ASSIGNMENT #1

OPERATING SYSTEM

Muhammad Annas Zulfiqar

BS Computer Science - 2B
CSC-17S-084

Submitted to:
Ma’am Saima Sipy Nangraj
ASSIGNMENT #1 SUMMARY
Book: Operating System Concepts (9th Ed) – C h a p t e r # 1

Computer-System Architecture:
There are number of ways through which we can categorized computer System. We can classify it roughly
according to the number of general-purpose processors used. Briefly we can say Different Operating
System for different kind of Computer.

Single-Processor System: Single processor is the most common processing system many people use
it. one main CPU capable of executing a general-purpose instruction set.
 One main CPU which handles the computer and runs user apps.
 Other specialized processors (disk controllers, GPUs, etc.) do not run user apps.
 It is suitable for general purpose computers, as it cannot run multiple processes in parallel.
 If there is only one general-purpose CPU, then the system is a single-processor system.

Multi-Processor Systems: Multiple processor system also known as Parallel System or Highly
coupled system. Multi-Processor System have 2 or more processors with a single computer system. These
multiple CPUs are in a close communication sharing the computer bus, memory and other peripheral
devices.

1. Increased throughput - Faster execution, but not 100% linear speedup.

2. Economy of scale - Peripherals, disks, memory, shared among processors.
3. Increased reliability
 Failure of a CPU slows system, doesn't crash it.
 Redundant processing provides system of checks and balances.

Clustered Systems: Another type of multiple-CPU system is the clustered system. Like multiprocessor
systems, clustered systems gather together multiple CPUs to accomplish computational work
 Independent systems, with shared common storage and connected by a high-speed LAN,
working together.
 Special considerations for access to shared storage are required, (Distributed lock
management), as are collaboration protocols.
 Operating-System Structure
An operating system provides the environment within which programs are executed. One of the most
important aspects of operating systems is the ability to multiprogram.
Multi-tasking, commonly known as Time Sharing is a logical extension of Multi programming. A Multi-
Taskin or Time-sharing operating system requires following things:

 Memory management: The Time-sharing operating system keeps several jobs in memory
simultaneously.

 Process management: A program loaded into memory and executing is called a process
management.

 Job scheduling: A time-shared operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming
to provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared computer

 Swap space / virtual memory in physical memory: In a time-sharing system, the operating
system must ensure reasonable response time, which is sometimes accomplished through
swapping

 Interrupt handling File system management: A Time-sharing OS interrupt handling file system
management.

 Protection and security: Time-Sharing Operating system do protection and security of your
data

 Inter-Process Communications: Time sharing requires an interactive (or hands-on) computer

system, which provides direct communication between the user and the system.

Operating-System Operations
Modern operating systems are interrupt driven. They perform certain type of operations when any event
occurs and even they generate trap. A trap is a software generated error caused by an error. Without
protection against these sorts of errors, either the computer must execute only one process at a time or
all output must be suspect. A properly designed operating system must ensure that an incorrect (or
malicious) program cannot cause other programs to execute incorrectly.

Dual Mode & Multimode Operations: There are two modes of operation:
 User Mode: User mode when executing harmless code in user applications. When the
computer system is executing on behalf of a user application, the system is in user mode

 Kernel Mode: Kernel mode (as known as system mode, supervisor mode, privileged mode)
when executing potentially dangerous code in the system kernel.
 Timer: We must ensure that the operating system maintains control over the CPU. We cannot allow
a user program to get stuck in an infinite loop or to fail to call system services and never return
control to the operating system. To accomplish this goal, we can use a timer.

 Before the kernel begins executing user code, a timer is set to generate an interrupt.
 The timer interrupt handler reverts control back to the kernel.
 This assures that no user process can take over the system. Timer control is a privileged
instruction, (requiring kernel mode.)

Storage Management
To make the computer system convenient for users, the operating system provides a uniform, logical view
of information storage.

Storage Management:
An OS is responsible for the following tasks with regards to filesystem management:

 Creating and deleting files and directories

 Supporting primitives for manipulating files and directories. (open, flush, etc.)
 Mapping files onto secondary storage.
 Backing up files onto stable permanent storage media.

Mass Storage Management:

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with disk management:
 Free-space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling

Caching:
Caching is an important principle of computer systems. Information is normally kept in some storage
system (such as main memory). As it is used, it is copied into a faster storage system— the cache—on a
temporary basis.

 There are many cases in which a smaller higher-speed storage space serves as a cache, or temporary
storage, for some of the most frequently needed portions of larger slower storage areas.
 The hierarchy of memory storage ranges from CPU registers to hard drives and external storage
 The OS is responsible for determining what information to store in what level of cache, and when to
transfer data from one level to another.
 The proper choice of cache management can have a profound impact on system performance.
I/O Systems:
One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from
the user.
The I/O subsystem consists of several components:
 A memory-management component that includes buffering, caching, and spooling
 A general device-driver interface
 Drivers for specific hardware devices

Protection & Security

Protection involves ensuring that no process access or interfere with resources to which they are not
entitled, either by design or by accident. (e.g. "protection faults" when pointer variables are misused)

Security involves protecting the system from deliberate attacks, either from legitimate users of the system
attempting to gain unauthorized access and privileges, or external attackers attempting to access or
damage the system.

Computing Environments
Traditional Computing:
 As computing matures, the lines separating many of the traditional computing environments are
blurring.
 At home, most users had a single computer with a slow modem connection to the office, the Internet,
or both.
 At that time of Traditional Computing, PCs connect to a network, with servers providing file and print
services.
 The current trend is toward providing more ways to access these computing environments
 Today, traditional time-sharing systems are uncommon.

Mobile Computing:
 Computing on small handheld devices such as smart phones or tablets.
 May take advantage of additional built-in sensors, such as GPS, tilt, compass, and inertial movement.
 Typically connect to the Internet using wireless networking or cellular telephone technology.
 Limited in storage capacity, memory capacity, and computing power relative to a PC.
 Generally, uses slower processors, that consume less battery power and produce less heat.
 The two dominant OSes today are Google Android and Apple iOS

Client-Server Computing
 A defined server provides services (HW or SW) to other systems which serve as clients.
 A process may act as both client and server of either the same or different resources.
 Served resources may include disk space, CPU cycles, time of day, IP name information, graphical
displays (X Servers), or other resources.

Peer-to-Peer Computing
 Any computer or process on the network may provide services to any other which requests it. There
is no clear "leader" or overall organization.
 May employ a central "directory" server for looking up the location of resources or may use peer-to-
peer searching to find resources E.g. Skype uses a central server to locate a desired peer, and then
further communication is peer to peer.

Web Based Computing

 The Web has become ubiquitous, leading to more access by a wider variety of devices than was
dreamt of a few years ago.
 Web computing has increased the emphasis on networking.
 The implementation of Web-based computing has given rise to new categories of devices, such as
load balancers
 Operating systems like Windows 95, which acted as Web clients, have evolved into Linux and
Windows XP and beyond, which can act as Web servers as well as clients.