Euler’s formula and hyperbolic functions

At first glance, it doesn’t make sense that an exponent can be an imaginary number, since
multiplying something an imaginary number times doesn’t really make sense. Nevertheless,
we can use Taylor series to calculate one. So, let’s calculate eiθ using Taylor expansion.
(iθ)2 (iθ)3 (iθ)4 (iθ)5 (iθ)6
eiθ = 1 + iθ + + + + + ···
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5 θ6
= 1 + iθ − −i + +i − ···
2! 3! 4!  5!  6!
2 4 6
θ3 θ5
 
θ θ θ
= 1− + − + ··· + i θ − + − ···
2! 4! 6! 3! 5!
Therefore, we conclude:
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ (1)

This is Euler’s formula.

Problem 1. Express cos θ and sin θ in terms of eiθ and e−iθ

Problem 2. Thereby, obtain the values for cos i and sin i.

Problem 3. Using Euler’s formula, show that ln(−1) = iπ. A careful reader may notice
that ln(−1) can be other values as well such as −iπ or 3π. Nevertheless, we can single out one
of them, in a similar manner as we can give unique values to inverse trigonometric functions,
even though trigonometric functions can give the same value for different inputs.
Problem 4. Hyperbolic cosine function (pronounced as “cosh”), hyperbolic sine func-
tion (pronounced as “sinch”), and hyperbolic tangent function (pronounced as “tanch”) are
defined as follows:
ex + e−x ex − e−x sinh x
cosh x = , sinh x = , tanh x = (2)
2 2 cosh x
Given these, show the followings:

cosh ix = cos x, sinh ix = i sin x, cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1 (3)

sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y (4)

cosh(x + y) =
cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y (5)
tanh x + tanh y
tanh(x + y) = (6)
1 + tanh x tanh y