and H2O molecules, the F and O atoms achieve a
noble gas configuration by sharing electrons:

The formation of these molecules illustrates the octet rule, formulated by Lewis: An atom other than
hydrogen tends to form bonds until it is surrounded by eight valence electrons. In other words, a
covalent bond forms when there are not enough electrons for each individual atom to have a complete
octet. By sharing electrons in a covalent bond, the individual atoms can complete their octets. The
requirement for hydrogen is that it attain the electron configuration of helium, or a total of two
electrons.
The octet rule works mainly for elements in the second period of the periodic table. These elements
have only 2s and 2p subshells, which can hold a total of eight electrons. When an atom of one of these
elements forms a covalent compound, it can attain the noble gas electron confi guration [Ne] by
sharing electrons with other atoms in the same compound. Later, we will discuss a number of
important exceptions to the octet rule that give us further insight into the nature of chemical bonding.

Multiple Bonds

A shared electron pair constitutes a single covalent bond, generally referred to simply as a single
bond. In many molecules, atoms attain complete octets by sharing more than one pair of electrons.
When two electron pairs are shared, two lines are drawn in the Lewis structure, representing a double
bond. In carbon dioxide, for example, bonding occurs between carbon, with four valence electrons,
and oxygen, with six:

As the diagram shows, each oxygen atom acquires an octet by sharing two electron pairs with carbon.
Carbon acquires an octet by sharing two electron pairs with each of the two oxygen atoms; each
double bond involves four electrons. A triple bond corresponds to the sharing of three pairs of
electrons, such as in the N2 molecule:

Because each nitrogen atom has five valence electrons, three electron pairs must be shared to achieve
the octet configuration.

The properties of N2 are in complete accord with its Lewis structure. Nitrogen is a diatomic gas with
exceptionally low reactivity that results from the very stable nitrogen–nitrogen bond. The nitrogen
atoms are separated by only 1.10 Å. The short separation distance between the two N atoms is a result
of the triple bond between the atoms. From studies of the structures of many different substances in
which nitrogen atoms share one or two electron pairs, we have learned that the average distance
between bonded nitrogen atoms varies with the number of shared electron pairs:

As a general rule, the length of the bond between two atoms decreases as the number of shared
electron pairs increases. completely to chlorine. The bonds that are found in most substances fall
somewhere between these extremes.
Bond polarity is a measure of how equally or unequally the electrons in any covalent bond are shared.
A nonpolar covalent bond is one in which the electrons are shared equally, as in Cl2 and N2. In a polar
covalent bond, one of the atoms exerts a greater attraction for the bonding electrons than the other. If
the difference in relative ability to attract electrons is large enough, an ionic bond is formed.

Coordinate Covalent Bonds

The Lewis theory of bonding describes a covalent bond as the sharing of a pair of electrons, but this
does not necessarily mean that each atom contributes an electron to the bond. A covalent bond in
which a single atom contributes both of the electrons to a shared pair is called a coordinate covalent
bond.

If we attempt to attach a fourth H atom to the Lewis structure, we encounter a difficulty. The electron
brought by the fourth H atom would raise the total number of valence electrons around the N atom to
nine, so there would no longer be an octet. The molecule NH4 does not form, but the ammonium ion,
NH4+. That is, the lone pair of electrons on a NH3 molecule extracts an H atom from a HCl molecule,

and the electrons in the H–Cl bond remain on the Cl atom. The result is equivalent to a H+ ion joining
with the NH3 molecule to form the NH4+ ion

The bond formed between the N atom of NH3 and the H+ ion is a coordinate covalent bond. It is
important to note, however, that once the bond has formed, it is impossible to say which of the four
N–H bonds is the coordinate covalent bond. Thus, a coordinate covalent bond is indistinguishable
from a regular covalent bond.

Polarity of Molecules

Molecules with covalent bonds can also be polar or nonpolar, which depends on their bond polarity
and their shape.

 Nonpolar Molecules

Molecules such as H2, Cl2 or PH3 are nonpolar because they contain nonpolar covalent bonds.
Molecules with polar bonds can be nonpolar if the polar bonds (dipoles) cancel each other in a
symmetrical arrangement. For example, CO2, a linear molecule, contains two polar covalent bonds,
whose dipoles point in opposite directions. As a result, the dipoles cancel out, which makes a CO2
molecule nonpolar. Thus a nonpolar molecule contains nonpolar bonds or has polar bonds with
dipoles that cancel.

When the polar bonds or dipoles in a molecule cancel each other, the molecule is nonpolar. For
example, CO2 and CCl4 contain polar bonds. However, the symmetrical arrangement of the polar
bonds cancels the dipoles, which makes CO2, CCl4 and BF3 molecules nonpolar.

 Polar Molecules

In a polar molecule, one end of the molecule is more negatively charged than another end. Polarity in
a molecule occurs when the polar bonds do not cancel each other. This cancellation depends on the
type of atoms, the electron pairs around the central atom, and the shape of the molecule. For example,
the HCl molecule is polar because electrons are shared unequally in a polar covalent bond.

A single dipole does not cancel.

In polar molecules with three or more atoms, the shape of the molecule determines whether the
dipoles cancel or not. Often there are lone pairs around the central atom. In H2O, the dipoles do not
cancel, which makes the molecule positive at one end and negative at the other end. Thus, water is a
polar molecule.
In the molecule NH3 there are three dipoles, but they do not cancel.

In the molecule CH3F, the CF bond is polar but the CH bonds are nonpolar, which makes CH3F a
polar molecule.

C. Molecular Geometri and VSEPR Theory

Molecular geometry is the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule. A molecule’s

geometry affects its physical and chemical properties, such as melting point, boiling point, density,
and the types of reactions it undergoes. In general, bond lengths and bond angles must be determined
by experiment. However, there is a simple procedure that enables us to predict with considerable
success the overall geometry of a molecule or ion if we know the number of electrons surrounding a
central atom in its Lewis structure. The basis of this approach is the assumption that electron pairs in
the valence shell of an atom repel one another. The valence shell is the outermost electronoccupied
shell of an atom; it holds the electrons that are usually involved in bonding. In a covalent bond, a pair
of electrons, often called the bonding pair, is responsible for holding two atoms together. However, in
a polyatomic molecule, where there are two or more bonds between the central atom and the
surrounding atoms, the repulsion between electrons in different bonding pairs causes them to remain
as far apart as possible. The geometry that the molecule ultimately assumes (as defi ned by the
positions of all the atoms) minimizes the repulsion. This approach to the study of molecular geometry
is called the valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) model, because it accounts for the
geometric arrangements of electron pairs around a central atom in terms of the electrostatic repulsion
between electron pairs.

Two general rules govern the use of the VSEPR model:

1. As far as electron-pair repulsion is concerned, double bonds and triple bonds can be treated
like single bonds. This approximation is good for qualitative purposes. However, you should
 realize that in reality multiple bonds are “larger” than single bonds; that is, because there are
two or three bonds between two atoms, the electron density occupies more space.

2. If a molecule has two or more resonance structures, we can apply the VSEPR model to any
one of them. Formal charges are usually not shown.

With this model in mind, we can predict the geometry of molecules (and ions) in a systematic way.
For this purpose, it is convenient to divide molecules into two categories, according to whether or not
the central atom has lone pairs.

Molecules in Which the Central Atom Has No Lone Pairs

For simplicity we will consider molecules that contain atoms of only two elements, A and B, of which
A is the central atom. These molecules have the general formula ABx, where x is an integer 2, 3, . . . .
(If x = 1, we have the diatomic molecule AB, which is linear by defi nition.) In the vast majority of
cases, x is between 2 and 6 .

As a result of mutual repulsion, the electron pairs stay as far from one another as possible. Note that
the table shows arrangements of the electron pairs but not the positions of the atoms that surround the
central atom. Molecules in which the central atom has no lone pairs have one of these five
arrangements of bonding pairs. Let us take a close look at the geometry of molecules with the
formulas AB2, AB3, AB4, AB5, and AB6.

Arrangement of Electron Pairs About a Central Atom (A) in a Molecule and Geometry of Some
Simple Molecules and Ions in Which the Central Atom Has No Lone Pairs
 (Table 1)

Molecules in Which the Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pairs

Determining the geometry of a molecule is more complicated if the central atom has both lone pairs
and bonding pairs. In such molecules there are three types of repulsive forces—those between
bonding pairs, those between lone pairs, and those between a bonding pair and a lone pair. In general,
according to the VSEPR model, the repulsive forces decrease in the following order:

lone-pair vs. lone-pair lone-pair vs. Bonding pair bonding-pair vs. Bonding pair

repulsion repulsion repulsion

Electrons in a bond are held by the attractive forces exerted by the nuclei of thetwo bonded atoms.
These electrons have less “spatial distribution” than lone pairs; that is, they take up less space than
lone-pair electrons, which are associated with only one particular atom. Because lone-pair electrons in
a molecule occupy more space, they experience greater repulsion from neighboring lone pairs and
bonding pairs. To keep track of the total number of bonding pairs and lone pairs, we designate
molecules with lone pairs as ABxEy, where A is the central atom, B is a surrounding atom, and E is
alone pair on A. Both x and y are integers; x = 2, 3, . . . , and y = 1, 2, . . . . Thus, the values of x and y
indicate the number of surrounding atoms and number of lone pairs on the central atom, respectively.
The simplest such molecule would be a triatomic molecule with one lone pair on the central atom and
the formula is AB2E.
  AB2E: Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

The Lewis structure of sulfur dioxide is

Because VSEPR treats double bonds as though they were single, the SO2 molecule can be viewed as
consisting of three electron pairs on the central S atom. Of these, two are bonding pairs and one is a
lone pair. Because one of the electron pairs is a lone pair, the SO2 molecule has a “bent” shape.

Because the lone-pair versus bonding-pair repulsion is greater than the bonding-pair versus bonding-
pair repulsion, the two sulfur-to-oxygen bonds are pushed together slightly and the OSO angle is less
than 120°.

 AB3E: Ammonia (NH3)

The ammonia molecule contains three bonding pairs and one lone pair:

The overall arrangement of four electron pairs is tetrahedral. But in NH3 one of the electron pairs is a
lone pair, so the geometry of NH3 is trigonal pyramidal (so called because it looks like a pyramid,
with the N atom at the apex). Because the lone pair repels the bonding pairs more strongly, the three
NH bonding pairs are pushed closer together:

Thus, the HNH angle in ammonia is smaller than the ideal tetrahedral angle of 109.5°

 AB2E2: Water (H2O)

A water molecule contains two bonding pairs and two lone pairs:

The overall arrangement of the four electron pairs in water is tetrahedral, the same as in ammonia.
However, unlike ammonia, water has two lone pairs on the central O atom. These lone pairs tend to be
as far from each other as possible. Consequently, the two OOH bonding pairs are pushed toward each
other, and we predict an even greater deviation from the tetrahedral angle than in NH3. The HOH
angle is 104.5°. The geometry of H2O is bent:
  AB4E: Sulfur Tetrafl uoride (SF4)

The Lewis structure of SF4 is

The central sulfur atom has five electron pairs whose arrangement (trigonal bipyramidal). In the SF4
molecule, however, one of the electron pairs is a lone pair, so the molecule must have one of the
following geometries:

In (a) the lone pair occupies an equatorial position, and in (b) it occupies an axial position. The axial
position has three neighboring pairs at 90° and one at 180°, while the equatorial position has two
neighboring pairs at 90° and two more at 120°. The repulsion is smaller for (a), and indeed (a) is the
structure observed experimentally. This shape is sometimes described as a distorted tetrahedron (or
seesaw if you turn the structure 90° to the right to view it). The angle between the axial F atoms and S
is 173°, and that between the equatorial F atoms and S is 102°.

Table of Geometry of Simple Molecules and Ions in Which the Central Atom Has One or More

Lone Pairs
 (Table 2)

Geometry of Molecules with More Than One Central Atom

So far we have discussed the geometry of molecules having only one central atom. The overall
geometry of molecules with more than one central atom is difficult to define in most cases. Often we
can only describe the shape around each of the central atoms. For example, consider methanol,
CH3OH, whose Lewis structure is shown below:

The two central (nonterminal) atoms in methanol are C and O. We can say that the three CH and the
CO bonding pairs are tetrahedrally arranged about the C atom. The HCH and OCH bond angles are
approximately 109°. The O atom here is like the one in water in that it has two lone pairs and two
bonding pairs. Therefore, the HOC portion of the molecule is bent, and the angle HOC is
approximately equal to 105°
Guidelines for Applying the VSEPR Model

Having studied the geometries of molecules in two categories (central atoms with and without lone
pairs), let us consider some rules for applying the VSEPR model to all types of molecules:

1. Write the Lewis structure of the molecule, considering only the electron pairs around the
central atom (that is, the atom that is bonded to more than one other atom).

2. Count the number of electron pairs around the central atom (bonding pairs and lone pairs).
Treat double and triple bonds as though they were single bonds.

3. Use Tables 1 and 2 to predict the geometry of the molecule.

4. In predicting bond angles, note that a lone pair repels another lone pair or a bonding pair more
strongly than a bonding pair repels another bonding pair. Remember that in general there is
no easy way to predict bond angles accurately when the central atom possesses one or more
lone pairs.

The VSEPR model generates reliable predictions of the geometries of a variety of molecular
structures. Chemists use the VSEPR approach because of its simplicity. Although there are some
theoretical concerns about whether “electron-pair repulsion” actually determines molecular shapes,
the assumption that it does leads to useful (and generally reliable) predictions. We need not ask more
of any model at this stage in the study of chemistry.

D. Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen bonds are the intermolecular attractions that occur between hydrogen atoms bound to very
electronegative atoms (N, O, or F) and free electron pairs from other very electronegative atoms. This
bond appears as the N-H, O-H, and F-H bonds are very polar, in which the positive partial charge is H
and the negative partial charge is on the electronegative atom (N, O, or F).

For example, hydrogen bonds exist between molecules of H2O and between NH3 molecules, as shown
in the following figure.

Hydrogen bonds are actually the dipole-dipole forces that occur between polar molecules. However,
this bond is distinguished specifically because the strength of the interaction force is relatively
stronger than the general dipole-dipole style. This is because hydrogen atoms have no nucleus
electrons which can shield the atomic nucleus and are small enough to be closer to other molecules
and the distance between hydrogen and the negative partial charge of the free electron pair becomes
very close. As a result, the dipole-dipole interaction energy between hydrogen and the free electron
pair in the electronegative atom becomes greater than the energy of the other dipole-dipole
interactions.

In general, hydrogen bonds are described as X-H ··· Y—, where X and Y represent very
electronegative atoms (N, O, or F) and three points (···) symbolize hydrogen bonds. The X-H
fragment is usually known as a hydrogen bond donor as the X-H fragment has hydrogen which is part
of the hydrogen bond. Whereas, fragment Y - is known as the acceptor as Y is the electronegative
atom with the free electron pair of the hydrogen receiver being part of the hydrogen bond.

Hydrogen Bonds and Physical Properties

Physical properties such as melting point and boiling point are strongly influenced by the forces of
inter-molecular interaction. The presence of hydrogen bonds as the strongest intermolecular
interaction force has a significant effect on the boiling points of some binary hydride compounds from
groups IVA to VIIA. The following graph shows the boiling points of hydrogen binary compounds
and elements of groups IVA to VIIA.

The boiling points of the hydride compounds of the Group IVA elements (CH4, SiH4, GeH4, and
SnH4, all nonpolar) increase from top to bottom of the group (from C to Sn). This is understandable as
a result of the polarization and dispersion forces of London in general increasing with increasing
molecular mass. Hydride compounds from the VA, VIA, and VIIA groups generally also follow the
same boiling point increase pattern, but specifically for NH3, H2O, and HF compounds the boiling
point is much higher than expected.

In fact, these three compounds also have properties that differentiate them from other compounds with
molecular mass and similar polarity. For example, water (H2O) has a high melting point, high heat,
and high evaporation heat. These properties indicate that there is a strong unusual intermolecular force
on the molecules of the three compounds, namely hydrogen bonds.

Hydrogen Bonds on Water

In water, one water molecule can bind hydrogen with four other water molecules around it in a
tetrahedral arrangement as shown in figure (a) below. In ice, hydrogen-bound water molecules are in a
rigid but more open structure. A more open (hollow) structure on the ice as shown in figure (b) causes
ice to have a smaller density. When ice melts, part of the hydrogen bond breaks. This causes water
molecules to be more tightly arranged so that their density increases as shown in figure (c). In other
words, the amount of H2O molecules per volume unit in liquid form is more than in solid form.

As ice water is heated above the melting point, the breaking of the hydrogen bond continues so that
the water molecules become more tightly arranged and the density of water increases. Water in liquid
form will reach the maximum density at 3.98 ° C. Above this temperature, water behaves "normally"
like other substances in general as the density decreases with temperature rise.

The nature of this water anomaly plays a role in several phenomena that occur on earth, such as
icebergs floating on the water and exploding water pipes in the winter. Water pipe explosions can
occur if cooling occurs suddenly as frozen water becomes ice. In ice events that float in frozen waters
in the winter, floats of chunks of ice will prevent further freezing of water so that living things in the
waters can survive. In the absence of water anomalies due to the presence of these hydrogen bonds,
the water will freeze from the bottom to the surface. This certainly will result in living creatures in
these waters threatened not to survive during the winter.

Hydrogen Bonds on Living Beings

Chemical reactions in the body of living things involve compounds with complex structures, such as
proteins and DNA, where in these reactions certain bonds must be easily disconnected and reshaped.
Hydrogen bonding is a bond that has the right energy to allow it. The hydrogen bond energy is
greatest between the forces of interaction between other molecules, and the energy is relatively much
smaller than intramolecular chemical bonds such as covalent bonds and ionic bonds.
The shape of a protein molecule is strongly influenced by hydrogen bonds; if there are broken bonds,
the protein molecule can lose its function. This bond also plays an important role in binding the two
strands of the DNA molecule to form a double helix. This not-so-powerful hydrogen bond can
maintain the double-chain structure of DNA but can also be easily decided upon in the DNA
replication process in cell division.

E. Metalic Bonds

In nonmetal atoms, the valence shells generally have more electrons than they do orbitals. To
illustrate, a F atom has four valence-shell orbitals ( 2s, 2px, 2py, 2pz) and seven valence-shell
electrons. Whether fluorine exists as a solid, liquid, or gas, F atoms join in pairs to form F2 molecules.
One pair of electrons is shared in the F–F bond, and the other electron pairs are lone pairs. By
contrast, the metal atom Li has the same four valence-shell orbitals as F but only one valence-shell
electron (2s1). This may account for the formation of the gaseous molecule but in the solid metal, each
Li atom is somehow bonded to eight neighbors. The challenge to a bonding theory for metals is to
explain how so much bonding can occur with so few electrons. Also, the theory should account for
certain properties that metals display to a far greater extent than nonmetals such as a lustrous
appearance, an ability to conduct electricity, and ease of deformation (metals are easily flattened into
sheets and drawn into wires).

Metal has a number of general characteristics, namely solid form, showing gloss, high density, high
boiling point and melting point, good conductor of heat and electricity. strong or hard but easy to form
for example malleable and ductile.

Metal bonds are defined based on electron cloud or electron ocean models defined by Drude in 1900
and used by Lorents in 1923.

Based on this theory, metal is thought to consist of metal ions in the form of hard balls arranged
regularly, repeatedly and around metal ions there are clouds or oceans of electrons formed from
valence electrons from the corresponding metal.

The electron clouds that form are from all the metal atoms. This is due to the overlap of the valence
orbitals of the metal atoms (valence orbitals = the valence electron orbitals are). As a result, the
electrons in the orbitals can move to the neighboring valence atom orbitals. Because of this, valence
electrons will be delocalized on all atoms in the metal forming clouds or oceans of electrons that are
car or can move.

From the theory of clouds or ocean of electron metal bonds is defined as the force of attraction
between the positive charge of metal ions (metal cations) and the negative charge formed from the
valence electrons of metal atoms. So metals that have more valence electrons will produce cations
with a greater positive charge and electron clouds with more or more dense electrons. This causes the
metal to have a stronger bond than the metal which is composed of metal atoms with fewer valence
electrons.

For example magnesium metal which has 2 valence electrons. Based on the electron cloud model,
aluminum metal can be considered to consist of Al2 + ions arranged in a regular, repetitive manner
and around them are clouds or oceans of electrons formed from valence electrons of magnesium, as in
Fig.

Model of electron clouds of magnesium metal

Metals can be malleable, stretched, not brittle and can be bent, because metal atoms are arranged
regularly and tightly so that when pressed the atoms can slip over the other atomic layers as shown in
Figs.

Direction of pressure

Before forged After forged

From the picture, it explains why metal can be forged or stretched, because of the metal of all atoms
of the same type, so that atoms are shifted when pressed as if they remained in the same position.

This situation is different from ionic bonds. In ionic crystals, the bonding force is the attraction
between the positively charged ions with negatively charged ions. So that when the ionic crystals are
pressurized there will be a shift in positive and negative ions which can cause positive ions to be
adjacent to positive ions and negative ions with negative ions. This situation results in repulsion
between similar ions so that the ionic crystal becomes cracked and then breaks.
This ocean or electron cloud theory can explain various physical properties of metals.

1. Metal can be forged, can be bent, stretched and not brittle

This is because metal atoms are arranged regularly and tightly so that when given pressure the
atoms can slip above the other atomic layers

2. Shiny properties

Inside metal bonds, there are free electrons. When light falls on the metal surface, free
electrons will absorb the light energy. The electrons will release the energy back in the form
of electromagnetic radiation with the same frequency as the initial light frequency. Because
the frequency is the same, then we see it as a reflection of the light coming. The light
reflection gives the metal surface a shiny look.

When light appears to fall on the metal surface, some of the mobile valence electrons will be
excited. When the excited electron returns to its basic state, the light energy with a certain
wavelength will be retransmitted. This event can give rise to a characteristic luster in
metal.Electrical conductivity in metal bonds, there are valence electrons that are free (easy to
move) that can carry an electric charge. If given a voltage difference, these electrons will
move from the negative pole to the positive pole

3. Electrical conductivity

Inside metal bonds, there are valence electrons that are free (easy to move) that can carry an
electric charge. If given a voltage difference, these electrons will move from the negative pole
to the positive pole

4. Heat conductivity

Electrons that move freely inside metal crystals have kinetic energy. If heated, the electrons
will get enough kinetic energy to be able to move or vibrate quickly. In its movement, the
electrons will collide with other electrons. This causes the transfer of energy from high
temperature parts to low temperature parts.

5. High boiling point and melting point

In metals, the metal bond does not completely break until this boiling metal indicates that the
metal bond has a high boiling point. This is because metal atoms are bound by strong metal
bonds. To overcome this bond, a large amount of energy is needed.

Classification of Metal Bonds

Based on the class, metal bonds can be classified into metal bonds in the main group metal and metal
bonds in the transition metal group.
 1. Metal bonding on the main group metals

Metal bonds in the main group elements are relatively weak compared to the transition class
elements. For example, iron crystals are stronger than magnesium metal crystals.

2. Metal bonding in transition metal metals

Transition metals tend to have high melting and boiling points. The reason is that transition
metals can involve 3d electrons which are in delocalisation conditions like electrons in 4s.
The more electrons that can be involved, the stronger the tendency of attraction. Examples of
metal bonds in transition transition elements are Ag, Fe, Cu and others.

Based on the constituent elements the metal bond is divided into 2, namely:

1. Metal ties between similar elements For example the bond between elements of lithium and
other elements of lithium.

2. Metallic bond between different types of elements (alloy). Metal materials that are not only
made from one type of metal element but have been mixed or added with other elements are
called alloy or often called duct or alloy. For example, Stainless Steel steel which consists of
72% Iron metal, 18% Chrome metal and 8% Nickel metal.

The alloy is formed when fused two or more kinds of metal are mixed or fused with a metal
mixed with non-metallic elements that the mixture does not react to each other and still shows
the properties as metal after being cooled.

Alloy is divided into two types, namely, seizure alloy and substitution alloy. Called a screech
alloy if the atomic radius of the element is combined equal to or smaller than the radius of the
metal atom. Whereas substitution alloy is formed when the radius of the element is greater
than the radius of the metal atom.

Factors that Influence Metal Bonding

1. Melting and boiling points

Metals tend to have high melting and boiling points because of the strength of metal bonds.
The bond strength is different between one metal and another. The melting and boiling points
of the metal are directly related to the strength of the metal bond. The boiling point and
melting point of the metal are higher when the metal bond is stronger. For example in the
alkali metal the lower the boiling point the lower the metal bond will become weaker.
 Metal Melting Point (°C) Boiling Point (°C)

Li 180 1330

Na 97,8 892

K 63,7 774

Rb 38,9 688

Cs 29,7 690

The boiling point and melting point are related to the periodic nature of the element which is
the nature of the atomic radius. The increasing the atomic radius, the less the boiling point and
melting point will decrease, ro that causes the bond weaker

2. Atomic radius

In the periodic system of elements, in one group from top to bottom, the size of the metal
cation and the radius of the metal atom is greater. This causes the distance between the center
of the metal cations and the electron cloud to farther away, so that the electrostatic attraction
between the metal cations and the electron cloud becomes weaker.

Metal Atom Radius Metal Cations Atom

Metal Matal Cations
(pm) Radius (pm)

Li 157 Li+ 106

Na 191 Na+ 132

K 235 K+ 165

Rb 250 Rb+ 175

Cs 272 Cs+ 188

3. Number of valence electrons (delocalised electrons)

Metals of grup I such as sodium and potassium have relatively low metal bonds because each
atom has only one electron to contribute to the bond. Whereas in group II metals such as
magnesium have two electrons to contribute to the bond so that metal of group II has a bond
that is relatively stronger than metal of group I.
4. Coordination number

Sodium metal is surrounded by eight other sodium metals, while magnesium metal is
surrounded by twelve other magnesium metals. This causes the metal bond on magnesium to
be greater than the metal bond in sodium.