Automated Room Light Controller with Visitor Counter

Abstract:

This Project “Automated Room Light Controller with Visitor Counter” is a reliable
circuit that takes over the task of controlling the room lights as well us counting number of
persons / visitors in the room very accurately. When somebody enters into the room then the
counter is incremented by one and the LED light in the room will be switched ON and when any
one leaves the room then the counter is decremented by one. The light will be only switched OFF
until all the persons in the room go out. The total number of persons inside the room is also
displayed on the display monitor. The microcontroller does the above job. It receives the signals
from the sensors, and this signal is operated under the control of software which is stored in
memory of the microcontroller. Microcontroller continuously monitors the Infrared Receivers.
When any object pass through the IR Receiver's then the IR Rays falling on the receivers are
obstructed. This obstruction is sensed by the Microcontroller.
INTRODUCTION

The objective of this project is to make a controller based model to count number of
persons visiting particular room and accordingly light up the LEDs in the room. Here we can use
sensor and can know present number of persons. In today’s world, there is a continuous need for
automatic appliances. With the increase in standard of living, there is a sense of urgency for
developing circuits that would ease the complexity of life. Also if at all one wants to know the
number of people present in room so as not to have congestion, this circuit proves to be helpful.
The main purpose of our system is to save energy and the efforts required to switch on the lights.
Instead of switching on/off the lights in an auditorium or a seminar hall the lights adjust the
intensity. To make a controller based model to count number of persons visiting particular room
and accordingly light up the room. To know the number of people present in room so as not to
have congestion.

EXISTING SYSTEM

This section describes about the most commonly used lighting control system used in
buildings. Since this method is going to use wireless sensor network it is mandatory to know the
operation of existing lighting control system. It can be decided that energy loss is occurred with a
lighting system when the lighting system illuminates a light which is an area which is not being
used currently at that particular time or when it illuminates a light even though sufficient lighting
is available to work.
PROPOSED SYSTEM

This system is designed by using two sets of IR transmitters and receivers. These IR
sensors are placed in such a way that they detect a person entering and leaving the room to turn
the home appliances. In this optimum energy management system, a microcontroller is the
central processing unit of this project which is of 89S51 controller from the 8051 family. This
system facilitates a bidirectional visitor counter for displaying the number of persons inside the
room. When a person enters into the room, an IR beam is obstructed between the IR transmitter
and the receiver. This IR obstruction from the sensor-1 gives the corresponding signal to the
microcontroller. The microcontroller is programmed in such a way that by the reception of the
signal from the sensor-1 it turns on the fans and lights inside the room.

Thus, the microcontroller gives command signals to a relay driver which turns the relays
such that all these appliances turn on. When the person leaves from this room, another set of IR
sensors enable and give control signals to the microcontroller.

Furthermore, similar to the above process, this system turns off the appliances like fans
and lights. Apart from this, the system also takes account of the number of persons inside the
room so that this control operation is varied depending on the persons’ availability in the room.
For every person entering and leaving the room, the microcontroller reads the digital input from
two receivers, and calculates the number of persons inside the room, and then displays it on the
LCD. When the persons’ count is greater than one, the microcontroller turns on the room light
and when the persons’ count is zero, it turns off all the lights and fans.

OBJECTIVE OF THE SYSTEM:

In today’s world, there is a continuous need for automatic appliances. With the increase
in standard of living, there is a sense of urgency for developing circuits that would ease the
complexity of life.

The objective of this project is to make a controller based model to count number of
persons visiting particular room and accordingly light up the room. Here we have used sensor
and we can know present number of persons inside that particular room.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Power
16X2 LCD DISPLAY
Supply

Atmega88PA
Lamp-1
Obstacle
Detector-1
Lamp-2

Obstacle
Detector-2 Lamp-3

Fire Lamp-4
Sensor

FAN
BUZZER

BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION:

The above block diagram represents the complete architecture of the proposed system.
The diagram represents major blocks of the system. In this system a microcontroller
Atmega88PA is used for the controlling of the complete system. This microcontroller acts as a
brain of the system.

In this system we have used 2 TSOP obstacle sensors are used to detect the persons
entering and exit the particular room. These sensors are implemented near the entrance door of
that room. Here one sensor is for detecting entering person whereas second is to detect the
person leaving the room. Here we have used TSOP 1738 series IR sensors are used. This is one
of the main parts of our project. The main intention of this block is to sense the person. By using
this sensor and its related circuit diagram we can count the persons.

The hardware of the system consists of a fire sensor used to detect fire in the room. This
fire sensor is also interfaced with the microcontroller as shown in the above block diagram of the
system.
 In this system a Buzzer is interfaced with the microcontroller used as an audio alarm
indication during the fire detection in the room or at the time of entering or leaving room by any
person. This Buzzer will be controlled by the microcontroller and it turned ON or OFF through a
transistor.

In this system four lamps are used to as lights in that particular room where this system
will be implement. These lamps are interfaced with the microcontroller through transistor. A fan
is also used in this system. These interfaced devices are controlled by the microcontroller on the
basis of number of person present in the room. A LCD display is used to display the number of
person in the room as well as the status of the lights and fan in the room.
FLOW CHART:

START

SENSOR SIGNAL TRANSMISSION

TURN ON INTERRUPTION INTERRUPTION

TRANSISTORS FROM SENSOR 1 FROM SENSOR 2

TURN ON INCREMENT DECREMENT

LIGHTS & FAN COUNTER COUNTER

IF COUNTER TURN OFF

SET TO ZERO TRANSISTORS

TURN OFF
LIGHTS & FAN

STOP
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
1 2 3 4 5 6

D D

1N4007 LM7805
T1 1 3
Vin Vout
230V AC

1N4007 GND
IC1
1K

2
LED
1N4007
1000uF/35V
1000uF/10V 16X2 LCD
+12Volt
1N4007

M-1
16X2 Charactor LCD
+5V
DC
FAN

RW

VO
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
Q1

RS

A
K
E
1K BD139
FIRE S1
10K
S ENSO R

7
8
109
11
12
13
14

4
5
6

15
16

3
220E 10K
LAMP-1
C +5V C
U?
1 28
PC6/(RESET) PC5/(ADC5/SCL)
2 27 Q3
PD0/(RXD) PC4/(ADC4/SDA) 1K
3 26 BD139
TSO P 4
PD1/(TXD) PC3/(ADC3)
25
PD2/(INT0) PC2/(ADC2)
S ENSO R 5
PD3/(INT1) PC1/(ADC1)
24
6 23
PD4/(XCT/T0) PC0/(ADC0)
LAMP-1
19
PB5/(SCK)
11 18
PD5/(T1) PB4/(MISO)
12 17
+5V PD6/(AIN0) PB3/(MOSI/OC2)
13 16 Q4
VCC PD7/(AIN1) PB2/(SS/OC1B) 1K
15 BD139
PB1/(OC1A)
14
PB0/(ICP1)
7
TSO P VCC

S ENSO R AREF
21
LAMP-1
9 20
PB6/(X1,TOSC1) AVCC
8
GND
10 22 Q5
PB7/(X2,TOSC2) GND 1K
16MHz BD139
ATMEGA88PA
B B
33PF 33PF
LAMP-1

Q6
1K BD139

12V Buzzer

Q7
1K
BD139

A A

Title

Size Number Revision

B
Date: 28-Jan-2018 Sheet of
File: C:\Users\Lenovo\Downloads\Circuit 2018 (7).DdbDrawn By:
1 2 3 4 5 6

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:

The circuit diagram of the system is as shown in the above diagram. The circuit diagram
shows the interfacing of all the devices of the system with the microcontroller unit. In this
system for the controlling ATMEGA88P microcontroller is used in this prototype. A power
supply system is used to provide required power to the circuit components in this unit.

Circuit implemented in the system consists of a microcontroller to control the complete

circuit action of the unit and to collect the data from the sensor network, process the data and to
control the electric devices i.e. lights and fan. To complete all these functions we have used an
ATMEGA88PA microcontroller in this work. This microcontroller requires regulated 5V power
supply for its operation. This power supply is provided by the power supply unit in the system.
Generally controller works on a stable frequency to produce machine cycles to execute the
firmware stored in the memory. To obtain this frequency an external oscillator is connected to
the pin number 9 and 10 i.e. OSC1 and OSC2 of the controller IC as shown in the circuit
diagram of the system. This is a crystal oscillator designed using a 16MHz crystal with two
parallel capacitors as shown in the circuit diagram. A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator
circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create
an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep
track of time, to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize
frequencies. A reset switch is connected to the reset pin i.e. pin number 1 of the controller IC.
This switch is used to reset the microcontroller during the fluctuation in the power supply or due
to any malpractice during its operation. A reset input is used to reset a microcontroller. Resetting
puts the microcontroller into a known state such that the program execution starts from address 0
of the program memory.

This circuit consists of a 555 timer IC, configured to function as a basic astable
multivibrator. The astable multivibrator generates square wave, the period of which is
determined by the circuit external to IC 555. The astable multivibrator does not require any
external trigger to change the state of the output. Hence the name is free running oscillator. The
time during which the output is either high or low is determined by the two resistors and a
capacitor which are externally connected to the 555 timer. IR Transmission circuit is used to
generate the modulated 36 kHz IR signal. The IC555 in the transmitter side is to generate 36 kHz
square wave. Adjust the preset in the transmitter to get a 38 kHz signal at the o/p. Then you point
it over the sensor and its o/p will go low when it senses the IR signal of 38 kHz.

The IR transmitter will emit modulated 38 kHz IR signal and at the receiver we use
TSOP1738 (Infrared Sensor) . The output goes high when there is an interruption and it return
back to low after the time period determined by the capacitor and resistor in the circuit i.e.
around 1 second. CL100 is to trigger the IC555 which is configured as monostable multivibrator.
Input is given to the Port 1of the microcontroller. Port 0 is used for the LCD display purpose.
These two TSOP IR sensors are connected to the pin number 4 and 5 of the controller IC as sown
in the circuit diagram of the system.

The system consists of a fire sensor interfaced with the microcontroller and connected to
the pin number 2 as shown in the circuit diagram. This sensor is used to detect the fire in the
room and surrounding area. This sensor provides the signal to the microcontroller. The
microcontroller receives the signal from this signal and if fire is detected by the sensor then
microcontroller enables the Buzzer for the audio alarm indication for the user.
 Here 4 lamps are connected with the microcontroller and a fan is also connected with it.
These lamps are connected to the port C pin number 24-27 as shown in the circuit diagram.
These lamps are connected with controller through transistors as shown in circuit diagram of the
system. A fan is connected to the pin number 28 in port C of the controller IC. And Buzzer is
connected to the pin number 23 of the controller IC through transistor.

The system consists of a LCD display for the displaying status of deices as well as
number of persons present in the room. This LCD display is interfaced with the microcontroller
and is connected to the port B of the controller IC.
WORKING

In this circuit, two infrared (IR) sensor modules are used each for enter and exit counting,
respectively. Whenever an interruption is observed by the first IR sensor it increments the
counter value. Similarly, when the second sensor detects an obstacle, the count is decremented.

Digital visitor counter is a reliable circuit that takes over the task of counting number of
Persons/ Visitors in the Room very accurately. When somebody enters into the Room then the
Counter is Incremented by one. The total number of Persons inside the Room is displayed on the
LCD display module. The microcontroller does the above job it receives the signals from the
sensors, and this signals operated under the control of software which is stored in ROM.

It can be used to count the number of persons entering a hall in the up mode at entrance
gate. In the down mode, it can count the number of persons leaving the hall by decrementing the
count at exit gate. It can also be used at gates of parking areas and other public places. When one
person enters the room the TSOP IR sensor 1 provides high signal to the microcontroller. The
counter will be incremented by 1 and one light and one fan will be turned ON by the system. The
system will increase the number of lights by 1 for every 2 person in the room. The TSOP IR
sensor 2 provides the high signal when person leaves the room through exit gate. When
microcontroller gets signal from this sensor the counter will be decremented by 1 and
accordingly lights will be turned OFF. For each entry and exit of person Buzzer will be enabled
by the system.

This circuit divided in three parts: sensor, controller and counter display. The sensor
would observe an interruption and provide an input to the controller which would run the counter
in up/down mode depending upon the selector setting. The same count is displayed on a set of 7-
segment displays through the controller. This project we will create counter system for apply.

The total number of object is displayed on the LCD display. The system is fully
controlled by the Atmega88PA microcontroller 8051 which has a 4Kbytes of ROM for the
program memory. It can also be used at gates of parking areas and other public places.

This system also includes a fire sensor for detecting fire in the room. This sensor provides
the signal to the microcontroller. The microcontroller receives the signal from this signal and if
fire is detected by the sensor then microcontroller enables the Buzzer for the audio alarm
indication for the user.
HARDWARE COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

ATMEGA88PA Microcontroller:

The ATmega88PA is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR

enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the
ATmega88PA achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz allowing the system designer
to optimize power consumption versus processing speed.

The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers.
All the 32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two
independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock cycle. The
resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten times faster
than conventional CISC microcontrollers.

The ATmega48A/PA/88A/PA/168A/PA/328/P provides the following features:

4K/8Kbytes of In-System Programmable Flash with Read-While-Write capabilities,
256/512/512/1Kbytes EEPROM, 512/1K/1K/2Kbytes SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines, 32
general purpose working registers, three flexible Timer/Counters with compare modes, internal
and external interrupts, a serial programmable USART, a byte-oriented 2-wire Serial Interface,
an SPI serial port, a 6-channel 10-bit ADC (8 channels in TQFP and QFN/MLF packages), a
programmable Watchdog Timer with internal Oscillator, and five software selectable power
saving modes. The Idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the SRAM, Timer/Counters,
USART, 2-wire Serial Interface, SPI port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The
Power-down mode saves the register contents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip
functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset. In Power-save mode, the asynchronous timer
continues to run, allowing the user to maintain a timer base while the rest of the device is
sleeping. The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the CPU and all I/O modules except
asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during ADC conversions. In Standby
mode, the crystal/resonator Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is sleeping. This
allows very fast start-up combined with low power consumption.
Features:

High Performance, Low Power Atmel®AVR® 8-Bit Microcontroller Family

Advanced RISC Architecture

̶ 131 Powerful Instructions – Most Single Clock Cycle Execution

̶ 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers

̶ Fully Static Operation

̶ Up to 20 MIPS Throughput at 20MHz

̶ On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

High Endurance Non-volatile Memory Segments

̶ 4/8/16/32KBytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash program memory

̶ 256/512/512/1KBytes EEPROM

̶ 512/1K/1K/2KBytes Internal SRAM

̶ Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM

̶ Data retention: 20 years at 85 C/100 years at 25 C(1)

̶ Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits

In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program

True Read-While-Write Operation

̶ Programming Lock for Software Security

Atmel® QTouch® library support

̶ Capacitive touch buttons, sliders and wheels

̶ QTouch and QMatrix® acquisition

̶ Up to 64 sense channels

Peripheral Features

̶ Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler and Compare Mode

̶ One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and

Capture Mode

̶ Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator

̶ Six PWM Channels

̶ 8-channel 10-bit ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package

Temperature Measurement

̶ 6-channel 10-bit ADC in PDIP Package

Temperature Measurement

̶ Programmable Serial USART

̶ Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface

̶ Byte-oriented 2-wire Serial Interface (Philips I2C compatible)

̶ Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator

̶ On-chip Analog Comparator

̶ Interrupt and Wake-up on Pin Change

Special Microcontroller Features

̶ Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection

̶ Internal Calibrated Oscillator

̶ External and Internal Interrupt Sources

̶ Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby, and
Extended Standby

I/O and Packages

̶ 23 Programmable I/O Lines

̶ 28-pin PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, 28-pad QFN/MLF and 32-pad QFN/MLF

Operating Voltage:

̶ 1.8 - 5.5V

Temperature Range:

̶ -40 C to 85 C

Speed Grade:

̶ 0 - 4MHz@1.8 - 5.5V, 0 - 10MHz@2.7 - 5.5.V, 0 - 20MHz @ 4.5 - 5.5V

Power Consumption at 1MHz, 1.8V, 25 C

̶ Active Mode: 0.2mA

̶ Power-down Mode: 0.1μA

̶ Power-save Mode: 0.75μA (Including 32kHz RTC)

Pin Configurations:

Pin Descriptions:

1.1.1 VCC

Digital supply voltage.

1.1.2 GND

Ground.

1.1.3 Port B (PB7:0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the
pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tristated when a reset condition becomes
active, even if the clock is not running. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can
be used as input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the
inverting Oscillator amplifier. If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock
source, PB7...6 is used as TOSC2...1 input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit
in ASSR is set.

1.1.4 Port C (PC5:0)

 Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The PC5...0 output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the
pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes
active, even if the clock is not running.

1.1.5 PC6/RESET

If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electrical
characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If the RSTDISBL Fuse is un-
programmed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum
pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not
guaranteed to generate a Reset.

1.1.6 Port D (PD7:0)

Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the
pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes
active, even if the clock is not running.

1.1.7 AVCC

AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, PC3:0, and ADC7:6. It should be
externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be
connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that PC6...4 use digital supply voltage, VCC.

1.1.8 AREF

AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

1.1.9 ADC7:6 (TQFP and QFN/MLF Package Only)

In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package, ADC7:6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D
converter. These pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.
FIRE SENSOR:

The Fire sensor, as the name suggests, is used as a simple and compact device for
protection against fire. The module makes use of IR sensor and comparator to detect fire up to a
range of 1 metre. The device, weighing about 5 grams, can be easily mounted on the device
body. It gives a high output on detecting fire. This output can then be used to take the requisite
action. An on-board LED is also provided for visual indication.

Fig: fire sensor.

Pin Configuration:

Pin No. Symbol Description

1 O/P Digital output (High when fire detected)
2 VCC High
3 GND Low

Maximum Ratings:

Symbol Minimum Typical Maximum

O/P 4.2 4.5 4.7
VCC 4.5 5 5.5
GND - 0 -
TSOP OBSTACLE SENSOR:

The TSOP-OBSD–Single is a general purpose proximity sensor. Here we use it for

collision detection. The module consist of a IR emitter and TSOP receiver pair. The high
precision TSO receiver always detects a signal of fixed frequency. Due to this, errors due to false
detection of ambient light are significantly reduced. The module consists of 555 IC, working in
astable multivibrator configuration. The output of TSOP is high whenever it receives a fixed
frequency and low otherwise. The on-board LED indicator helps user to check status of the
sensor without using any additional hardware. The power consumption of this module is low. It
gives a digital output and false detection due ambient light is low.
 Simple IR Sensor has a disadvantage that it gives false detection when used in presence
of sunlight. We can make more complex IR sensor which is able to differentiate between IR light
from its own source and sunlight or any other light from surrounding light sources. Here I am
going to introduce TSOP based IR Sensor.

Basic Idea :-
In simple IR sensor (link) an IR LED is used to transmit a continuous beam of IR light
and a Photo Diode is used to detect reflected light from any surface (surface can be of any
obstacle or floor when we are using this sensor in line follower robot). In TSOP based IR Sensor
a modulated IR light at selected frequency is transmitted and a receiver is made that would only
detect light of the same frequency, filtering out light of other frequencies.
 TSOP is a miniaturized receiver for infrared remote control systems. It consists of a PIN
diode and a pre-amplifier in a single package. Output of TSOP is active low. As shown in figure
ambient light is filtered out by the epoxy package and then the output of PIN diode is amplified
and pass through a band pass filter. The output of TSOP can directly be connected by any I/O pin
of microcontroller. There are various TSOP available in market cantered to different
frequency —
For example – TSOP1736 can detect light of 36 KHz frequency and TSOP1740 can detect light
of 40 KHz.

Here we have taking TSOP1736 to make TSOP based IR Sensor module.

Circuit of Rx :-

In the above circuit 100 Ω resistance and 4.7 µF is connected to suppress power supply
disturbances. An LED is connected at the output pin of TSOP to indicate the logic level.
Circuit of Tx :-

To transmit light of 36 KHz frequency we can generate that frequency by using any
microcontroller, oscillator or by 555 timer IC. Here we have using 555 timer in astable mode to
generate a square wave signal to drive an IR-LED at a frequency of 36 KHz.

Application Ideas

• Obstacle detection

• Shaft encoder

• Fixed frequency detection

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide
range of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used in
various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments and other multi
segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no
limitation of displaying special & even custom characters (unlike in seven segments), animations
and so on. A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In
this LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely,
Command and Data. 16 Characters x 2 Lines Built-in HD44780 Equivalent LCD Controller
Works directly with ATMEGA, ARDUINO, PIC and many other microcontroller/kits. 4 or 8 bit
data I/O interface Low power consumption.

Features:
Drive method: 1/16 duty cycle
Display size: 16 character * 2 lines
Character structure: 5*8 dots.
Display data RAM: 80 characters (80*8 bits)
Character generate ROM: 192 characters
Character generate RAM: 8 characters (64*8 bits)
Both display data and character generator RAMs can be read from MPU.
Internal automatic reset circuit at power ON.
Built in oscillator circuit.

Fig 3.12 LCD display 16X2

Table 3.3 Pin description of LCD
BUZZER:
A buzzer or beeper Is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical, electro
mechanical, or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers
and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke. A piezoelectric element may
be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or other audio signal source, driven with a
piezoelectric audio amplifier. Sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed
are a click, a ring or a beep.
Piezoelectric buzzers, or piezo buzzers, as they are sometimes called, were invented by
Japanese manufacturers and fitted into a wide array of products during the 1970s to 1980s. This
advancement mainly came about because of cooperative efforts by Japanese manufacturing
companies. In 1951, they established the Barium Titanate Application Research Committee,
which allowed the companies to be ”competitively cooperative” and bring about several
piezoelectric innovations and inventions.
Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to an electric bell
without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be connected to interrupt its own actuating
current, causing the contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling to use
it as a sounding board. The word “buzzer” comes from the rasping noise that electromechanical
buzzers made. Mechanical A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer. They
require drivers.
A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or other audio
signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio amplifier. Sounds commonly used to indicate
that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.
Interior of a readymade buzzer, showing a piezoelectric-disk-beeper (With 3 electrodes ...
including 1 feedback-electrode (the central, small electrode joined with red wire in this photo),
and an oscillator to self-drive the buzzer.
TRANSISTOR:

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals

and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal.
Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded
in integrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its development in 1947 by
American physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley, the transistor
revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and
cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things. The transistor is on the list of
IEEE milestones in electronics, and the inventors were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in
Physics for their achievement.

The transistor is the key active component in practically all modern electronics. Many
consider it to be one of the greatest inventions of the 20th century. Its importance in today's
society rests on its ability to be mass-produced using a highly automated process (semiconductor
device fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-transistor costs. The invention of the first
transistor at Bell Labs was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009.

Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known
as discrete) transistors every year, the vast majority of transistors are now produced in integrated
circuits (often shortened to IC, microchips or simply chips), along with diodes,
resistors, capacitors and other electronic components, to produce complete electronic circuits.
A logic gate consists of up to about twenty transistors whereas an advanced microprocessor, as
of 2009, can use as many as 3 billion transistors (MOSFETs). "About 60 million transistors were
built in 2002 ... for [each] man, woman, and child on Earth."

The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device.
Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling
appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and
write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical
control function.

The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied
between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This
property is called gain. It can produce a stronger output signal, a voltage or current, that is
proportional to a weaker input signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the
transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch,
where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements.
 There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how they are used in a
circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at
the base terminal (that is, flowing between the base and the emitter) can control or switch a much
larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the
terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current
between source and drain.

The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow
between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Because internally
the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops
between base and emitter while the base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on
the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE
 DESIGN ASPECTS OF POWER SUPPLY
Power supply is the first and the most important part of our project. For our project we
require +5V regulated power supply with maximum current rating 1A.

Following basic building blocks are required to generate regulated power supply.

TRANSFORMER:
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with a little loss of power. Step-
up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies
use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high voltage to a safer low voltage.

FIG 4.1: A TYPICAL TRANSFORMER

The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is
no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic
field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit
symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost)
equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down and current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the ratio
of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil
which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its
secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
TURNS RATIO = (Vp / Vs) = ( Np / Ns )
Where,
Vp = primary (input) voltage.
Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current
Is = secondary (output) current.

Ideal power equation

The ideal transformer as a circuit element

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly
efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field
and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal
the outgoing power:

Giving the ideal transformer equation

Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable approximation.

If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in
one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if an impedance Zs is
attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an
impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary
circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

Features
• Output Current up to 1A.
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
• Thermal Overload Protection.
• Short Circuit Protection
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide
range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe
operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.
Absolute Maximum Ratings:-

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

CALCULATIONS FOR POWER SUPPLY DESIGNING:

Specifications of 7805 vtg regulator:

Polarity = +ve

Output vtg : +5v

Output current :1.5A

Output of bridge rectifier for rectification :

Output: 12Vdc = vrms

Vm=vrms x sq. rt of 2

= 12x sq.rt of 2

= 16.97

Vm= PIV =16.97

Value of Filter capacitor :

C= (IxT)/V

T=1/2πf

= 1/2 x3.14×50 hz

Output current of 7805 =1.5 A

C=(1.5 x 3.1847 x10-3 )/5

= 955.41×10-6

=1000 µf
RECTIFIER:

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one direction, a
process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power
supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum
tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components. The output from the transformer is fed to
the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave
rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full
wave rectification. In positive half cycle only two diodes (1 set of parallel diodes) will conduct,
in negative half cycle remaining two diodes will conduct and they will conduct only in forward
bias only.
FILTER:
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier
and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and
load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this
point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The use of this
filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current power supplies
for cathode-ray and similar electron tubes that require very little load current from the supply.
This filter is also used in circuits where the power-supply ripple frequency is not critical and can
be relatively high.below figure can show how the capacitor chages and discharges.
 COMPONENT DISCRIPTION:
Resistor:

Axial-lead resistors on tape. The tape is removed during assembly before the leads are formed
and the part is inserted into the board. In automated assembly the leads are cut and formed.

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as

a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage
levels within circuits. In electronic circuits resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust
signal levels, bias active elements, terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power
resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor
controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Resistors can have fixed
resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable
resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or
as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various
compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented withinintegrated circuits.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors
are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the
resistance will fall within a manufacturing tolerance.

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where
the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is
attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 =
0.04 amperes flows through that resistor.

Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which will also affect the
relation between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.
 The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10 −3 Ω), kilohm (1
kΩ = 103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage

Resistor color-coding:-

One decade of the E12 series (there are twelve preferred values per decade of values) shown with
their electronic color codes on resistors

A 100 kΩ, 5% axial-lead resistor

A 0 Ω resistor, marked with a single black band

A 2260 ohm, 1% precision resistor with 5 color bands (E96 series), from top 2-2-6-1-1; the last
two brown bands indicate the multiplier (x10), and the 1% tolerance. The larger gap before the
tolerance band is somewhat difficult to distinguish.

To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.

 band A is the first significant figure of component value (left side)

 band B is the second significant figure (some precision resistors have a third significant
figure, and thus five bands).
 band C is the decimal multiplier
 band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means 20%)

For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit 4 (yellow
in table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that
the tolerance is ±5%, so the real resistance could lie anywhere between 4,465 and 4,935 ohms.

Resistors manufactured for military use may also include a fifth band which indicates component
failure rate (reliability); refer to MIL-HDBK-199 for further details.

Tight tolerance resistors may have three bands for significant figures rather than two, or an
additional band indicating temperature coefficient, in units of ppm/K.

All coded components will have at least two value bands and a multiplier; other bands are
optional.

The standard color code per EN 60062:2005 is as follows:

Temp.
Significant
Color Multiplier Tolerance Coefficient
figures
(ppm/K)

Black 0 ×100 – 250 U

Brown 1 ×101 ±1% F 100 S

Red 2 ×102 ±2% G 50 R

Orange 3 ×103 – 15 P

Yellow 4 ×104 (±5%) – 25 Q

Green 5 ×105 ±0.5% D 20 Z

 Blue 6 ×106 ±0.25% C 10 Z

Violet 7 ×107 ±0.1% B 5 M

Gray 8 ×108 ±0.05% (±10%) A 1 K

White 9 ×109 – –

Gold – ×10-1 ±5% J –

Silver – ×10-2 ±10% K –

None – – ±20% M –

Resistors use preferred numbers for their specific values, which are determined by
their tolerance. These values repeat for every decade of magnitude: 6.8, 68, 680, and so forth. In
the E24 series the values are related by the 24th root of 10, while E12 series are related by the
12th root of 10, and E6 series by the 6th root of 10. The tolerance of device values is arranged so
that every value corresponds to a preferred number, within the required tolerance.

Zero ohm resistors are made as lengths of wire wrapped in a resistor-shaped body which can be
substituted for another resistor value in automatic insertion equipment. They are marked with a
single black band.

The 'body-end-dot' or 'body-tip-spot' system was used for radial-lead (and other cylindrical)
composition resistors sometimes still found in very old equipment; the first band was given by
the body color, the second band by the color of the end of the resistor, and the multiplier by a dot
or band around the middle of the resistor. The other end of the resistor was colored gold or silver
to give the tolerance, otherwise it was 20%.
CAPACITOR:

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energyelectrostatically in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by
a dielectric (i.e. insulator). The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or
conductive electrolyte, etc. The "nonconducting" dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge
capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, oxide layer
etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor
stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached
across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to
collect on one plate and negative charge −Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been
attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor.
However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement
current can flow.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value for its capacitance. Capacitance is
expressed as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential
difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to
one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to
about 1 mF (10−3 F).

The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower separation between conductors and when the
conductors have a larger surface area. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small
amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown
voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.[10] The non-
conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical
insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor
depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-
contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric
field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces,[11] and the
dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one
coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.[12]

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:[10]

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors
attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for
a given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large
capacitance.

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
LED:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a basic pn-

junction diode, which emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the
leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be used
to shape its radiation pattern.

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity
infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control
circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first
visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available
across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small
incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-
segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting. LEDs
have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting
diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, and camera flashes. However, LEDs powerful
enough for room lighting are still relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat
management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.

On October 7, 2014, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi
Amano and Shuji Nakamura for "the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which has
enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources" or, less formally, LED lamps.
Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials.

The following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and
material:

Voltage
Color Wavelength [nm] Semiconductor material
drop [ΔV]

Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Infrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.63
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
1.63 < ΔV <
Red 610 < λ < 760 Aluminium gallium indium
2.03
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

2.03 < ΔV < Aluminium gallium indium
Orange 590 < λ < 610
2.10 phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

2.10 < ΔV < Aluminium gallium indium
Yellow 570 < λ < 590
2.18 phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Green 500 < λ < 570 Traditional green:

1.9[72] < ΔV <
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
 4.0 Aluminium gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Pure green:
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III)
nitride (GaN)

Zinc selenide (ZnSe)

2.48 < ΔV < Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Blue 450 < λ < 500
3.7 Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate—under development

2.76 < ΔV <

Violet 400 < λ < 450 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
4.0

Dual blue/red LEDs,

2.48 < ΔV <
Purple Multiple types blue with red phosphor,
3.7
or white with purple plastic

Diamond (235 nm)[73]

Boron nitride (215 nm)[74][75]
Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[76]
Ultraviolet λ < 400 3.1 < ΔV < 4.4
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium
nitride (AlGaInN)—down to 210 nm[77]

Pink Multiple types ΔV ~ 3.3[78] Blue with one or two phosphor layers:
yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor added
 afterwards,
or white phosphors with pink pigment or dye
over top.[79]

White Broad spectrum ΔV = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

COMPONENT COSTING:

COMPONENT SPECIFICATION COST/ITEM

TRANSFORMER 12-0-12V 2A 200/-
RESISTOR 2.2K,10K,470K,100E 1/-
CAPACITOR 1000uF, 100uF, 33pF 5/-
DIODE IN4007 2/-
LED 3mm 5/-
SWITCH PUSH TO ON 10/-
CRYSTAL 4MHz 12/-
MICROCONTROLLER ATMEGA88PA 350/-
REGULATOR LM7805 15/-
LCD 16X2 250/-
TRANSISTOR BC547 5/-
BUZZER 50/-
FIRE SENSOR 350/
OBSTACLE SENSOR TSOP1738 500/-
LAMP 50
DC FAN 250/-
 PCB DESIGNING:

For a certain number of projects, including first-prototype, surface mount 'breadboarding',

layout experimentation, rapid multiple-revisions, and 1-hour deadlines doing your own PCB
etching can be quick, clean, and very very inexpensive. The method set up in the Media Lab
basement is somewhat-similar to that of large pcb manufacture shops, except in scale and
automation. There is no system for through-hole plating, automated drilling/routing or multilayer
design. However, you can make precisely aligned doublesided boards with simple registration
techniques.

When To Use

A tool is only good towards the application it was designed for. Using the etcher for something
other than what its good for will frustrate you and waste time.

When using the spray etcher is a good idea:

 You need the boards quickly

 The substrate is 1/16" with 1oz or 2oz copper either FR4 or paper
phenolic (preferred)
 The design is single sided
 There are many surface mount parts
 The design is double sided, with no hidden vias (vias underneath surface
mount parts) or through-hole part vias (vias that also serve as through-
hole component holes) that you cannot solder on both sides
 You can visually scan for shorts
 The design follows a 12/12 mil rule (this is probably not true, I'm sure
10/10 or even 8/8 is fine, but yield will drop) That is, 12mil minimum
trace width, and 12mil minimum trace distance.
 You only need a few boards, or are willing to live with a yield as low as
50%
 Drill hole locations can be imprecise (up to 10 mils off!)
Conversely, when using the spray etcher is a bad idea:

 You dislike wet chemistry/cleaning

 Are using exotic substrates
 There are many vias, or throughhole parts, and you dont want to drill
holes/solder vias.
 You want the boards to be perfect without checking for shorts or opens
 You need printed overlays, multiple layers, through hole plating or solder
masks.
 You want many parts. Remember that for $200 you can just about get as
many boards as your heart desires, and from a reputable PCB
manufacturer.

Getting the Layout Ready

In this step you will prepare your layout for etching. For this step you will need: a quality laser
printer, a sheet of transluscent paper.

The photoresist method we use in PCB etching is a positive process, which means that when UV
light hits the resist, it softens, and then is washed away. What remains is a positive of the PCB
design. What this boils down to is that you will want a positive printout of your PCB design
(black where there will be copper). Preferably mirrored. Most all PCB design tools let you print
out your layout mirrored. Or you can mirror your entire design in the software. Whichever. Also,
if possible, have it print white holes where you will drill, these will be your drill guides. Because
the drill holes will not be precise, make your annular rings (the copper around a drill hole) larger
than normal. Since you will lose as many as half of the design to exposure/development/etching
flaws, tile 2-3 times layouts as many as you want.

In Eagle: After your design is ready, go to the CAM Processor, and open the "layout2.cam" job.
As output select PS. Change the extention to ".ps" as well. Be sure that Mirror is selected but
that Fill Pads is not. Then open the ps with any free postscript viewer and print it. (Also you
could print it to "Gerber274x" and use a gerber viewer, or any other format you can print.)

After you have verified the above, print your design to a high quality (600dpi at least) laser
printer, in monochrome mode, onto a white piece of paper. Double check that it is as you want it,
in the correct orientation, enough tiling, mirrored, dark ink, slightly smaller than the PCB you
have, etc. Now print it onto translucent paper, there is a box of it in the cabinet underneath the
etcher, in a thin cardboard sleeve.

etcher, in a thin cardboard sleeve.

This photo has notes. Move your mouse over the photo to see them.

Left, plain paper test. Right, translucent paper. Both are mirrored.

In this picture, I have two layouts I want to etch. I tiled one three times and one twice. The one I
tiled three times has a very fine pitch IC (TSSOP-16) so it is less likely to come out. On the left
is opaque laser print. On the right, translucent paper. Note that the design (noticably the text) is
mirrored.
Exposing the Board

This step transfers your layout design to a positive-resist PCB by exposing UV light to the
sensitized PCB with the printout as a mask. For this step you will need: a presensitized positive
photoresist copper clad board, scissors, tape, a UV bulb and thin plate glass or exposure unit.
This step takes 5-10 minutes.

First cut out the layout leaving a few millimeters of space on the edges. If you are going to
perform the exposing and etching in the same session, go ahead and turn the etching machine on
now, since it takes 10 minutes to warm up.

Cut the translucent paper, leaving at least a few mm boarder

Next, locate an unused PCB. There is a bag of them in the cabinet underneath the etcher. You
may need to cut a larger board down using a metal shear. Using a larger PCB than necessary is
wasteful, and exhausts the chemicals faster than a board that is well-fit. You can also purchase
your own stash of PCB material in many different substrates, thicknesses, etc. and, of course,
that is encouraged. (See "Where to Purchase Supplies, at bottom")
The best PCBs are those that have a plastic sticky sheet protecting them (some are just sold in a
plastic bag) so that they can be handled, drilled and sheared without excess UV exposure. The
plastic is easy to peel off:

The underlying substrate should be a greenish colour

Place your design on top of the exposed resist, ink-side down, so that it appears not-mirrored
when you look through the paper at the board. Placing the ink closest to the resist means less
light can leak around and cut into thin traces. Next, tape down the design on two edges, so that
the tape does not overlap any of the layout, but holds the paper flat.
Use any plain tape to tape down two opposite sides without overlapping the layout

now take it to be exposed under a UV lamp. As an arbitrary measure, a 15W Sylvania "350
Blacklight" UV 24" flourescent bulb, 3" above a FOTOBOARD2-brand board, with a 1/8" clear
glass plate (to keep the paper totally flat) over the board, 10 minutes will give good exposure.
[When a more permanent fixture is found, it will be calibrated.]

After it has been exposed, peel off one piece of tape and flip it open, to look at the photoresist.
Well exposed photoresist is a paler green, and you will be able to see the layout in the original,
yellower green, faintly. If you don't see anything, retape that side, and try a few more minutes
under the lamp.
The unexposed part is faintly visible, on the right side.

Once you think you're done exposing, lift off the design and put it away in case you want to
make another set of boards. You are ready to perform the chemical processing. If you need to do
this part later, or you have other boards to expose, place this board in an opaque container (like
in an envelope, face down, in a drawer or some such.)

Developing the Board

In this step, the exposed photoresist is removed chemically using developer, leaving a positive of
your layout in photoresist on copper. For this step you will need: gloves, apron, sink, dev tray,
developer, small soft sponge. This step takes 3 minutes.

Take the board over to your processing area. Put on the apron and a pair of 'rubber gloves'. These
wet chemicals can splash, some stain, and they are not good to drink. Find the dev tray and the
bottle of developer, (both marked DEV) and make sure the tray is clean. There is one set of large
trays (for > 5x7") and one small set, use the ones that fits best. Place the board face up in the tray
and pour developer in until there is about 1/4" (or enough to cover) in the tray.
Carefully pour into a tray. The developer is green from use, it starts out clear

Almost immediately the board will start to 'leak' resist as it is attacked by developer. Agitate the
board with your hand, and swirl the developer around to make sure there is a flow around the
board. It should be developed in 1/2 to 1 minute. If you leave it in too long, some of the finer
traces wont come out. Leaving it in too little means that there will be a very thin, invisible, layer
of resist left that will stop the etching process and force you to repeat this step. Use a soft sponge
to wipe the photoresist away.
Before rinsing, rub down the board with a soft cloth or sponge soaked in developer

Rinse the board in cold water to clean off the developer (stop bath), the parts that are to be etched
should look like completely clean copper, no residue. If you feel a slimy/slippery coating, or see
a bluish coating, you need to develop more. If none of the resist came off, you'll need to realign
your paper and re-expose the board. Pour the developer back into the bottle, and rinse off the
tray. The board is now ready to etch.

A well developed board has solid green traces and a clean copper background

First Rinse

In this step, the board is spray rinsed to prepare it for etching. This step takes 2 minutes.

First check to see that the machine is on. If not, turn the machine on.
The Rota-Spray machine, the wash tank is on the left, the etching tank on the right.
The on button is in the top left corner.

Once on, the left LED display should display "oC" and then something like "23" which means
the etchant is at 23degC. Now load the board into the board holding apparatus, placing it near the
center, and securing the plastic nuts. Make sure the board won’t fall out and into the tank.
The board holder can hold many small boards, but make sure they cant fall out

Slide the board holder, with the copper facing right, into the wash tank. Attach the water hose
(black, with white plastic spring-end) to the sink faucent, and turn on the cold water.
The connector is a little difficult to use, requiring that you simultaneously push down on the ring
while pressing the brass fitting into the faucet head. Two handed might be easier at first.

Turn on the wash spray to clean off the board. You can move the holder up and down to make
sure the board is sprayed off.

Make sure the water drains cleanly into the sink. This is the older setup, in the current lab there
should be a PVC drainage pipe into the large sink so there shouldnt be any drain problems

Etching the Board

In this step, the board is placed in an etcher, which is a machine that washes warm ferric chloride
(or another etchant) over the board, eating away any exposed copper. For this step you will need
to make sure the etchant is warm enough to use. This step takes 2minutes.

Move the holder into the etching tank, again facing to the right. Check that the temperature
monitor reports 42-45 degrees C, and that the fluid well feels warm. also make sure the top is
secured so that there is very little chance FeCl will spray out the top. By default the timer is set
for 1:30 minutes, which I've found satisfactory. You can also change the time if necessary (for
different weights of copper). Turn on the spray pump by pressing start. The entire tank will turn
reddish brown as the etchant removes the copper from your board. After the time is up, remove
the holder and quickly put it in the wash tank again. Be careful as there will be a lot of FeCl
dripping off the holder and you dont want it going anywhere but in the machine or the sink.

The board is very messy at this point, so do the move quickly and carefuly

Second Rinse

Turn on the wash spray again, moving the holder around so that the entire board and holder are
completely cleaned off. After the water runs clean, remove the board and examine it. There may
be parts that didn't etch, or overetched. Depending on your patience and yield, you may decide to
re-etch a subset of your boards.
There are some traces of unetched copper on the right. Since I only needed one PCB, I just threw
it away.

Examine all the boards carefully to determine which ones have shorts/opens/missing traces/etc,
and which ones are good for use. Shut off the water faucet, run the spray to clean out the hose,
turn off the machine and disconnect the hose from the faucet.

Strip

In this step, the remaining photoresist is stripped away, leaving only copper. For this step you
will need chemical stripper and/or a scrub pad. This step takes 2 minutes.

Place the board face up in the STRIP tray, and coat it with resist stripper. This may be in a bottle
or in a 'shoepolish' dispenser. Rub in the chemical first with the soft sponge, then with with a
plastic scrub pad. The green resist should come off, revealing copper underneath. Make sure -all-
of the resist is removed, as it smells very bad when it gets hot (when soldering.) If there is no
stripper, you can just scrub it off with a green scrub pad. If the stripper came from a bottle, pour
it back in. Rinse off the board and tray.
You can easily remove the resist with just a green scouring pad

Tinning

This step is optional but is very helpful for soldering to your board. For this step you will need:
tinning liquid mix. This step takes 2-10 minutes.

Find the bottle of tinning liquid, and the TIN tray. Place the board in the tray copper up, and pour
in enough tinning liquid to cover the board, the copper should immediately turn a silvery color. If
you intend to reflow solder, you may want to leave it for 15 minutes, otherwise, 3-5 is probably
fine. Use this time to clean up the area around the etcher, rinse off surfaces and clean and dry any
trays. When the board is done, remove and rinse it. Pour the tinning liquid back into the bottle
and clean the tray. Throw away the gloves, and put the apron back. Make sure the area looks
better than it did when you got there.
The exposed copper will turn silver almost immediately, tin will aid soldering and stop oxidation

Drilling

In this step, any holes or vias in the PCB are drilled out. For this step you will need: a drill press
that can run at 2000+ RPM, high-speed carbide wire-gauge drill bits. This step takes 3-10
minutes, depending on number of holes in pcb.

If your PCB is FR4 laminate, you may want to find a dust mask for this step, since fiberglass
dust is carcinogenic. Chances are, you're using paper phenolic which is much safer. There is a
box of HSS carbide drill bits in a box underneath the etcher, they are packaged in plastic boxes
of 10. Find the boxes of closest size to your board holes. In general, .020"/75ga is good for RF
vias, .028"/70ga is good for signal vias, .035"/65ga is good for DIP/LEDs/Resistors/Capacitors,
etc., .042"/58ga is good for TO-220/heavier diodes/etc., .060"/53ga for heavier wires and power
components, and .086"/44ga for mounting holes or anything else. Other drill sizes are available
for purchase, of course.
Left, these are inexpensive resharpened drill bits $7.50 a box. Right, 70 gauge is as small as
you'll need

Place the first drill bit in the chuck, and tighten it well. Find a piece of wood to place underneath
the board for support. While the drill is running, adjust the speed to 2000RPM or higher.

The drill press in the media lab shop is more than sufficient, adjust it only while running

Drill all holes of one size at a time. Try to position the drill bit right in the center of the hole, or
at least, try not to drill through any copper traces. The drill bits might break, especially if they
sub-35mil. Holding the board steady while drilling through it helps. The bits only cost 75 cents
so just throw them away when broken, but if you break more than 5, you should purchase a
replacement set.
You can drill a hole a second if you dont clamp down the board, but breakage is more likely

After all the drilling, replace the bits in their boxes, and put the box back underneath the etcher.

Shearing

In this step, the tiled layouts are seperated. For this step you will need a metal shear (this step
could also be done with a band saw.) This step takes 2 minutes.

Shear or cut the good boards out, leaving a few mm on each edge. The edges may be filed or
sanded.
A metal shear, such as the one outside the shop, is good for this. Go slowly and use the middle.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES & APPLICATION,

􀂾 Advantages:-

1. Low cost

2. Easy to use

3. Implement in single door

􀂾 Disadvantages:-

1. It is used only when one single person cuts the rays of the sensor hence it cannot be used when
two person cross simultaneously.

• Application:-

1. For counting purposes

2. For automatic room light control

CONCLUSIONS

In this digital world Technology is very advanced and we prefer things to be done
automatically without any human efforts. This project also helps to reduce human efforts. Also it
is very useful to conserve resources. It is very useful in Schools, hospitals, malls, offices,
auditoriums etc. In any big hall if we want to count number of individuals it is very difficult as it
results in congestion and disturbance to the whole Class. This project becomes helping hand in
such situation because it gives the count on LCD display. Also it controls the lighting system
automatically according to how many individuals are there in a room.

Turning ON of lights will increase with increasing the individuals in a room.

Turning ON of lights will decrease with decreasing the individuals in a room.

FUTURE EXPANSION:

By modifying this circuit and using two relays we can achieve a task of opening and
closing the door.
Reference

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[2] Rahul Ranjan Singh, Deepak Rasaily, Rishu Kumar ―Wireless Control Robot movement
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