Gutenberg is also credited with the introduction of an oil-based ink which was more
durable than the previously used water-based inks. As printing material he used both
paper and vellum (high-quality parchment).
In the Gutenberg Bible, Gutenberg made a trial of colored printing for a few of the
page headings, present only in some copies. A later work, the Mainz Psalter of 1453,
presumably designed by Gutenberg but published under the imprint of his
successors Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer, had elaborate red and blue printed
initials.
Because the printing process ensured that the same information fell on the same
pages, page numbering, tables of contents, and indices became common, though
they previously had not been unknown. The process of reading also changed,
gradually moving over several centuries from oral readings to silent, private
reading] The wider availability of printed materials also led to a drastic rise in the
adult literacy rate throughout Europe The printing press was an important step
towards the democratization of knowledge. Within fifty or sixty years of the invention
of the printing press, the entire classical canon had been reprinted and widely
promulgated throughout Europe (Eisenstein, 1969; 52). Now that more people had
access to knowledge both new and old, more people could discuss these works.
Furthermore, now that book production was a more commercial enterprise, the
first copyright laws[were passed to protect what we now would call intellectual
property rights[By the late 1930s or early 1940s, printing presses had increased
substantially in efficiency: a model by Platen Printing Press was capable of
performing 2,500 to 3,000 impressions per hour.
The oldest consumer magazine still in print is The Scots Magazine, which was first
published in 1739, though multiple changes in ownership and gaps in publication
totaling over 90 years weaken that claim. Lloyd's List was founded in Edward Lloyd’s
England coffee shop in 1734; it is still published as a daily business newspaper.
The various elements that contribute to the production of magazines vary widely.
Core elements such as publishing schedules, formats and target audiences are
seemingly infinitely variable. Typically, magazines which focus primarily on current
events, such as Newsweek or Entertainment Weekly, are published weekly or
biweekly.
Most magazines are available in the whole of the country in which they are
published, although some are distributed only in specific regions or cities. Others are
available internationally, often in different editions for each country or area of the
world, varying to some degree in editorial and advertising content but not entirely
dissimilar.
FILMS
With the development of celluloid film for still photography, it became possible to
directly capture objects in motion in real time. An 1878 experiment by English
photographer Eadweard Muybridge in the United States using 24 cameras produced
a series of stereoscopic images of a galloping horse, is arguably the first "motion
picture," though it was not called by this name.[5] This technology required a person
to look into a viewing machine to see the pictures which were separate paper prints
attached to a drum turned by a handcrank. The pictures were shown at a variable
speed of about 5 to 10 pictures per second, depending on how rapidly the crank was
turned. Commercial versions of these machines were coin operated.
By the 1880s the development of the motion picture camera allowed the
individual component images to be captured and stored on a single reel, and
led quickly to the development of a motion picture projector to shine light through the
processed and printed film and magnify these "moving picture shows" onto a screen
for an entire audience. These reels, so exhibited, came to be known as "motion
pictures". Early motion pictures were static shots that showed an event or action with
no editing or other cinematic techniques.
The rise of European cinema was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I when
the film industry in United States flourished with the rise of Hollywood, typified most
prominently by the great innovative work of D.W. Griffith in The Birth of a
Nation (1914) and Intolerance (1916) . However in the 1920s, European filmmakers
such as Sergei Eisenstein, F. W. Murnau, and Fritz Lang,in many ways inspired by
the meteoric war-time progress of film through Griffith, along with the contributions
of Charles Chaplin, Buster Keaton and others, quickly caught up with American film-
making and continued to further advance the medium. In the 1920s, new technology
allowed filmmakers to attach to each film a soundtrack of speech, music and sound
effects synchronized with the action on the screen. These sound films were initially
distinguished by calling them "talking pictures", or talkies.
The next major step in the development of cinema was the introduction of so-called
"natural" color. While the addition of sound quickly eclipsed silent film and theater
musicians, color was adopted more gradually as methods evolved making it more
practical and cost effective to produce "natural color" films. The public was relatively
indifferent to color photography as opposed to black-and-white,[citation needed] but as
color processes improved and became as affordable as black-and-white film, more
and more movies were filmed in color after the end of World War II, as the industry in
America came to view color as essential to attracting audiences in its competition
with television, which remained a black-and-white medium until the mid-1960s. By
the end of the 1960s, color had become the norm for film makers.
Since the decline of the studio system in the 1960s, the succeeding decades saw
changes in the production and style of film. Various New Wave movements
(including the French New Wave, Indian New Wave, Japanese New Wave and New
Hollywood) and the rise of film school educated independent filmmakers were all part
of the changes the medium experienced in the latter half of the 20th century. Digital
technology has been the driving force in change throughout the 1990s and into the
2000s.
FILMS IN INDIA
During the early twentieth century cinema as a medium gained popularity across
India's population and its many economic sections.[11] Tickets were made affordable
to the common man at a low price and for the financially capable additional comforts
meant additional admission ticket price.[11]Audiences thronged to cinema halls as this
affordable medium of entertainment was available for as low as an anna (4 paisa) in
Bombay.[11] The content of Indian commercial cinema was increasingly tailored to
appeal to these masses.[11] Young Indian producers began to incorporate elements
of India's social life and culture into cinema.[14] Others brought with them ideas from
across the world.[14] This was also the time when global audiences and markets
became aware of India's film industry.[14]
Ardeshir Irani released Alam Ara, the first Indian talking film, on 14 March
1931.] Following the inception of 'talkies' in India some film stars were highly sought
after and earned comfortable incomes through acting.[13] As sound technology
advanced the 1930s saw the rise of music in Indian cinema with musicals such
as Indra Sabha and Devi Devyani marking the beginning of song-and-dance in
India's films.[13] Studios emerged across major cities such as Chennai, Kolkata, and
Mumbai as film making became an established craft by 1935, exemplified by the
success of Devdas, which had managed to enthrall audiences nationwide.
[15]
Bombay Talkiescame up in 1934 and Prabhat Studios in Pune had begun
production of films meant for the Marathi language audience.[15] Filmmaker R. S. D.
Choudhury produced Wrath (1930), banned by theBritish Raj in India as it depicted
actors as Indian leaders, an expression censored during the days of the Indian
independence movement.[13]
The Indian Masala film—a slang used for commercial films with song, dance,
romance etc.—came up following the second world war.[15] South Indian cinema
gained prominence throughout India with the release of S.S. Vasan's Chandralekha.
[15]
During the 1940s cinema in South Indiaaccounted for nearly half of India's cinema
halls and cinema came to be viewed as an instrument of cultural revival.
[15]
The partition of India following its independence divided the nation's assets and a
number of studios went to the newly formed Pakistan.[15] The strife of partition would
become an enduring subject for film making during the decades that followed.[15]
Following independence the cinema of India was inquired by the S.K. Patil
Commission.[16] S.K. Patil, head of the commission, viewed cinema in India as a
'combination of art, industry, and showmanship' while noting its commercial value.
[16]
Patil further recommended setting up of a Film Finance Corporation under
the Ministry of Finance.[17] This advice was later taken up in 1960 and the institution
came into being to provide financial support to talented filmmakers throughout India.
[17]
The Indian government had established a Films Division by 1949 which eventually
became one of the largest documentary film producers in the world with an annual
production of over 200 short documentaries, each released in 18 languages with
9000 prints for permanent film theaters across the country.[
Radio
Radio is the transmission of signals by modulation of electromagnetic
waves with frequenciesbelow those of visible light.[1] Electromagnetic
radiation travels by means of oscillatingelectromagnetic fields that pass through the
air and the vacuum of space. Information is carried by systematically changing
(modulating) some property of the radiated waves, such
asamplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width. When radio waves pass an electrical
conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. This
can be detected and transformed into sound or other signals that carry information.
Invention
The meaning and usage of the word "radio" has developed in parallel with
developments within the field and can be seen to have three distinct phases:
electromagnetic waves and experimentation; wireless communication and technical
development; and radio broadcasting and commercialization. Many individuals—
inventors, engineers, developers, businessmen - contributed to produce the modern
idea of radio and thus the origins and 'invention' are multiple and controversial. Early
radio could not transmit sound or speech and was called the "wireless telegraph".
Experiments, later patented, were undertaken by Thomas Edison and his employees
of Menlo Park.[3] Edison applied in 1885 to the U.S. Patent Office for his patent on
an electrostatic coupling system between elevated terminals. The patent was
granted as U.S. Patent 465,971 on December 29, 1891. The Marconi
Company would later purchase rights to the Edison patent to protect them legally
from lawsuits.[4]
In 1893, in St. Louis, Missouri, Nikola Tesla made devices for his experiments
with electricity. Addressing the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia and
the National Electric Light Association, he described and demonstrated the
principles of his wireless work. The descriptions contained all the elements that
were later incorporated into radio systems before the development of the vacuum
tube He initially experimented with magnetic receivers, unlike the coherers (detecting
devices consisting of tubes filled with iron filings which had been invented
by Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti atFermo in Italy in 1884) used by Guglielmo
Marconi and other early experimenters. A demonstration of wireless telegraphy took
place in the lecture theater of the Oxford University Museum of Natural History on
August 14, 1894, carried out by Professor Oliver Lodge and Alexander Muirhead.
During the demonstration a radio signal was sent from the neighboring Clarendon
laboratory building, and received by apparatus in the lecture theater.
In 1895 Alexander Stepanovich Popov built his first radio receiver, which contained
acoherer. Further refined as a lightning detector, it was presented to the Russian
Physical and Chemical Society on May 7, 1895. A depiction of Popov's lightning
detector was printed in the Journal of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society the
same year. Popov's receiver was created on the improved basis of Lodge's receiver,
and originally intended for reproduction of its experiments.
Telephone
A different device, the tin can telephone, or 'lover's phone', has also been known for
centuries. It connected two diaphragms with a taut string or wire which transmitted
sound by mechanical vibrations from one to the other along the wire, and not by
amodulated electrical current. The classic example is the children's toy made by
connecting the bottoms of two paper cups, metal cans, or plastic bottles with string.
Electrical devices
The telephone emerged from the creation of, and successive improvements to
the electrical telegraph. In 1804 Catalan polymath and scientist Francisco Salvá i
Campillo constructed an electrochemical telegraph.[1] An electromagnetic
telegraph was created byBaron Schilling in 1832. Carl Friedrich Gauß and Wilhelm
Weber built another electromagnetic telegraph in 1833 in Göttingen.
The first commercial electrical telegraph was constructed by Sir William Fothergill
Cooke and entered use on the Great Western Railway in Britain. It ran for 13 miles
from Paddington station to West Drayton and came into operation on April 9, 1839.
Credit for the invention of the electric telephone is frequently disputed, and
new controversies over the issue have arisen from time-to-time. Charles
Bourseul, Antonio Meucci, Johann Philipp Reis, Alexander Graham Bell,
and Elisha Gray, amongst others, have all been credited with the
telephone'sinvention. The early history of the telephone became and still remains a
confusing morass of claims and counterclaims, which were not clarified by the huge
mass of lawsuits to resolve the patent claims of many individuals and commercial
competitors. The Bell and Edison patents, however, were forensically victorious and
commercially decisive.
The Elisha Gray and Alexander Bell controversy considers the question of whether
Bell and Gray invented the telephone independently and, if not, whether Bell stole
the invention from Gray. This controversy is more narrow than the broader question
of who deserves credit for inventing the telephone, for which there are several
claimants.The Canadian Parliamentary Motion on Alexander Graham Bell article
reviews the controversial June 2002 United States congressional resolution recognizing
Meucci's contributions 'in' the invention of the telephone
Television
Television in India
1980s Indian small screen programming started off in the early 1980s.
At that time there was only one national channel Doordarshan, which
was government owned. The Ramayana and Mahabharata (both being
Hindu mythological stories based on religious scriptures of the same
names) were the first major television series produced. This serial
notched up the world record in viewership numbers for a single
program. By the late 1980s more and more people started to own
television sets. Though there was a single channel, television
programming had reached saturation. Hence the government opened
up another channel which had part national programming and part
regional. This channel was known as DD 2 later DD Metro. Both
channels were broadcast terrestrially.
The Internet
The concept of data communication - transmitting data between two
different places, connected via some kind of electromagnetic medium,
such as radio or an electrical wire - actually predates the introduction of
the first computers. Such communication systems were typically limited
to point to point communication between two end devices. Telegraph
systems and telex machines can be considered early precursors of this
kind of communication. The earlier computers used the technology
available at the time to allow communication between the central
processing unit and remote terminals. As the technology evolved new
systems were devised to allow communication over longer distances
(for terminals) or with higher speed (for interconnection of local devices)
that were necessary for the mainframe computer model. Using these
technologies it was possible to exchange data (such as files) between
remote computers. However, the point to point communication model
was limited, as it did not allow for direct communication between any
two arbitrary systems; a physical link was necessary. The technology
was also deemed as inherently unsafe for strategic and military use,
because there were no alternative paths for the communication in case
of an enemy attack.
Following commercialization and introduction of privately run Internet
service providers in the 1980s, and the Internet's expansion for popular
use in the 1990s, the Internet has had a drastic impact on culture and
commerce. This includes the rise of near instant communication by
electronic mail (e-mail), text based discussion forums, and the World
Wide Web. Investor speculation in new markets provided by these
innovations would also lead to the inflation and subsequent collapse of
the Dot-com bubble. But despite this, the Internet continues to grow,
driven by commerce, greater amounts of online information and
knowledge and social networking known as Web 2.0.
Social impact
The Internet has enabled entirely new forms of social interaction,
activities, and organizing, thanks to its basic features such as
widespread usability and access. Social networking websites such as
Facebook, Twitter and MySpace have created new ways to socialize
and interact. Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety of
information to pages, to pursue common interests, and to connect with
others. It is also possible to find existing acquaintances, to allow
communication among existing groups of people. Sites
like LinkedIn foster commercial and business connections. YouTube
and Flickr specialize in users' videos and photographs.
In the first decade of the 21st century the first generation is raised with
widespread availability of Internet connectivity, bringing consequences
and concerns in areas such as personal privacy and identity, and
distribution of copyrighted materials. These "digital natives" face a
variety of challenges that were not present for prior generations.
The Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool, leading
to Internet censorship by some states. The presidential campaign
of Howard Dean in 2004 in the United States was notable for its
success in soliciting donation via the Internet. Many political groups use
the Internet to achieve a new method of organizing in order to carry out
their mission, having given rise to Internet activism.
Many people use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and
sports reports, to plan and book vacations and to find out more about
their interests. People use chat, messaging and e-mail to make and stay
in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some
previously had pen pals. The Internet has seen a growing number
ofWeb desktops, where users can access their files and settings via the
Internet.
Cyberslacking can become a drain on corporate resources; the average
UK employee spent 57 minutes a day surfing the Web while at work,
according to a 2003 study by Peninsula Business Services.[24] Internet
addiction disorder is excessive computer use that interferes with daily
life. Some psychologists believe that Internet use has other effects on
individuals for instance interfering with the deep thinking that leads to
true creativity.[
INTERNET AND MASS MEDIA
The internet is quickly becoming the center of mass media. Everything
is becoming accessible via the internet. Instead of picking up a
newspaper, or watching the 10 o'clock news, people will log onto the
internet to get the news they want, when they want it. Many workers
listen to the radio through the internet while sitting at their desk. Games
are played through the internet.
The Internet and Education: Findings of the Pew Internet & American
Life Project[5] Even the education system relies on the internet. Teachers
can contact the entire class by sending one e-mail. They have web
pages where students can get another copy of the class outline or
assignments. Some classes even have class blogs where students
must post weekly, and are graded on their contributions. The internet
thus far has become an extremely dominant form of media.
Blogs (Web Logs)
Reference
http://en.wikipedia.org
http://www.google.co.in/
http://books.google.co.in/
name of the books –