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Welder Training Program

Level C

P4: Shielded Metal Arc Welding I (SMAW I)


Theory Competencies
Acknowledgements & Copyright Permission
The Industry Training Authority of British Columbia would like to acknowledge the Welding Articulation
Committee and Open School BC, a division of the Queen’s Printer as well as the following individuals and
organizations for their contributions in updating the Welder Training modules:

Welding Articulation Committee (WAC) Members and Consultants—“The Working Group”


Jim Carson (Welding Articulation Committee Chair), University of the Fraser Valley (writer and senior reviewer)
Peter Haigh (Welding Curriculum Review Committee Chair), Northwest Community College
(writer and senior reviewer)
Sheldon Frank, University of the Fraser Valley (writer and reviewer)
Greg Burkett, Okanagan College (writer and reviewer)
Randy Zimmerman (writer and reviewer)
John H.P. Little (reviewer)
Resource Training Organization (RTO)
BC Council on Admissions and Transfer (BCCAT)

The Queen’s Printer


The Queen’s Printer, through its Open School BC unit, provided project management and design expertise
in updating the Welder Training Level C print materials.

Open School BC
Solvig Norman, Senior Project Manager
Eleanor Liddy, Director/Advisor
Dennis Evans, Production Technician (print layout, graphics & photographs)
Christine Ramkeesoon, Graphics Media Coordinator
Keith Learmonth, Editor
Margaret Kernaghan, Graphic Artist

Publishing Services
Sherry Brown, Director of Publishing Services

Intellectual Property Program


Ilona Ugro, Copyright Officer, Ministry of Citizens’ Services, Province of British Columbia

Copyright Permission
The following suppliers have kindly provided copyright permission for selected product images:
Acklands-Grainger Inc.
The Crosby Group
J. Walter Company Ltd.
Lincoln Electric Company
NDT Systems, Inc.
Praxair, Inc.
Thermadyne Canada (Victor Equipment)
The Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
ESAB Welding & Cutting Products

Photo of welder walks the high steel at a construction site, Kenneth V. Pilon, copyright 2010. Used under
license from Shutterstock.com

A special thank you to Lou Bonin and Jim Stratford at Camosun College (Welding department) for assisting
us with additional photographs. An additional thank you to Richard Smith from England, for allowing us to
use photographs of hydrogen bubbles.
Foreword
The Industry Training Authority (ITA) is pleased to release this major update of learning
resources to support the delivery of the BC Welder Program. It was made possible by the
dedicated efforts of the Welding Articulation Committee of BC (WAC).

The WAC is a working group of welding instructors from institutions across the province
and is one of the key stakeholder groups that support and strengthen industry training
in BC. It was the driving force behind the update of the welding learning modules
supplying the specialized expertise required to incorporate technological, procedural
and industry-driven changes. The WAC plays an important role in the province’s post-
secondary public institutions as discipline specialists that share information and engage
in discussions of curriculum matters, particularly those affecting student mobility.

ITA would also like to acknowledge the Resource Training Organization (RTO) which
provides direction for improving industry training in the resource sector and which led
consultation on changes related to the BC welder training program.

We are grateful to WAC and RTO for their contributions to the ongoing development
of BC Welder Training Program Learning Resources (materials whose ownership and
copyright are maintained by the Province of British Columbia through ITA).

Industry Training Authority


August 2010

Disclaimer
The materials in these modules are for use by students and instructional staff and
have been compiled from sources believed to be reliable and to represent best current
opinions on these subjects. These manuals are intended to serve as a starting point
for good practices and may not specify all minimum legal standards. No warranty,
guarantee or representation is made by the British Columbia Welding Articulation
Committee, the British Columbia Industry Training Authority or the Queen’s Printer
of British Columbia as to the accuracy or sufficiency of the information contained in
these publications. These manuals are intended to provide basic guidelines for welding
trade practices. Do not assume, therefore, that all necessary warnings and safety
precautionary measures are contained in this module and that other or additional
measures may not be required.
P4: Shielded Metal Arc Welding I (SMAW I)
Theory Competencies

Table of Contents
Theory Competency P4-1: Shielded metal arc welding and its applications . . . . . . . . . 7
P4-1 Learning Task 1: SMAW process and its applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
P4-1 Learning Task 2: Safety requirements for SMAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Theory Competency P4-2: SMAW equipment and its operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29


P4-2 Learning Task 1: Basic principles of electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
P4-2 Learning Task 2: Types of current and their applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
P4-2 Learning Task 3: Effects of a volt-ampere curve on the welding arc . . . . . . . . . . 55
P4-2 Learning Task 4: AC and DC welding power sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
P4-2 Learning Task 5: Electrode holders, ground clamps and welding cables . . . . . . . . 77

Theory Competency P4-3: Low-carbon steel electrodes for shielded metal arc welding . . 89
P4-3 Learning Task 1: Operation of common electrodes for SMAW . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
P4-3 Learning Task 2: Classifications of low-carbon steel electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
P4-3 Learning Task 3: Select common electrodes for SMAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
P4-3 Learning Task 4: Correct handling and storage of common SMAW electrodes . . . . 121

Theory Competency P4-4: Basic weld joint design and weld positions . . . . . . . . . . . 127
P4-4 Learning Task 1: Basic weld joint design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
P4-4 Learning Task 2: Weld types, their sizes and profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
P4-4 Learning Task 3: Welding positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Theory Competency P4-5: Causes of weld faults and distortions in fabrication


and methods for prevention and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
P4-5 Learning Task 1: Basic weld faults and their causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
P4-5 Learning Task 2: Methods of distortion control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Theory Competency P4-6: Main factors of SMAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199


P4-6 Learning Task 1: Main factors of SMAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Theory Competency P4-7: Hardfacing procedures using SMAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209


P4-7 Learning Task 1: Hardfacing procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Theory Competency P4-8: Procedures for SMAW on grey cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
P4-8 Learning Task 1: Procedures for SMAW on grey cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

4 Welder Training Program — Level C


Theory Competency P4-9: Safety precautions for handling, welding
and cleaning stainless steel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
P4-9 Learning Task 1: Safety precautions for handling and welding
stainless steel alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
P4-9 Learning Task 2: Correct procedures to maintain corrosion resistance and
quality of finish when using stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
P4-9 Learning Task 3: Correct welding procedures required for welding stainless steels . . 251

Theory Competency P4-10: Guided bend tests: Preparation and testing procedures . . . 255
P4-10 Learning Task 1: Guided bend tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Answer Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

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P4-1
Theory Competency P4-1:
Shielded metal arc welding and its applications
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-1

Outcomes
This Theory Competency introduces shielded metal arc welding, or SMAW. SMAW
is a common form of welding that is used in a wide variety of applications, from
shipbuilding to pipelines. The equipment needed and techniques used are relatively
straightforward in comparison with other welding processes.

When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you will be
able to describe:

• SMAW process
• power sources for SMAW
• the steps necessary in a welding station inspection
• the dangers of electric shock in welding processes
• the safety rules for operating electric welding power sources

Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in module P4, you will take a
written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions that
are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-1:

• the safety factors, power sources and procedures used with SMAW

Resources
Required: In addition to the required resources contained within this Theory Competency,
you will need to refer to the following resources:

Occupational Health & Safety Regulation WorkSafeBC


• http://worksafebc.com

Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.

Arc welding safety


• http://content.lincolnelectric.com/pdfs/products/literature/e205.pdf
• http://www.millerwelds.com/resources/safetyresources.html

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Module P4 Theory Competency P4-1

P4-1 Learning Task 1: Notes


SMAW process and its applications
Principles of SMAW
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is commonly called “stick welding” or
“electric arc welding.” An electric arc is the bridge of light and heat that
develops when an electric current is forced to leap across a small gap in an
electrical circuit. In the SMAW process, the welding equipment is designed
to maintain this arc. The intense heat of the arc and metal transfer fuses
the metals.

The flow of electricity in an electrical circuit is comparable to the flow of


water in a pipe. Water flows from a tap because there is pressure in the pipe.
The greater the pressure, the more water will flow through the pipe. The
pressure of water in a system is measured in kilopascals (kPa) or in pounds
per square inch (psi). The flow of water is measured in cubic metres per hour
(m3/h) or in cubic feet per hour (ft.3/h).

Electricity flows through an electrical circuit because there is electrical


“pressure” created by a generator at the power source. This electrical
pressure is called “voltage” and is measured in volts (V). The flow of
electricity is called “current” and is measured in amperes (A).

To do useful work, an electrical current must flow through the conductors


in a closed electrical circuit. If for some reason this circuit is broken (or
“opened”), the flow of electricity will stop. Electrical pressure (voltage)
will continue to exist while the generator runs. As soon as the circuit is
completed (“closed”), current will resume flow.

The arc welding circuit


An arc welding circuit is an electrical circuit that the Welder can close or
open by touching the electrode to the workpiece or pulling it away.

The SMAW welding circuit consists of:

• a welding power source


• a workpiece lead (cable) and ground clamp
• an electrode lead (cable)
• a welding electrode and electrode holder
• the workpiece

When the Welder touches the electrode to the workpiece and immediately
withdraws it a short distance, the arc is struck and the electrical circuit is
completed. The current flows through the electrode, across the arc, through
the workpiece, through the ground clamp and workpiece lead and back to
the power source (Figure 1). The metal table may or may not be part of the
welding circuit, depending on the location of the ground clamp.

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Electrode holder
Notes Welding
power
source
+ Ground Electrode
clamp Workpiece

Workpiece lead
Metal work table

Electrode lead

Figure 1—Arc welding circuit

The SMAW process


When the power source for a welding circuit is turned on, but before the
arc has been struck, the circuit is “open.” At this point the voltage or the
potential in the circuit is at its maximum and is called the “open circuit
voltage.” The moment the Welder strikes the arc, the circuit is “closed,”
the voltage drops to what is called the “arc voltage,” and the current flows
through the welding circuit.

As this current crosses the arc from the electrode to the workpiece, tremendous
heat is generated—anywhere from 5500 ºC to 6600 ºC (9900 ºF to 11 900 ºF).
The heat melts the end of the electrode and the base metal in the workpiece
directly beneath the arc, forming a pool of molten metal.

As the electrode melts, small particles of molten metal are carried across the
arc stream and deposited in the molten pool on the base metal, forming the
weld deposit. This weld deposit is actually a mixture of the melted electrode
and the melted base metal.

At the same time, the force of the arc digs into the workpiece and provides
the necessary depth of penetration for the weld.

Electrodes
The electrodes used in the SMAW process are coated with a flux. Most
electrodes have a core that consists of a solid metal wire. For some
applications, the core is a tube containing metal powders or other particles.

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The metal core conducts the electrical current to the arc and also provides
the filler metal for the weld joint. This filler metal is deposited as the Notes
electrode is gradually consumed and as the Welder moves the arc over the
workpiece at the correct arc length and travel speed.

The coating of the electrode helps keep the arc stable and concentrated on
a precise point on the weld. The chemicals in the electrode coating provide
the shielding required to protect the molten metal from contamination
by the atmosphere. This is where the name “shielded metal arc welding”
comes from.

Welding power source


The welding machine that provides the power for arc welding is an
important part of the process. Its proper name is “welding power source.”
Welding power sources for SMAW might supply either direct current (DC) or
alternating current (AC). Controls on the welding power source enable the
Welder to vary the current as required for different welding tasks, materials
and positions.

Applications of SMAW
The SMAW process can meet almost any requirement for welding carbon,
stainless and alloy steels and cast iron. Its uses include manufacture,
construction, maintenance and repair in:

• shipbuilding
• commercial transport and automotive
• industrial and agricultural equipment
• engineering applications
• boiler and pressure vessels
• piping and pipelines
• bridge-building
• building construction and structural applications

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The arc welding station


Notes
Many arc welding tasks, both in training and on the job, take place at a
welding station (Figure 2). The main parts of the station are:

• welding power source


• metal work table
• electrode lead (cable) and terminals
• electrode holder
• welding booth or welding screens
• work lead (cable) and terminals
• ventilation system
• ground clamp or workpiece connection

Localized fume extraction using suction arms as shown below is becoming


highly popular.

To exhaust fan

Non-flammable curtains
on all open sides

Welding
power source

Metal work table


Concrete floor

Figure 2—Welding station

Welding station inspection


The welding station provides a safe work environment and protection for
fellow workers. To maintain the efficiency and safety of the station, it is
important that you get into the habit of completing a thorough inspection
before starting any work.

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Your inspection of your arc welding station should cover all of the Notes
following points:

1. Make sure that the welding power source is turned off before proceeding
any further.

2. Inspect all cables to make sure that they are free from damage.

3. Use channel iron to cover all cables that have to run across aisles. Wheeled
machines such as lift trucks and pallet movers easily damage cables.

4. Check the electrode holder assembly carefully to make sure that:

• The cable is fastened securely in the holder.


• The holder insulation is in good condition.
• The holder jaws are clean to ensure good electrical contact with the
electrode.
5. Check that the connection between the workpiece lead and the
workpiece or work table is secure to ensure that the ground clamp makes
good electrical contact.

6. Check that the welding booth or temporary screens have no holes that
could expose people to the dangers of arc flash.

7. Check that the ventilation system is working, and that the ventilation
pickup duct is placed so that fumes are removed before they reach the
Welder’s breathing zone. This is very important if a fume extraction arm
is used instead of a canopy (Figure 2).

8. Make sure that there is an insulated hook to hang the electrode holder
on when it is not in use.

9. Make sure that there is an electrode stub receptacle.

Now complete Self-Test 1 and check your answers.

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Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. The mixture of melted electrode and melted base metal created by the
welding current flowing through the electrode and across the arc is called
a. SMAW
b. the weld deposit
c. the short circuit
d. the workpiece

2. What is produced when the welding power source is turned on but no


arc exists?
a. Ohm’s law
b. short circuit voltage
c. closed circuit voltage
d. open circuit voltage

3. In shielded metal arc welding, metals are fused by the heat from an
electric arc that is maintained between the surface of the workpiece and a
a. coated electrode
b. bare electrode
c. neutral electrode
d. carbon electrode

4. The intense heat that an arc creates ranges between


a. 2500 ºC to 3500 ºC (4532 ºF to 6332 ºF)
b. 3500 ºC to 4500 ºC (6332 ºF to 8132 ºF)
c. 4500 ºC to 5500 ºC (8132 ºF to 9932 ºF)
d. 5500 ºC to 6600 ºC (9900 ºF to 11 900 ºF)

5. In SMAW, what does the electrode coating do?


a. protects the Welder from touching the metal electrode
b. increases the arc temperature
c. adds oxygen to the weld pool
d. protects the molten metal from the atmosphere

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6. The “shielding” in the SMAW process is provided by


Answers
a. the electrode coating
b. a separate supply of shielding gas
c. shielding substances applied to the workpiece
d. chemicals in the workpiece itself

7. The electrical circuit in the SMAW process is closed at the point when
a. the power source is turned on
b. the electrode is inserted in the electrode holder
c. the arc is struck
d. the base metal begins to melt

8. What is the force called that causes current to flow in an electrical circuit?
a. amperage
b. voltage
c. resistance
d. power

9. The electrical pressure or voltage in a welding circuit after the arc has
been struck is called
a. open circuit voltage
b. line voltage
c. arc voltage
d. electrode voltage

10. Electrical pressure is measured in


a. amperes (A)
b. kilopascals (kPa)
c. volts (V)
d. pounds per square inch (psi)

11. Electrical current flow is measured in


a. feet per second (f/s)
b. amperes (A)
c. volts (V)
d. volts per second (V/s)

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Notes

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Module P4 Theory Competency P4-1

P4-1 Learning Task 2: Notes


Safety requirements for SMAW
During all welding processes, you must protect yourself from the sparks,
heat, light and fumes given off. Each welding process also has its own
special safety requirements. With oxy-fuel gas welding and cutting
processes, you must take extreme caution with the gases to prevent an
explosion. With SMAW and other electrical welding processes such as
GMAW, FCAW and GTAW, you must take great care to protect against arc
radiation and electric shock. See Module P1-2.

Potential hazards and protective measures with SMAW are:

• personal protective equipment (PPE)


• electric shock
• fire and explosion prevention
• safety requirements for operating electric welding equipment
• toxic fumes/ventilation

Personal protective equipment


Eye protection for the electrical welding processes
When you weld using an electrical process such as SMAW, you must
take extreme care to protect your eyes. The infrared and ultraviolet
rays that arc welding produces can cause serious and sometimes
permanent injury to your eyes.

Exposing inadequately protected eyes to the welding arc can cause a burn
called “arc flash.” Even a one-second exposure at a distance of 0.5 m (20 in.)
is enough to burn the eyes. WorkSafeBC recommends a minimum distance
of 12 m (40 ft.) between the welding area and unprotected viewers. See
module P1-2 LT3.

Never look at an arc with the naked eye. If you receive an arc flash,
immediately report it to your instructor. Keep a minimum distance of
12 m (40 ft.) between an arc and the naked eye.

Welding helmets
To protect your eyes, face and neck during arc welding, you must wear a
welding helmet equipped with a dark filter lens. These filter lenses come in a
range of different shades, each with a different number. Your choice of filter
lens depends on the level of current you are using, since this determines the
intensity of the arc. Figure 3 lists filter lens shade numbers recommended
for different current settings. These are suggestions only. If your eyes are
sensitive, you might need a darker lens.

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Notes Filter lens shades recommended for level of current


Below 30 A No. 6
30–70 A No. 9
70–200 A No. 10
200–300 A No. 11
300–400 A No. 12
Over 400 A No. 13

Figure 3—Filter lens shades recommended for level of current

If your eyesight requires it, use a clear magnifying lens—also known as a


“cheater lens.” These special lenses fit behind your filter lens and take the
place of reading glasses. They are available from welding supply companies.

Always check the filter lens in your face shield or helmet before you start
to weld to make sure it is not cracked or broken. If it is cracked or chipped,
replace it immediately.

If you are in a work area where arc welding is being done, always wear
approved safety glasses with side shields as protection from arc flash and
flying debris.

The shade numbers for auto-darkening helmets are equivalent to


those in Figure 3. Check the manufacturer’s literature to confirm the
correct adjustment of your helmet. See module P1-2 LT3.

Arc burn
The infrared and ultraviolet radiation that arc welding produces can damage
improperly protected eyes and severely burn your skin. For this reason, you
must wear the proper protective clothing and equipment during SMAW and
other electrical welding processes.

The amount of protective clothing you require will depend on how much
welding you are doing and on the welding positions you use. When you are
welding, all parts of your body must be covered. Depending on the welding
position and type of welding you will do, you will need either full or partial
flame-resistant clothing. This could include jackets, sleeves, aprons, leggings
and anklets. Do not wear synthetics such as nylon and dacron, as they will
melt and cling to your skin as they burn. Your standard protective clothing for
arc welding must also include a peaked cap, leather gloves and safety boots.

If you are burned when arc welding, get medical aid.

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Electric shock Notes


The electrical currents used in SMAW are very high. If you become part of
the electrical circuit at any point, you could receive an electric shock severe
enough to kill you. Even a small shock that is not immediately fatal could be
sufficient to cause you to jerk and fall, leading to a serious injury.

Damp conditions
One of the main factors contributing to electric shock (fatal or otherwise) is
dampness. Any dampness between your body and an energized part of the
equipment provides a ground conductor that could carry the current to your
body. The best way to prevent yourself from being grounded in this way is
to make sure that your hands and clothing are dry. Do not weld if conditions
require you to stand in water or on a wet surface. Instead, find a dry board
or rubber mat to stand on.

Initial electrical isolation of shock victims


If one of your fellow workers receives an electric shock, it is essential
to remove the victim from contact with the power source as soon as
you can. Do not touch the victim if he or she is still in contact with
the live source of electrical power. To do so or even to come close to
the victim could put you in danger of electrical shock and leave you
powerless to help.

If you know that the power switch is nearby, disconnect the circuit. If
you do not know where the power switch is or if it is not close by, send
someone else to disconnect the power, and at the same time, send for
emergency medical aid. In the meantime, find some non-conductive
material such as a length of dry wood, some rope or a blanket and
try to pull or pry the conductor from the victim. For more detailed
instructions in the procedures to use in cases of electrical shock, refer
to P1-2 LT2 and go to WorkSafeBC’s website, www.worksafebc.com,
and click on OHS Regulation under the Quick Links.

Fire prevention
The electrical welding processes (such as SMAW) pose as great a fire
hazard as the oxy-fuel welding processes.

Follow these safety points:

• Make sure that your workplace is as free as possible of combustible


materials before you begin to weld.
• If flammable materials cannot be removed from the work area, be sure
they are protected adequately from sparks and slag before you start to
weld. Assigning a firewatcher is highly recommended.
• Do not weld anywhere near containers of flammable liquids.

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• Know the locations and types of fire extinguishers in your immediate


Notes work area and how to use them.

Safety requirements for operating electrical welding


equipment
The greatest electrical hazard for Welders is from their electric welding
power sources. For this reason, every time you work with these machines
you must follow all the standard safety precautions.

In addition, all switches must be clearly marked, all electrical tools and
equipment must be properly grounded, and metal ladders must be kept
away from any source of electrical power.

WorkSafeBC publishes a useful guide called Working Safely Around


Electricity. It is also available on the Web at:


http://www.worksafebc.com/publications/health_and_safety/by_
topic/assets/pdf/electricity.pdf

Maintenance of equipment
The Welder who is about to use a welding power source is responsible for
making sure that the machine is in a safe operating condition. The wiring,
switches, controls and cables must all be thoroughly checked before use.
Preventive maintenance (such as internal cleaning and lubrication) must be
carried out at regular intervals.

In most welding shops the electrical power for arc welding
equipment is 230 V, 460 V or 575 V. These are high voltages that can
easily deliver severe or fatal shocks. When performing any internal
preventive maintenance work on electrical welding equipment,
observe the following rules:

1. All troubleshooting and maintenance of welding power sources must


be done only on open circuits. Make sure that the main power supply
disconnect switch is open and locked out (Figure 4).

2. Do not work on main power lines, junction boxes and fuses. Only an
electrician qualified in accordance with the requirements of the Canadian
Electrical Code can do this. The Welder’s maintenance responsibilities
end with the welding power source.

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Module P4 Theory Competency P4-1

Notes

Figure 4—Lockout

When you connect an electrical welding power source to its main power
supply, it is extremely important to make sure that the main power circuit
is properly grounded. Without proper grounding, any stray current that
develops could give you or another worker a severe or even fatal shock. If
you have one hand on an inadequately grounded power supply in which
a current is flowing and you accidentally touch a grounded metal object
such as a switch box, you become part of the electrical circuit. The resulting
electric shock could be fatal.

Without proper grounding, stray current can also damage cranes, motors
and controls as well as computerized equipment.

Welding cables
Check the cables on a welding power source every time you use it. Never
use electrical current that is more than the rated capacity of the welding
cables on your power source. Not only is this uneconomical but, more
importantly, it causes overheating and rapid deterioration of the insulation.

Faulty insulation is a hazard. If exposed sections of cable come in contact


with any grounded metal object in the welding circuit, they could create an
arc, which could in turn ignite any flammable materials in the area.

Make inspection of the cables a standard part of your inspection of welding


equipment before using it. If the cables are in good condition, you can use
them. If they are not, take these steps:

• Make sure the main power source is disconnected or locked out.


• If there are surface cracks in the insulation, repair them with electrical
tape before starting the machine.
• If there are breaks in the insulation that expose any wire, do not try to
repair it. Replace the cable with one that is in good condition.

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Module P4 Theory CoMPeTenCy P4-1

electrode holder
noTes Your SMAW electrode and electrode holder are a part of the welding circuit.
When the welding power source is on but you are not welding, always be
extremely careful to remove the electrode from the holder so that the live
electrode will not accidentally make contact with the surrounding metal and
cause arc strikes. Arc strikes could result in damage to your work or cause fire
or personal injury.

Your welding booth should have an insulated hook on which to hang the
electrode holder. Always use the hook to prevent a hazardous situation.

electrode stubs
Electrodes should be used down to a stub length of 50 mm (2 in.) or less.
Dispose of these stubs in fireproof metal containers. If you throw them on
the floor they create a slipping hazard. Not containing electrode stubs is
against WorkSafeBC regulations.

Electrode stubs are a worksite contaminant that cause flat tires on equipment,
damage to machinery and electrical short circuits.

Consult WorkSafeBC for further information.


http://www.worksafebc.com/default.asp

Slag
The coating that forms on the top of an arc weld is called “slag.” When it
is first deposited it is very hot. It has to be removed after it has cooled and
solidified. As you chip off slag, make sure that fragments do not hit you or
anyone else.

Always wear approved eye protection while removing slag.

ventilation
When you are welding in a booth,
make sure that the booth is equipped
to extract fumes at an adequate rate
To exhaust fan
(Figure 5). The air movement must be no
less than 30 m3/min (100 ft.3/min).

The ventilation pickup duct must be


located so that the hazardous fumes are
removed before they reach your face.

With SMAW you might work with


materials that can produce toxic
fumes. Among the materials you might
encounter that produce fumes in harmful
concentrations are lead, zinc, cadmium,
Figure 5—Fume removal
beryllium, chromium and Teflon.

24 WelDer TrAInInG PrOGrAM — level C


Module P4 Theory Competency P4-1

Always be sure you know the metallic and chemical composition of the
materials and electrodes you are welding with. You must always be fully Notes
aware of the possibilities of toxic gas fumes in any location. Many toxic
fumes cannot be easily identified by smell, and they can accumulate
undetected in areas where you are welding. You might need to use special
detection equipment to determine whether harmful concentrations exist.

Operate engine-driven welding power sources in open and well-


ventilated outside areas or vent the exhaust and heat to the
outdoors. Engine exhaust is harmful to health and a risk to life.

Summary
As you prepare to weld, remember these main safety points:

• Always turn off your welding power source when it is not in use.
• Wear gloves when handling arc welding equipment.
• Keep all equipment dry and do not work in damp or wet conditions.
• Make sure that the workpiece or work table is properly grounded.
• Do not overload the welding cables.
• Remove the electrode from the electrode holder before putting the
holder down.
• Switch the welding power source off when you are finished working.

Now complete Self-Test 2 and check your answers.

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Module P4 Theory Competency P4-1

Self-Test 2
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. The first rule to remember when dealing with victims of electrical shock is
a. pry or pull them loose with a non-conductive material
b. avoid touching the victim if he or she is still in contact with the
source of power
c. send someone else to disconnect the power source
d. send for the first aid attendant

2. Electrode stubs must be put in a


a. metal container
b. neat pile on the workbench
c. wooden container
d. neat pile on the floor

3. When you inspect your welding cables before welding and find breaks in
the insulation, you should
a. ignore them
b. replace the cable before work
c. repair them with proper electrical tape
d. flag them for repair after work

4. All troubleshooting and maintenance of welding power sources must be


done when circuits
a. show a line drop condition
b. are disconnected and/or locked out
c. are not under load
d. are closed and unplugged

5. What is the recommended minimum distance from which the electric arc
should be seen by the naked eye?
a. 8 m (26 ft.)
b. 10 m (33 ft.)
c. 12 m (40 ft.)
d. 14 m (46 ft.)

26 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Theory Competency P4-1

6. When arc welding, you must wear


Answers
a. dark shaded sunglasses
b. welding goggles with filter lens
c. a Welder’s helmet with filter lens
d. flash goggles

7. Which lens shade would you use for welding over 300 amps?
a. No. 10
b. No. 12
c. No. 4
d. No. 13

8. What must you check shaded lenses for before you begin to weld?
a. make sure that you have the smoked lens type installed
b. make sure that the seal around the lens is airtight
c. make sure that the lens number is No. 4 or less
d. light leaks from a cracked lens or improper installation

9. The protective clothing to be worn for arc welding should be


a. dark
b. light
c. neutral
d. colour is not significant

10. Toxic fumes that result from welding are always identifiable by
a. smell
b. taste
c. colour
d. none of the above

11. When your welding power source is on but you have finished welding,
you should always
a. remove your gloves and helmet
b. remove the electrode from its holder
c. disconnect the workpiece lead
d. disconnect the electrode cable

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Module P4 Theory Competency P4-1

Notes

28 Welder Training Program — Level C


Theory Competency P4-2:
SMAW equipment and its operation

P4-2
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

Outcomes
In order to produce an effective and high-quality weld, you must be familiar with
welding equipment and know how to use it correctly.

When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you should
be able to identify and describe:

• basic principles of electricity


• types of welding current and their applications
• the effects of a volt-ampere curve on the welding arc
• AC and DC welding power sources
• shielded metal arc welding equipment and its operation
• electrode holders, ground clamps and welding cables

Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in module P4, you will take a
written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions that
are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-2:

• principles of electricity
• types of welding current
• AC and DC welding power sources
• electrode holders
• ground clamps
• welding cables

Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.

Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.

Introductory electricity (online course)


• http://www.millerwelds.com/education/basicelec/

SMAW pamphlet published by Miller


• http://www.millerwelds.com/pdf/PrinciplesSMAW.pdf

Lecture series from 1954 (very thorough but a bit dated)


• http://www.millerwelds.com/pdf/Basic.pdf

Understanding a Welder’s Personality


• http://www.millerwelds.com/education/articles/article108.html

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Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

User’s Guide to Quality SMAW


• http://www.lincolnelectric.com/knowledge/articles/content/stickweld.asp
Online SMAW course
• http://www.esabna.com/EUWeb/AWTC/Lesson1_1.htm

Introduction to Inverter Technology


• Educational Resources Division, The Lincoln Electric Company. (ED223 DVD).

32 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

P4-2 Learning Task 1: Notes


Basic principles of electricity
The quality and effectiveness of welds produced by the electrical welding
processes depend upon the Welder’s ability to control the electrical power
in the welding circuit. To build sound welding skills, you need to understand
the principles of electricity and how they apply to the arc welding process.

Voltage, current and resistance


The flow of electricity in a circuit can be compared to the flow of water in
a piping system. This comparison between a water system and an electrical
system will help you understand the electrical equivalents of pressure,
restrictions and rate of flow.

Voltage, also known as “electromotive force” (EMF) or “potential difference,” is


similar to the pressure that exists in a water system. The symbol for volts is “V.”

Electrical current, or amperage, is similar to the rate of flow of water.


The symbol for amperes is “A.”

Resistance is the other basic property of an electrical circuit. In a pipe,


the friction between the flowing water and the walls of the pipe creates a
resistance to the flow of the water. An electrical conductor will resist electric
current flow in a similar way. Electrical resistance is measured in ohms. The
symbol for ohms is “Ω,” the Greek letter Omega.

In electrical circuits, the material, length and cross-sectional area of the


conductor all determine how much resistance there is to the flow of current.
Loose connections and dirty terminals make it more difficult for the current
to flow.

The arc gap itself creates a resistance. Air is not as good a conductor of
electricity. The resistance to current flow across the arc gap is high. The
longer the gap, the greater the resistance that must be overcome. This is an
important factor affecting the quality of a weld.

In a water system, there must be pressure if you want to maintain water flow
against the resistance of the pipes. In an electrical circuit, you need a voltage
to maintain current flow (amperes) against the resistance (ohms) of the
wire. The higher the resistance, the greater the voltage required to maintain
the current. This relationship between voltage, current and resistance is
expressed in Ohm’s law.

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Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

Ohm’s law
Notes This basic but important relationship is expressed as follows:

E=I×R

E = voltage
I = current in amperes
R = resistance in ohms

If you know two values in an electrical circuit, you can use this formula to
calculate the third, value as follows:

E=I×R
I  = E ÷ R
R=E÷I

Wattage
The total power in any electrical circuit is expressed in watts:

W=A×V

W = watts
A = amps
V = volts

Practical exercise
In this three-part practical exercise, we will find the resistance of welding
leads (cables) and the allowable loss in voltage.

Generally, the maximum voltage loss allowed between the welding power
source and the electrode is 4 V. A loss above this limit will mean that you will
have difficulty welding. If you try to compensate by increasing the settings,
the leads (cables) can overheat.

Part A
1. If a welding lead has a resistance rating of 0.31 Ω per kilometre, what is
the resistance per metre?

(Hint: This is a simple movement of 3 decimal places.)

0.31 Ω/km = 0.31 Ω/1000 m = 0.000 31 Ω/m

2. A welding lead is 30 m long in total. This length includes both the


electrode lead and the workpiece lead.

What is the total resistance for the welding leads used?

0.000 31 Ω/m × 30 m = 0.0093 Ω

3. a. A welding power source will be producing 200 A and about 30 V.


Using Ohm’s law, find the voltage loss in the welding leads.

34 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

E=I×R
Notes
In other words,
volts = current in amps × resistance in ohms
volts = 200 × 0.0093
volts = 1.86

The voltage loss is 1.86 V.

b. If you use the same size of welding cable, but the total length of the
lead is doubled, what would happen to the voltage loss?
c. If you use the same size of welding cable, but the amperage is
doubled, what would happen to the voltage loss?
d. If you use the same size of welding cable, but both the total length of
the leads and the amperage are doubled, what would happen to the
voltage loss?

Aside from developing your math skills, this example shows why you need to
know about electrical resistance and voltage loss. Often Welders working in field
conditions can be the width of a building away and several stories up from their
welding power source. That distance can add up to several hundred metres.

Part B
In this example, you are on a job site 100 m away from your power source.
You have to do weld repairs on some hand railing inside a building. You
expect to be running a maximum of 150 A at 30 V.

Your welding leads are 2/0 gauge (10.5 mm diameter). The resistance is
0.25 Ω per kilometre.

Is the welding lead capable of supplying the required current while keeping
the voltage drop to less than the 4-V maximum?

Calculate the expected voltage drop and show your work.

Check your answers for parts A and B in the Answer Key.

Part C
In Part A examples 2 and 3, the voltage drop in the 30-m long welding lead
was 1.86 V. Your welding current was set at 200 A.

Using the formula, watts = amps × volts, calculate the number of watts used
up in the cable.

watts = amps × volts


watts = 200 × 1.86
watts = 372

The welding cable used up 372 watts.

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Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

A typical toaster draws 1000 watts of energy. Slightly over a third of the
Notes energy used to brown your toast in the morning would be lost as heat in the
30 m of welding cable. Over time, the cable might get warm, but it would
not be so hot that the insulation would melt or burn off the copper core.

A real jobsite situation described by a senior Welder

The welding job was approximately 200 m away from the engine-driven
welding power source. To reach that distance, over 400 m of leads had
to be strung, which included many connections. In order be able to weld
with a 3.2-mm (1⁄8-in.) E4918 (E7018) electrode, the Welder had to turn
the current up to 275 A. The normal setting would be 125 A.

With these extreme settings, the welding would be difficult and the cable
connections would eventually overheat. Welding would be affected because
the voltage loss would be greater than 4 V, making it difficult to maintain an
arc. The overheating of the connectors would further increase the voltage
loss and could become a burn or fire hazard.

There are occasions where welding has to take place outside the limits of
good practice, but there is no justification for working outside safety limits
and rules.

Effects of resistance
In arc welding, it is essential to understand the practical effects of resistance.
To weld efficiently, you must maintain sufficient heat in the arc. That means
you must select the correct current and voltage settings.

If you cannot move your welding power source closer to the work, you
might have to add three or four sections to the welding leads to reach the
work location. The increase in lead length will increase the resistance in the
circuit. You will then have to increase the current settings to maintain the
heat of the arc.

Due to the noticeable effect of resistance on the efficiency of the welding


circuit, it is important to check all welding circuit connections before starting
the welding power source. You must maintain all cables, connectors, clamps
and terminals in good condition to minimize electrical resistance.

Electromagnetism
Many aspects of SMAW and other electric welding processes will be clearer if
you understand the basic principles of electromagnetism and the generation
of electricity. Delivery and maintenance of power in a welding circuit and
how the current flows in that circuit could affect your choice of welding
power source. Your understanding of these principles will also affect how
you connect the circuit components and will help you to recognize and cope
with the problems of arc blow that occur under some circumstances.

36 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

Two of the basic principles of electromagnetism are explained below:


Notes
1. If a conductor moves through a magnetic field or a magnetic field moves
across a conductor, an electric current will be created or “induced” in
the conductor (Figure 6).
Indication of current flow
Magnet

Motion of
conductor

Conductor
Magnetic
field

Figure 6—Induced current

All devices that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy work
on this principle, which is called “Faraday’s law.” In a generator, the
conductor moves through the magnetic field. In an alternator, the
magnetic field moves across the conductors. The principle is the same.

This same basic principle is at work in generating stations operated by


utility companies and generators in common welding power sources.

2. When an electrical current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is


produced around the conductor (Figure 7). The conductor becomes an
electromagnet.
Power source

Current flow
+ –

Conductor –


+
Magnetic field

Figure 7—Magnetic field around a conductor

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Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

This second principle explains the basic operation of the transformer. The
Notes strength of the magnetic field around a conductor is proportional to the
current flowing in the conductor. Winding the conductor in the form of a
coil will produce a stronger magnetic field (Figure 8).
Current flow
+

Power source

Coil

Magnetic field

Figure 8—Field in a coil

The strength of the magnetic field can be controlled by changing either or


both the number of turns in the coil and the level of current. An electrical
current in a single coil can be made to produce mechanical movement, as in
an electric motor or in a solenoid.

When the flow of current through the circuit of an electromagnet stops, the
existing magnetic field collapses. As the magnetic field collapses, it moves
across the conductor, creating a very brief current flow. The principle behind
the creation of this current is called “induction.”

Transformers
Transformers are a central component of stationary welding power sources.
Transformers use the principle of induction to transform the high voltage
from the main supply (220 V to 575 V) down to safe and usable welding
voltages (18 V to 36 V).

38 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

Within a transformer, two coils (or windings) are placed close to one another
(Figure 9). When the current in one coil (called the “primary coil”) is turned Notes
on and off rapidly (as with alternating current), the continually collapsing
magnetic field will induce current in the other coil (called the “secondary
coil”). Depending on the number of turns in the secondary coil, the induced
voltage may be higher or lower than that flowing in the primary coil.
AC input power AC output power

Ammeter
Primary Secondary
coil coil
(winding) (winding)

Pulsating magnetic field

Figure 9—Coils in a transformer

If the secondary coil has more turns than the primary coil, the induced
voltage will be higher. This is called a “step-up transformer.” If the secondary
coil has fewer turns than the primary coil, the induced voltage will be lower.
This is called a “step-down transformer.”

Transformers only work on alternating current. Transformers cannot operate


on direct current, such as from a battery. There must be a stop and start
to the flow of the electrical current in order for the magnetic field in the
transformer to build up and then collapse.

It is important to remember that generally speaking a transformer does not


add to or subtract from the total energy available in the welding circuit
(there is some energy loss due to resistance, but that is beyond the scope of
this text). A welding transformer takes the high-voltage, low-amperage input
current and transforms it to low-voltage, high-amperage.

Rectifiers
A rectifier is a device that changes alternating current (Figure 10) to direct
current. The rectifier does this using a small electronic device called a “diode.”

A diode is much like a one-way check valve in a water line. The diode allows
current to travel in one direction only and blocks the current from reversing.

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Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

Notes +

– Time

Figure 10—A sine wave depicting one AC cycle

A single diode allows only half of the AC current to pass. It blocks the other
half (Figure 11). This diagram shows the simple concept of rectifying AC
into DC.

AC sine wave diode DC

Figure 11—Single diode blocking half the AC current

A complete rectifier is more complex and uses a series of diodes to


accomplish the task (Figure 12).

~
AC
+
input

DC
~ output

Figure 12—Schematic diagram of a multi-diode rectifier

Inverters
An inverter does the opposite of what a rectifier does: it converts DC current
into AC current. Today inverters are solid-state electronic devices that can be
designed to alternate the current from several times a second to thousands
of times per second. Modern inverters coupled with transformers can be
made to produce almost any form of electrical current desired.

Now complete Self-Test 1 and check your answers.

40 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

Notes

Welder Training Program — Level C 41


Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. Current flow in an electrical circuit is known as


a. amperage
b. voltage
c. resistance
d. current

2. The ohm is a unit used to measure in an electrical circuit.


a. amperage
b. voltage
c. resistance
d. current

3. The longer the arc length is, the the resistance.


a. lower
b. more intermittent
c. greater
d. weaker

4. What relationship does Ohm’s law describe?


a. E = I × R
b. R = I × E
c. I = E × R
d. E = I ÷ R

5. If you add three extra sections to the cable on your welding power
source, the resistance in the circuit will
a. decrease
b. be unaffected
c. increase
d. be reversed

42 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

6. When electrical current flows through a conductor, is produced.


Answers
a. a resistance
b. a voltage rise
c. a magnetic field
d. an amperage rise

7. When current to an electromagnet is switched off


a. the red warning light goes on
b. the magnetic poles reverse
c. the magnetic field around the conductor collapses
d. the magnetic field grows larger

8. Transformers contain primary and secondary


a. power sources
b. windings
c. switches
d. arcs

9. If the secondary coil in a transformer has fewer turns than the primary
coil, the voltage of the secondary coil will be
a. higher
b. lower
c. the same
d. lethal

10. The strength of the magnetic field around a conductor is directly


proportional to the
a. current flowing in the conductor
b. voltage from the transformer
c. resistance of the conductor
d. rated amperage of a power source

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

Welder Training Program — Level C 43


Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

Notes

44 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

P4-2 Learning Task 2: Notes


Types of current and their applications
Electrical current is the flow of electrons through a conductor. This electron
flow is from the negative pole to the positive pole. The current can be of
two types: alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). Each type has
different characteristics and is suitable for different welding applications.
Welding power sources can be designed to produce both types of current,
making them more versatile.

SMAW electrodes are designed for use with either AC or DC current, and
some types can be used with both. The type of welding current will affect
your choice of electrode.

To develop good welding techniques, it is essential to know the differences


between the two types of current.

In SMAW, the type of welding current can affect:

• polarity of the workpiece and the electrode


• heat that is distributed to the workpiece and the electrode
• rate at which the electrode is deposited in the weld pool
• depth of penetration of the weld deposit
• occurrence of arc blow

Alternating current
The flow of alternating current reverses direction 120 times per second. A
complete direction change from zero to maximum volts at one pole, then
back to zero volts and up to maximum voltage at the other pole, is called a
“cycle.” Most electrical utility companies distribute alternating current at 60
cycles per second. This means that 60 times a second, the voltage reaches a
maximum in one direction and 60 times per second it reaches a maximum
in the other direction. The current is said to be operating at 60 hertz (cycles
per second). The symbol for alternating current (AC) is “~.”

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Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

Some of the characteristics of alternating current can be represented in the


Notes form of a sine wave diagram (Figure 13).
One cycle
+
Current

Volts
Time


1⁄120 sec 1⁄120 sec

1⁄60 sec

Figure 13—Alternating current sine wave

Alternating current can be single-phase AC (Figure 14) or three-phase AC


(Figure 15).

Figure 14—Single-phase AC Figure 15—Three-phase AC

Single-phase alternating current


Single-phase AC power is useful for most domestic and light industrial
operations. But during each cycle there is a considerable period of time
when less than maximum power is being delivered (Figure 14). This makes
single-phase power inefficient for heavy industrial welding applications.

46 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

Three-phase alternating current


Three-phase AC power is more often used in industry. In three-phase AC Notes
power, there are three single-phase currents. These are timed to start at
regular intervals from each other (Figure 15). The advantage of three-phase
power is that even though one phase may be delivering only minimum
power, one of the other two phases will be delivering nearly maximum
power. Welding power sources that use three-phase power produce a
smoother arc than single-phase equipment.

Direct current
With direct current, the electrons in a circuit flow steadily in one direction only,
from the negative pole to the positive pole (Figure 16). This type of current is
produced by DC generators, by batteries and by rectifying AC current.
Current
Volts

Time

Figure 16—Direct current

Polarity
Electron flow in an electrical circuit is always from the negative pole to the
positive pole. The practical effects of this for welding are important with DC
welding current (Figure 17).
Electron flow Electron flow
reverse straight
polarity half polarity half
of AC cycle of AC cycle

+ Electron flow – Electron flow + –

– + – +

DCEP DCEN AC
Heat concentrated Heat concentrated
at the workpiece at the electrode

Figure 17—Effects of polarity in welding

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In direct current, the electron flow is in one direction only. Depending on how
Notes you connect the circuit, the current flow can be made to affect the heat of the
electrode or of the workpiece. An additional influence is the type of gas that
makes up the arc plasma and the material that is moving along this path.

For SMAW, the polarity of a DC welding circuit can be used in two ways:

• Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) connects the welding circuit


so that the electrode is attached to the negative terminal of the power
source (Figure 18). In SMAW, when using DCEN the heat generated
by the arc is concentrated at the electrode (Figure 17). In SMAW using
coated electrodes, DCEN generally allows for faster welding speeds
and higher filler metal deposition. It provides a medium depth of
penetration.
• Direct current electrode positive (DCEP) connects the welding circuit
so that the electrode is attached to the positive terminal of the power
source (Figure 18). In SMAW, when using DCEP the heat generated by
the arc is concentrated at the workpiece (Figure 17). In SMAW using
coated electrodes, DCEP generally allows for deeper penetration of the
weld, but the welding speed is slower.

Note that the concentration of heat generated by the arc will depend on
the process being used. For example, in gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW),
where the tungsten electrode is not consumed and the shielding gas is inert,
the heat will be concentrated at the positive side of the arc. This is opposite
to SMAW. The difference is due to the ionization of molten metal and flux
particles across the arc as compared to ionized shielding gas.

– + – +

DCEP DCEN

Figure 18—SMAW polarity arrangements

The polarity you choose will depend on:

• the type of coating material on the electrode


• the type of material to be welded
• the welding position

48 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Theory Competency P4-2

Arc blow
Notes
Arc blow (or “magnetic arc blow”) is a condition that can occur
when you use a DC welding current. The polarity of the DC circuit
creates a magnetic field that pushes the arc to one side or along
the length of the weld. The arc can be off by as much as 50 mm to
75 mm (2 in. to 3 in.).

Arc blow is most likely to occur when you are welding:

• at the start of a joint (called “forward blow”)


• toward the end of a joint or into a corner (called “back blow”)

When it occurs, arc blow not only makes welding more difficult but can
also make the appearance of the finished weld less attractive. At its worst,
arc blow can cause incomplete fusion, slag inclusion and weld spatter,
resulting in an unsatisfactory weld. With iron powder or other heavily coated
electrodes that produce large amounts of slag, forward blow can cause the
heavy slag deposit in the crater to run forward under the arc.

Dealing with arc blow


There are a number of steps you can take to reduce or eliminate arc blow.
These include the following:

• Switch to an AC power source if it is available.


• Lower your current setting and keep the arc as short as possible so
there is less chance for deflection.
• Change the angle of the electrode. Tilting the electrode into the
direction of arc blow often allows the force of the arc to offset the
deflection.
• Change the location of the work lead connection or split the
connection and attach it at two or more locations. This can help
reduce or eliminate the magnetic field.
• Wrapping the work lead around the workpiece can have the same
effect, though you must take care to avoid burning the cable insulation.
If wrapping the work lead around the workpiece does not seem to make
any difference, try wrapping it in the opposite direction.

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There are welding techniques for dealing with arc blow. You can reduce
Notes the effect of arc blow by starting your weld from an inner point on
the plate and welding back toward the tack weld at the outside edge
(Figure 19). This procedure can be repeated in a technique called
“back-step welding” (Figure 20).

First weld Main weld

Start

Tack welds

Figure 19—Reducing the effect of arc blow

1 2 3 4 5

Tack welds

Figure 20—Back-step welding to reduce the effect of arc blow

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You can also use run-on and run-off tabs placed beneath the plate
(Figure 21). These tabs can be tack welded or held firmly by clamping Notes
to make a good connection. The tabs have the effect of extending the
most concentrated part of the magnetic field beyond the end of the weld,
reducing the effect of arc blow in the area of the weld itself.

Tack welds

Figure 21—Run-on and run-off tabs to reduce the effect of arc blow

Lincoln Electric provides additional information on arc blow at:


http://www.lincolnelectric.com/knowledge/articles/content/arcblow.asp

Now complete Self-Test 2 and check your answers.

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Self-Test 2
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. The choice between AC and DC current can affect


a. your choice of electrode
b. the location of greatest heat
c. the occurrence of arc blow
d. all of the above

2. Which of the following is true of direct current?


a. Electrons flow consistently from the positive pole to the negative pole.
b. Electrons flow first from the negative pole to the positive pole, and
then from the positive pole to the negative pole.
c. Electrons flow consistently from the negative pole to the positive pole.
d. It is more dangerous than alternating current.

3. 60-cycle alternating current changes direction


a. 60 times per second
b. 80 times per second
c. 100 times per second
d. 120 times per second

4. Power is available from utility companies in two forms. They are


a. direct current—negative and positive polarity
b. single-phase and three-phase alternating current
c. pulsed current and background current
d. rectified and square-wave current

5. The advantage of three-phase AC current for welding is that it


a. is cheaper to produce
b. is easier to control
c. produces a more consistent level of power
d. is less dangerous

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6. In SMAW, if you connect a DC welding circuit so that the electrode is


attached to the negative pole, the heat concentration will be Answers
a. in the electrode
b. in the workpiece
c. equally distributed between workpiece and electrode
d. the same as with the electrode attached to the positive pole

7. Which of the following is NOT a consideration when you select a polarity?


a. the type of coating material on the electrode
b. the temperature of the workpiece
c. the welding position
d. the type of material to be welded

8. Arc blow can occur when you weld with


a. single-phase AC current
b. three-phase AC current
c. either AC or DC current
d. DC current

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Notes

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P4-2 Learning Task 3: Notes


Effects of a volt-ampere curve on the
welding arc
A good arc welding technique depends mainly on control of the welding
arc. To develop the required arc control, you need to understand the
relationship between the arc and changes in the current (amperage) and
voltage in the welding circuit. Arc length changes current and voltage
(Figure 22). Current and voltage will also change when you adjust the
welding power source before you start welding.

Welding 0 120 140 Welding 0 120 140


10 10
current current
Short arc Long arc
25 3 0 25 30
Arc volts 20 Arc volts 20

Low arc voltage High arc voltage


High welding current Low welding current

Figure 22—Arc length and power settings

Volt-ampere curve
The relationship between the voltage and the current produced by a
welding power source is usually expressed in the form of a graph that shows
the “volt-ampere curve.” Each time you adjust the power source settings or
change the arc length, you create a new set of electrical characteristics. The
volt-ampere curve will also change to reflect those new characteristics.

Depth of penetration in the weld depends on the voltage level. So it is


important to be able to set the circuit voltage for any given task. Weld heat,
which controls the weld pool and the rate of electrode deposition, might
need to be different for different tasks. That means you also need to be able
to set the appropriate current.

Interpreting the volt-ampere curve


Welding power sources are generally classified as either constant current
(CC) or constant voltage (CV). For the SMAW process, a constant current
power source is standard equipment. For wire-feed processes such as the gas
metal arc welding process (GMAW), technical factors might require or favour
the use of either a constant current or a constant voltage power source.

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Constant current welding power sources


Notes Figure 23 illustrates the volt-ampere curve for one setting of a typical
constant current welding power source.
Open circuit voltage (OCV)
50–100 V
no current flow

32
Voltage

Welding range Normal arc voltage


18–27 volts
22

Amperage
Closed circuit voltage
range
2V
high current flow
0
115 130
Amperage

Figure 23—Typical volt-ampere curve for a CC power source

The top left of the curve represents the condition in which the welding
power source is on but no arc has yet been struck. The circuit is open and
the graph shows the full “open circuit voltage” (OCV). This is the maximum
available voltage for the machine at that setting. The OCV can range
between 50 V and 100 V, but is normally around 70 V. Since there is no
current flow, the graph shows the amperage at zero.

At the bottom right of the curve, the graph illustrates the condition in which
the welding electrode is in direct contact with the workpiece. This condition
is essentially a short circuit. There is almost no voltage across the arc, while
at the same time there is maximum current flow. The only resistance is that
from the welding power source, welding leads and connections.

The middle of the curve shows the normal voltage level during welding. This
level is known as the “arc voltage.” It is the voltage required to maintain the
welding arc between the electrode and the workpiece. It is generally in a
range between 18 V and 36 V.

At the startup of the welding process, the sequence moves from maximum
OCV before the arc is struck, to maximum current flow (or closed circuit)
when the arc is struck. Once the arc is established, the current will stabilize
in the arc voltage range during the welding process.

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The curve shows the electrical characteristic known as “drooping”


(or “sloping”) on a typical CC (or variable voltage) welding power source. Notes
The drop indicates that the current level of the arc remains fairly stable
across a wide range of voltage changes.

Constant voltage welding power sources


In contrast, the volt-ampere curve of a constant voltage (CV) welding power
source (Figure 24) is relatively flat. As the graph indicates, power sources of
this type produce a very stable voltage regardless of the amount of current.

50

40

30
Volts

20

10

0
50 100 150 200

Amperes

Figure 24—Volt-ampere curve for a CV welding power source

This characteristic is particularly important in the wire-feed welding processes


(such as GMAW), where the length of arc is crucial. Since control of the wire
burn-off rate relies on the circuit voltage, you need to minimize any variation
in voltage that might result from current variations. The flat volt-ampere
curve typical of a CV power source reflects the power source’s ability to
maintain a stable voltage across a range of different current conditions.

Adjusting amperage
The “amperage control” on a constant current welding power source might
also be called “current adjustment,” “current range” or “welding current.”
As you increase the available current level, the slope becomes flatter
(Figure 25). This means that at lower current settings the slope is steeper
and at higher current settings, the slope is flatter.

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Notes

Voltage
Amperage

Figure 25—Effect of adjusting amperage in a CC power source

On some CC welding power sources, you can affect the slope of the volt-
amp curve using a high-low range lever. The current level is adjusted with a
rheostat-type dial control.

The volt-ampere curves for different settings of the welding power source
can be shown in a graph (Figure 26). The settings illustrated produce two
quite different slopes. This difference is especially clear in the range for
standard arc lengths. The graph shows why it is important to be able to
control the slope of the volt-ampere curve.

High
OCV Steep curve for flat position
and production welding

Flat curve for


vertical and
Voltage

Low overhead welding


OCV

Long arc 30

Normal arc 25
Short arc 20

50 100 150 200


Amperage

Figure 26—Effect of adjusting the power source settings

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At a higher open circuit voltage (OCV), the slope is steep. A steep slope
means there is little change in amperage regardless of change in arc length. Notes
This is suitable for flat position welding, which requires a more stable current.

At a lower OCV setting, the slope is flatter. A flat slope means that amperage
(and weld heat) will change as arc length changes. This allows the Welder to
control some conditions in the weld pool by changing the arc length. This is
precisely the kind of control needed for out-of-position welding.

To summarize: With a flat volt-amp curve, any change in arc length will
noticeably change the current level. With a steep volt-amp curve, any
change in arc length will cause only minor current change.

When using a two-range welding power source, select:

• low range for out-of-position welding


• high range for flat and high-production welding

Some welding power sources have controls labelled “arc dig,” “crisp and
soft” or “arc force control.” These affect the welding current and will give
you some control over the slope.

Now complete Self-Test 3 and check your answers.

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Self-Test 3
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. In SMAW welding, when you increase the length of the arc, the
a. arc voltage increases and amperage decreases
b. amperage increases and arc voltage decreases
c. resistance and current both decrease
d. resistance and arc voltage both decrease

2. All the possible amperage and arc voltage conditions for each setting on
a welding power source are represented graphically by a
a. flat curve
b. sine wave
c. volt-amp curve
d. variable wave

3. Open circuit voltage (OCV) is the voltage available in the welding circuit
a. before the welding power source is turned on
b. after the welding power source is turned on and before the arc is
struck
c. at the moment the arc is struck
d. after the arc is struck

4. The voltage created between the electrode and the workpiece during
welding is called
a. arc voltage
b. open circuit voltage
c. variable voltage
d. constant voltage

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5. A “drooping” volt-amp curve indicates a welding power source that will


Answers
a. maintain a stable voltage level in spite of fluctuations in the
amperage level
b. change circuit resistance to maintain stable current flow
c. maintain stable amperage levels even when the arc voltage fluctuates
d. not maintain stable amperage levels even when the arc voltage
fluctuates

6. A “flat” volt-amp curve indicates a welding power source in which any


change in arc length will
a. not change amperage levels at all
b. change voltage levels significantly
c. maintain a stable voltage level
d. change amperage levels minimally

7. When the electrode makes direct contact with the workpiece


a. the amperage decreases to almost zero
b. the voltage decreases to almost zero
c. the voltage increases to the maximum
d. the resistance increases to maximum

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Notes

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P4-2 Learning Task 4: Notes


AC and DC welding power sources
Welding power sources for SMAW produce AC welding current, DC welding
current or both. Transformer-type welding power sources convert or
transform the existing main line electricity to a form usable in the welding
process. Generator- or alternator-type welding power sources generate their
own current.

Transformer-type welding power sources


A transformer welding power source takes the main alternating current
supplied to the welding shop (line supply) and transforms it into welding
current. Some transformer welding power sources produce only AC current.
The line supply AC is stepped down to produce the lower voltage and
higher current levels demanded by arc welding.

Adding a rectifier system enables a transformer to produce direct current


(DC) from an AC welding power source. On some power sources, the
rectifier circuit can be switched in or out of the main transformer circuit.
These power sources can supply either AC or DC welding current.

AC transformers
The AC transformers (Figure 27) used as
welding power sources are known as “step-
down transformers.” They take the line
voltage from the main electrical supply and
bring it down to a suitable voltage level for
welding.

The line supply is usually single-phase at


115 V or 220 V, or three-phase at 115 V,
208 V, 480 V or 575 V. The transformer
converts these line voltages to open circuit
welding voltages in the range of 60 V to 80 V.
Figure 27—AC transformer
Current values can be as high as 1500 A,
welding power source
depending on the line supply and the type of
welding power source.

As you learned earlier in this Theory Competency, the main components


of an AC transformer are two sets of windings (the primary coil and the
secondary coil) and an iron core. AC line supply is fed into the primary coil,
which produces a magnetic field around the iron core and secondary coil.
The iron core concentrates and stabilizes the magnetic field. The magnetic
field induces a current into the secondary coil. The smaller number of turns
in the secondary coil produces an output with the lower voltage and higher
current needed for arc welding.

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Notes Do not adjust the current while welding if the welding current range
control is a stepped control that makes a clicking sound when you move
it. The electrical switching contacts will be burned if it is switched while
under a welding load. Always stop welding to adjust current settings if
you are not sure.

Transformer/rectifiers
The purpose of a transformer/rectifier welding power source (Figure 28) is to
produce the DC that is required for certain welding operations. The machine
consists of an AC transformer and rectifier circuit.

The rectifiers act like one-way valves


and allow current to flow in one
direction only. The transformer
part of the welding power source
transforms the AC line supply to
suitable AC welding voltage and
current. This transformed current
is then fed into the rectifier circuit,
which converts it to DC.

Rectifying a single-phase line


supply does not always provide
the steady DC needed for welding.
Some transformer/rectifier welding
power sources use capacitors to
help provide more consistent levels
of current. The heavy industrial Figure 28—Transformer/rectifier
welding power sources use a three- welding power source
phase AC line supply.

DC transformer/rectifier control
The current control on a transformer/rectifier is the same as that on
an AC transformer welding power source. Generally, there are coarse
current adjustments in low, medium and high ranges. There are also finer
adjustments to match the current to variables such as electrode type and
size, metal thickness and welding position.

These controls might look different on different power sources. Some


models have dial controls with the amperage levels shown on a scale. On
others, the dial numbers are not amperage levels but are setting numbers.
In these cases, the numbers normally range from 0 to 10 or 0 to 100. These
increments represent a percentage of the difference between the minimum
and maximum values indicated by the range setting.

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Some transformer/rectifiers also have a switch that controls the polarity of


the circuit. This allows you to choose an electrode negative or electrode Notes
positive circuit to match the job requirements without having to change the
leads on the machine.

Avoid changing welding current range control settings or polarity


switches under load. Most fine-adjust dial controls can be moved
while welding.

AC/DC transformer/rectifiers
Some transformer/rectifiers can provide both transformed AC current and
rectified DC current. These welding power sources have a switch that allows the
transformed current to bypass the rectifier circuit when you need AC current.
Machines with this capability are called “AC/DC welding power sources.”

Advantages of transformer/rectifier-type welding power sources:

• relatively quiet operation


• AC and/or DC welding current available
• available for singe-phase or three-phase line supply

Disadvantages of transformer/rectifier-type welding power sources:

• not considered portable for field work


• sensitive to line supply fluxuations
• limited adjustability of volt-amp curve
• DC welding current subject to arc blow

Engine-driven welding power sources


The generator or alternator of an
engine-driven welding power source
will be powered by a diesel, gasoline,
propane or natural gas–fuelled internal
combustion engine. This type of welding
power source (Figure 29) can be used
in fieldwork where there is no access
to electrical supply lines. It is generally
called a “portable electrical welding
power source.” It often has auxiliary
outlets to power additional equipment
such as lights or grinders.

The engine has a governor that responds


to the demands from the generator or Figure 29—Engine-driven DC
alternator. The governor automatically generator welding power source
reduces the speed of the engine when
you are not welding. The engine speed
increases when the generator demands

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more power.
Notes
Engine-driven DC generator welding power source
Most engine-driven DC generators for SMAW have controls for both current
and voltage levels. These allow the Welder to change the slope of the volt-
amp curve. In this way, the Welder can adjust the characteristics of the arc to
suit the requirements of a particular welding task. These power sources are
called “dual-control welding power sources.”

The controls can be of the tapped type, the stepped type or the continuous
control type. The tapped and stepped type controls offer a range of
prescribed settings. The continuous control type allows for infinite setting
adjustment.

The tapped or stepped type of control must be set precisely on a given


setting. The power source does not produce current values between
settings. You could damage the stepped type control if you try to set the dial
between settings. As mentioned before, moving stepped or tapped controls
under welding load will cause arcing of the electrical contacts and damage.
Use the fine-adjustment controls to get the exact setting you need for the
metal thickness, electrode size and type and welding position for a given
job. These fine controls can be adjusted under load.

On machines with dual continuous type controls, the coarse adjustment dial
(sometimes known as the “job selector dial”) allows for continuous variation
of current level. The second of the two controls allows for fine adjustment
of the current and voltage. By manipulating the two dials together, you can
adjust the slope of the volt-amp curve for any particular current level within
the output range of the machine. It is not recommended to change the job
selector under load.

Engine-driven AC and AC/DC alternator welding power sources


An engine can also drive an alternator to produce AC welding current. This
AC welding current can be changed to DC through the use of rectifiers and/
or inverter technology. The controls on these welding power sources are
much the same as those described for the DC generators.

Advantages of engine-driven welding power sources:

• They are not susceptible to fluctuations in line voltage.


• They are ideal for fieldwork.
• Greater adjustability of volt-amp curve.
• The alternator type are more reliable and need less maintenance.
• The alternator type provide AC and/or DC welding current.
• The alternator type allow for use of AC power tools.

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Disadvantages of engine-driven welding power sources:


Notes
• They are noisy.
• They produce engine exhaust, which must be controlled.
• They are expensive to operate because of fuel costs compared to line
power from a utility.
• Engine and rotating components are expensive to maintain and need
regular servicing.

Inverters
Inverter welding power sources use the frequency converter principle
to produce DC current (Figure 30). Inverters are also called “rectifier-
converters” or “converters.” They work in the following way:

• take in AC line power


• rectify it to DC
• convert it electronically to high-frequency (3 to 50 kilohertz) AC
• transform it to welding voltage
• convert it back to DC

At the heart of the inverter is a high-frequency transformer. Remember that


1 hertz is one single cycle in one second. Domestic AC power operates at
60 hertz.

A conventional transformer operating at 60 hertz would weigh 19.5 kg


(42 lb.). It would have an efficiency of 90% and produce a heat loss of 10%.

An equivalent inverter operating at 200 000 hertz would weigh 1.5 kg


(3 1⁄3 lb.). It would operate at 98% efficiency and produce only 2% heat loss.

Inverter welding power sources operate in the region of 20 000 hertz. But
their electrical efficiency is still remarkable when compared to old technology.
Inverters can operate on either single-phase or three-phase power.

The use of high-frequency current in the conversion means that all of the
components are electronic. This reduces size and weight and increases
electrical efficiency. A standard transformer/rectifier can lose as much as
55% of the incoming power, while the energy loss with an inverter can be as
low as 15%.

The traditional 300 A transformer/rectifier weighed in the region of 360 kg


(800 lb.). The inverter version weighs less than 40 kg (85 lb.).

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noTes input line voltage 60 cycles per second (Hz)


1

rectifier: DC ripple current


2

filter: smooth DC current


3

inverter: high-frequency AC current 20 000 Hz


4

transformer: low-voltage high-frequency AC current


5

rectifier: ripple DC low-voltage current


6

filter: smooth low-voltage welding current


7

Figure 30—Process steps in an inverter power source

Advantages of inverter-type welding power sources:

• Energy efficient. Loss is minimal and energy is only used when there is
an arc. The cooling fan is thermostatically controlled.
• Light weight means they can be moved between work sites.
• Small size saves floor space.
• Built-in programs allow a limitless number of custom welding currents.
Many can be connected to a laptop computer and be reprogrammed
for any new welding process developed.
• Arc blow is minimized.
• Many can adapt to any input current from single-phase to higher
voltage three-phase without any adjustment.
• They compensate for slight variations in voltage from the utility.
• The inverter power supply can be engineered to supply all the various
types of current for a multitude of applications. There are now power
sources that do GTAW and PAC. This eliminates the need for two
different power sources.

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Multi-operator sets
Notes
In some industrial applications of welding, such as steel mills and shipyards,
a number of Welders must work in a limited space. Rather than overcrowd
the work area by giving each Welder his or her own welding power source,
the units are set on a large rack.

The saving of space is a practical alternative to having many individual


welding power sources spread over the work area.

Remote-control welding power sources


Remote controls permit the Welder to change power settings without having
to go back and forth to the welding power source. This is particularly useful
when the Welder is working in a restricted area away from the power source.

A remote-control current setting device (Figure 31) can be used for fine
adjustment of the current setting within the coarse setting already selected
on the power source.

Figure 31—Remote-control current setting device

Ratings for welding power sources


The capacity of a welding power source is rated in three ways:
• current output
• power requirements
• duty cycle

Current output
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) has established
three rating classes for welding power sources:

• Class I machines are considered industrial and 100% duty cycle.


• Class II machines are light industrial.
• Class III are light-duty consumer market machines. They are usually
20% duty cycle.

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Power requirements
Notes Information about the type of electrical line power required by the
welding power source is labelled on the outside of the power source.
If the power source does not come with an attached power cord and
plug, you must have a qualified electrician connect the power source
to the line supply.

The electrician will determine the correct voltage as well as the


correct fuses or circuit breakers required. This assures that you
conform to electrical code and legal requirements.

Duty cycle
The duty cycle is a way of rating a welding power source. The duty cycle is
the length of time a welding power source can be used continuously at its
rated capacity during any 10-minute period.

The length of time is expressed as a percentage of the 10-minute period.


For example, if you need a welding power source that can be used at its
maximum rated capacity for 10 minutes out of every 10 minutes, then you
require a 100% duty cycle.

Most manual arc welding power sources are rated at a current output of
200 A, 300 A or 400 A and a duty cycle of 60%. This means that they can be
used at their rated current output for 6 minutes out of every 10.

When you are welding, you will also have to spend time doing other tasks,
such as preparing the workpiece, changing electrodes and cleaning and
inspecting the finished weld. This means that operating at a high amperage
setting with less than 100% duty cycle is quite acceptable.

Smaller power sources, such as those used for light industrial or home use,
are normally in the range of 150 A output with a 20% to 30% duty cycle.

The duty cycle rating tells you the percentage of time you can use the
power source at its maximum rated current output. This means that at lower
settings, the power source can be used for a longer continuous period.
Manufacturers usually supply a graph that shows the length of time you can
use the power source at a given current setting (Figure 32).

The graph shows that, at a rated output of 250 A, the duty cycle is 30%.
At 200 A it is 40%, and at 150 A it is 75%. At the bottom end, the graph
shows that at 140 A, the power source has a 100% duty cycle. However, no
welding power source should be used continuously unless it has an official
100% duty cycle.

Exceeding the duty cycle guidelines for a power source will cause overheating
of the internal components and permanent damage.

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300 Notes
250

200
Welding amperes

150

100

80
15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

% Duty cycle

Figure 32—Duty cycle graph

Under normal operation with SMAW, the time spent welding


including the time spent chipping, cleaning, inspecting and changing
electrodes, will not exceed a 60% duty cycle.

General maintenance of welding power sources


Follow these maintenance tips:

• See the manufacturer’s operating manual for correct information.


• Maintain a regular preventive maintenance schedule.
• At least twice a year, electrically lock out or disconnect the power
source and clean as recommended by the manufacturer. If you use
compressed air, blow with low velocity and use personal protective
equipment.

Watch out for rodent nests—Hantavirus is a risk.

• When you are not using your welding power source, follow a storage
procedure that protects it from weather and secondary damage.
• Operate away from grinding dust in cool, clean air to make sure that
proper internal cooling can take place.
• Locate away from weld spatter and sparks.
• Inspect cable connections daily and repair as necessary to reduce
welding circuit resistance.

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• Check daily that ventilation openings are not blocked by dust or dirt.
Notes
• Check engine-driven equipment daily for coolant and oil levels as well
as air filters as required in the operating manual.
• Have a shop copy of the equipment manufacturer’s operating manual
attached to or nearby the welding power source.
Most manufacturers supply their product manuals online. Some
manuals are available dating back to the 1940s.

Now complete Self-Test 4 and check your answers.

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Notes

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Self-Test 4
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. The SMAW process requires


a. higher voltage and lower current than the line supply
b. lower voltage and higher current than the line supply
c. the same voltage and current as the line supply
d. access to a special line supply

2. A transformer welding power source without a rectifier circuit produces


a. AC only
b. DC only
c. both AC and DC
d. high-frequency AC

3. In an AC transformer welding power source, the iron core functions


a. as a terminal for the line supply
b. as a terminal for the welding circuit
c. to conduct electrical current between the two windings
d. to concentrate the magnetic field

4. The primary windings or coil in a welding transformer carry


a. higher amperage welding current
b. higher voltage line current
c. higher amperage and lower voltage
d. high-voltage welding current

5. The main reason inverter power sources are lighter than conventional
transformer/rectifiers is that
a. they avoid the use of a rectifier in their circuits
b. they use aluminum wiring internally
c. they avoid the use of transformers in their circuits
d. they use high-frequency current

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6. To convert main line power directly to DC welding current, you would use
Answers
a. a transformer/rectifier welding power source
b. a transformer welding power source
c. a DC generator
d. an alternator

7. A welding power source especially suitable for field welding operations is


a. an electric motor–driven generator
b. an engine-driven generator
c. a transformer
d. a transformer/rectifier

8. Dual continuous controls enable the Welder to individually control


a. polarity and amperage
b. amperage and voltage
c. voltage and resistance
d. amperage and frequency

9. A step-down transformer
a. reduces the high voltage coming in to low voltage going out
b. reduces the voltage and amperage
c. reduces the amperage coming in to welding amperage
d. increases the voltage and amperage

10. Which welding power source converts AC line supply to DC, converts it
to a new AC and, finally, converts it back to DC for welding?
a. motor generator
b. transformer/rectifier
c. transformer
d. inverter

11. Which device permits the Welder to avoid having to return to the
welding power source to make fine current adjustments?
a. capacitor
b. diode
c. integrated circuit
d. remote control

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12. The rating of welding power sources is based on


Answers
a. current output, current input, duty cycle
b. power requirements, current input, duty cycle
c. power requirements, current input, current output
d. power requirements, current output, duty cycle

13. A welding power source that has a duty cycle of 60% is only able to
a. draw 60% of the available current
b. draw 60% of the available voltage
c. operate at rated capacity for 6 minutes out of every 10
d. operate for 6 minutes out of every 10

14. A NEMA class lll welding power source


a. can be used for 100% duty cycle applications
b. should be used at over 50% duty cycle operation at all times
c. should be used for maintenance and repair only but not for fabrication
d. should be used for home repair projects needing less than 20% duty
cycle operation

15. The current range and polarity switches on welding power sources
should be operated only
a. by a qualified electrician
b. after the arc has been struck
c. when there is no load on the circuit
d. if the machine is shut off

16. To prevent overheating and to reduce wear and tear on welding power
sources, it is important to regularly inspect and service
a. terminals and cable connections
b. air vents and filters
c. coolant and lubricant levels
d. all of the above

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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P4-2 Learning Task 5: Notes


Electrode holders, ground clamps and
welding cables
Electrode holder
The electrode holder (Figure 33) or “stinger” carries the welding current to
the welding electrode. It is also the means by which the Welder holds the
electrode while welding. The two most common types of electrode holder
are the twist head type (left) and the jaw type (right). The jaw type grips the
electrode between two jaws activated by a powerful spring. The twist head
type secures the electrode in place through the screw action of the head.

Figure 33—Electrode holders

The handle of any type of electrode holder is extremely well insulated to


protect the Welder against electric shock and heat. Because it is the part
of the welding circuit that the Welder holds, the electrode holder must be
kept clean and in good condition to minimize any risk of shock. Replace any
insulation that is damaged and clean the grooves of the jaw to remove any
weld spatter that has collected.

The connection between the welding cable and the electrode holder is a
vulnerable point in the welding circuit because it is constantly being flexed
during welding operations. This connection is usually a mechanical one.

You must inspect the connection every time you weld. Make sure that the
connection is tight. Loose connections increase electrical resistance and
cause additional heat. If your electrode holder becomes hot, it means that
you need to check the connection.

Inspect for broken strands of cable, burned insulation or loose clamping


screws. If there is damage, cut off the end and make a new connection,
either mechanically or by soldering/brazing, before you start any welding.

Ground clamps
At the other end of the welding circuit is the ground clamp that makes the
workpiece connection. The ground clamp is needed to make the welding
circuit complete. Excessive heat buildup at the clamp indicates welding cable
connection problems similar to those mentioned for electrode holders. Without
a good cable connection, there can be a loss of power through increased
resistance, a risk of fire from sparking and increased danger of electric shock.

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The workpiece connection can be attached to a welding table or bench that


Notes has a permanently bolted or tack-welded lug. The work table might have an
insulated terminal instead. If you are not welding on a welding bench, you
can connect the work lead to the workpiece with a ground clamp.

There are different types of ground clamps. The most common are the
spring-loaded clamp, C-clamp, rotary clamp and magnetic clamp.

Spring-loaded clamp
One common type of ground clamp is the spring-loaded type (Figure 34).
The advantage of the spring-loaded clamp is that you can easily change
the location of the workpiece connection. You might need to do this when
trying to reduce the effects of arc blow.

Figure 34—Spring-loaded ground clamp

C-clamp
The C-clamp (Figure 35) is useful because it allows for a secure connection,
preventing arcing on the base metal and ensuring a solid electrical connection.

Figure 35—C-clamp

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Rotary clamp
The rotary clamp (Figure 36) is similar in design to the C-clamp. However, Notes
the rotary clamp has the extra advantage of allowing you to turn the
workpiece without twisting the workpiece lead at the same time. This is a
common requirement when you are welding on powered weld positioners
that rotate the weldment.

Figure 36—Rotary clamp

Magnetic clamp
A magnetic clamp (Figure 37) has the advantage of attaching quickly
but securely. Magnetic clamps also do not damage a workpiece that has
finished surfaces.

One design of the magnetic clamp switches off the magnetic force to make
relocation much easier.

Figure 37—Magnetic clamp

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Cables
Notes
Current is conducted from the welding power source to the electrode holder
and workpiece clamp by cables called “welding leads.” These cables are
normally made of insulated copper wire.

A typical welding cable (Figure 38) consists of thousands of hairlike wires


braided into strands. These strands are themselves braided to form the
conductor and are enclosed in a durable paper wrapping that allows the
conductor to move easily inside the insulation when it is bent. Outside the
paper is a layer of rubber insulation surrounded by a layer of woven fabric
reinforcement to provide additional wear resistance. The outer layer is a
special composition rubber with a smooth finish, highly resistant to wear.
Woven fabric Rubber

Rubber insulation
Paper

Wires

Figure 38—Typical welding cable

Cable size
There might be times when you will have to change to a different size of
cable used with your welding power source. The size of cable you should
choose depends on two factors: the welding current and the length of the
welding leads.

The resistance in any conductor and the current flow combined with the
length of the leads reduce the voltage available from the welding power
source. As you learned earlier, this reduction in voltage due to resistance in
the welding leads is called “voltage drop.”

Voltage drop in welding leads cannot be eliminated. But it can be controlled


by choosing cable with the appropriate diameter. Figure 39 gives AWG wire
gauge numbers (diameters) that match certain cable lengths and welding
current levels. The voltage drop for each size of cable is about 4 V over
the given length (as long as no resistance comes from poor connections).
Choosing the right cable size will increase efficiency and welding productivity.

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Current capacity Notes


100 A 150 A 200 A 250 A 300 A 350 A 400 A 450 A 500 A
15 m/50 ft. 2 2 2 2 1 1/0 1/0 2/0 2/0
23 m/75 ft. 2 2 1 1/0 2/0 2/0 3/0 3/0 4/0
30 m/100 ft. 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 4/0
Length of cable

38 m/125 ft. 2 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0


45 m/150 ft. 1 2/0 3/0 4/0
53 m/175 ft. 1/0 3/0 4/0
60 m/200 ft. 1/0 3/0 4/0
75 m/250 ft. 2/0 4/0
90 m/300 ft. 3/0
105 m/350 ft. 3/0
120 m/400 ft. 4/0

Figure 39—Recommended copper cable AWG sizes for arc welding

Cable maintenance
Maintenance and care of welding leads is important. Follow these guidelines:

• Protect the leads against hot sparks and weld spatter from your work
or that of nearby coworkers.
• Protect the leads from falling objects and cover them properly if
vehicles will be driving over them.
• Prevent the leads from rubbing against sharp corners that could
damage the insulation and create a fire or shock hazard.
• Use electrical tape to repair minor surface breaks in the welding leads.
Replace any lead that appears to have serious damage.

Cable connections
Welding leads might have connections in any of four places:

• cable to electrode holder


• cable to workpiece or ground clamp
• cable to cable
• cable to welding power source terminals

No matter which type of terminal or type of attachment method you use,


always make sure that all connections in the welding circuit are tight and
clean before you start welding. If the connection requires protection by
insulation, make sure this insulation is in good condition.

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Cable to electrode holder


Notes The connection of the welding cable to the electrode holder (Figure 40) is
usually a mechanical one. The bared end of the cable is wrapped with copper
or brass shim stock. It is then fitted into the brass socket end of the electrode
holder and secured with a set screw. This connection will always be insulated,
and usually this insulation is provided by the electrode holder handle.

Figure 40—Welding cable to electrode holder connection

Cable to work lead clamp (ground clamp)


The connection of the cable to the work lead clamp (Figure 41) might
be made by a mechanical connector, like the connection made to the
electrode holder. It is also commonly made by using an uninsulated lug
bolted to the clamp.

Figure 41—Cable to work lead clamp connection

Lugs are normally attached to the cable by either crimping, soldering or


brazing. If they are soldered or brazed, great care must be taken to make
sure that the filler metal bridges the entire area of electrical current flow.
This means that cable end and lug socket are tinned properly and you
must fill the entire socket with filler metal. A joint with insufficient fill will
overheat, melt and come apart.

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Cable to cable
Cable-to-cable connections are used to extend the length of your leads Notes
when you are required to work at a greater distance from the welding power
source. It is also common for Welders to use a “whip.” This is a short length
of smaller diameter cable connected to an electrode holder, and is used to
increase flexibility and reduce fatigue.

Twist-lock quick connectors (Figure 42) are a convenient and practical cable-
to-cable connection. To connect, simply push the two connectors together
and twist. To separate, twist, then pull apart. These usually attach to the
cable ends with a mechanical socket and set screw similar to the electrode
holder connection.

Figure 42—Twist-lock quick cable connectors

Commercially produced permanent connectors are a convenient way of


connecting welding leads to each other. The bared ends of the cables are
inserted into the connector socket ends and the connection is made by
either set screws or crimping. These connections must always be insulated.

Another way of making a cable-to-cable connection is by attaching a lug to


each cable end, then bolting the two lugs together. This is a non-preferred
method. You must always properly insulate these connections.

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Cable to welding power source terminals


Notes There are two main types of connectors that are used between the welding
cables and the terminals of the welding power source:

• The welding power source often has terminal connections requiring


an uninsulated lug. These lugs are the same as the ones used for the
cable-to-work lead clamp connection.
• Another common and convenient terminal connection is the built-in
quick connector (Figure 43). The welding power source has a female
quick connect receptacle, allowing it to receive any compatible male
quick connect cable end. The quick connects may or may not be
twist locks.

Figure 43—Welding power source terminal connection

Now complete Self-Test 5 and check your answers.

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Notes

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Self-Test 5
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. The two most common types of electrode holders are the jaw type
and the
a. spring type
b. twist-head type
c. clamp type
d. jig type

2. If the cable connection to the electrode holder contains frayed or broken


strands of wire, you should immediately
a. repair the connection with electrical tape
b. put the cable permanently out of service
c. cut off the damaged end and make a new connection
d. turn the cable end for end

3. What is the advantage of the spring-loaded ground clamp?


a. Its deep throat allows for a secure connection on certain workpieces.
b. It allows you to turn the workpiece.
c. It attaches more securely.
d. It makes the location of the workpiece connection easy to change.

4. To protect a workpiece that has a finished surface, it is preferred to


attach the workpiece lead with a
a. spring-loaded clamp
b. C-clamp
c. rotating clamp
d. magnetic clamp

5. A bad connection on a cable run can be found by


a. changing cables
b. localized heat buildup of the cable and connection
c. increasing the welding current
d. crackling noises

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6. The paper cover around the wire in the electrode cable is designed
to provide Answers
a. greater flexibility
b. greater current flow
c. greater insulation
d. all of the above

7. To select the proper size of welding cable for a particular job, you need
to know the
a. length of lead required and the type of welding power source
b. length of lead required and the type of current used (AC or DC)
c. length of lead required and the current level desired
d. type of welding power source and the type of voltage used

8. The connection between the electrode lead and the electrode holder
is normally
a. brazed
b. welded
c. soldered
d. mechanical

9. With cable connections that are soldered or brazed, care must be taken
to make sure that the filler metal
a. establishes a full electrical connection
b. melts at the right temperature
c. is compatible with the voltage level
d. is compatible with the current type

10. Before you begin to weld, you must check that all cable connections are
clean and tight in order to
a. minimize risk of personal injury
b. decrease resistance in the circuit
c. reduce heat levels in the terminals and cables
d. all of the above

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Notes

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Theory Competency P4-3:
Low-carbon steel electrodes for shielded
metal arc welding

P4-3
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-3

Outcomes
The shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process has many applications. This versatility is
thanks to the development of a wide range of SMAW electrodes. The American Welding
Society (AWS) lists over 20 different classifications for low-carbon steel SMAW electrodes.

When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you should be
able to describe:

• the operation of common electrodes


• the types and functions of SMAW electrode coatings
• the four main types of SMAW electrodes
• the most commonly used SMAW electrodes and their applications
• basic care, handling and storage procedures for these electrodes

Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in Module P4, you will take
a written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions
that are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-3:

• the principles of SMAW


• SMAW electrodes
• SMAW electrode applications
• basic care, handling and storage procedures for SMAW electrodes

Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.

Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.

Properties of stainless steels


• http://content.lincolnelectric.com/pdfs/products/literature/c64000.pdf

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P4-3 Learning Task 1: Notes


Operation of common electrodes for SMAW
The basic function of the welding electrode in the arc welding circuit is to
carry the current that generates the arc. This means that an electrode must
be a good conductor of electricity. In the SMAW process, the electrode must
also melt and fuse with the base metal in order to create an effective weld.
For this reason, electrodes are manufactured with a variety of different cores
that are compatible with different base metals.

In the SMAW process, electrodes have another important function: to help


control the following aspects of the welding process (see Figure 44):

• rate of melting
• amount of deposition
• creation of slag
• stability and direction of the arc
• depth of penetration
• rate at which the molten weld metal solidifies (weld pool freezes)
• addition of alloys to the weld metal
• provision of gases to protect or shield the molten weld pool

To fulfill these functions, the composition of arc welding electrodes must


be more complex than the filler rods used in oxy-fuel and gas tungsten arc
welding.

Direction of travel

Flux coating

Arc stream
Electrode
Gaseous shield core wire

Molten weld metal

Slag Crater

Penetration

Weld deposit Base metal

Figure 44—Action of a coated arc electrode

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Bare electrodes
Notes
Early arc welding used a non-consumable carbon electrode with a separate
filler rod. Later, bare-wire electrodes were developed that eliminated the
need for the separate filler material. Although bare-metal electrodes are used
today, they are rare. Uncoated manganese electrodes are an example.

Coated or shielded electrodes


The typical welding electrode (also called a “stick electrode”) consists of
an inner wire core surrounded by a flux coating (Figure 45). The wire core
carries the current and supplies most of the filler metal, while the coating
contains the chemicals that are specially chosen to help control aspects of
the welding process.
Flux coating

Core wire

CSA
E491
8 AW
S E7
018

Figure 45—Welding electrode

Functions of flux coatings


The flux coating on the electrode performs six functions:

• It forms a gaseous shield to keep oxygen and nitrogen away from


the weld pool.
• It aids and controls the nature of the electric arc stream of plasma and
metal particles.
• It cleans the weld pool by floating out impurities and scavenging
for trace amounts of oxygen.
• It adds alloying elements and in some cases filler material to
the weld metal.
• It forms a cover that shapes the cooling weld metal and protects
it from oxidation.
• It forms a cover of slag over the cooling weld bead to reduce
the cooling rate.

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Size of electrodes
Notes
Sizes of SMAW electrodes are measured as the diameter of the inner core wire,
excluding the flux coating. Following are standard SMAW electrode sizes:

• 1.6 mm (1⁄16 in.)


• 2.0 mm (5⁄64 in.)
• 2.5 mm (3⁄32 in.)
• 3.2 mm (1⁄8 in.)
• 4.0 mm (5⁄32 in.)
• 5.0 mm (3⁄16 in.)
• 5.6 mm (7⁄32 in.)
• 6.4 mm (1⁄4 in.)
• 8.0 mm (5⁄16 in.)

Lengths range from 225 mm (9 in.) to 1000 mm (36 in.). The most
common length is 350 mm (14 in.). The coatings are designated as light,
medium or heavy.

Types of electrodes
SMAW electrodes come in several types, depending on the composition
of their coatings. The ingredients in the electrode coating control four
important features:

• the amount of filler metal produced


• the speed at which filler metal is deposited
• the speed with which the molten weld metal solidifies (weld pool freezes)
• the inclusion of hydrogen in the weld deposit

Fast-fill
Fast-fill electrodes deposit substantial amounts of filler metal at a fast rate.
Electrodes used for production work frequently have this characteristic.
They are usually heavy-coated and often contain substantial amounts of iron
powder to add filler metal.

Fast-freeze
Fast-freeze electrodes deposit a weld bead with the ability to solidify or freeze
quickly. They generally operate with an arc that penetrates deeply but produces
little slag. These characteristics make them suitable for welding in the vertical
and overhead positions, where the effects of gravity need to be counteracted.

Fill-freeze (fast-follow)
Fill-freeze or fast-follow electrodes allow for higher travel speeds with
consistent bead formation. They deposit thin, narrow stringer beads with
shallow penetration. Their main use is for welds that require little filler
material, as on light-gauge sheet metal. As the name suggests, fill-freeze
electrodes combine both fast-fill and fast-freeze characteristics.

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Low hydrogen (Basic)


Notes Another special group of electrodes is the low-hydrogen, or basic, electrodes.
Hydrogen can be harmful to the metallic properties of weld metal, especially
to welds on high-strength low-alloy, medium-carbon, high-carbon and
high-sulphur steels. The transfer of hydrogen from the electrode to the weld
deposit can lead to hydrogen being trapped in the weld metal. This can lead
to cracking, which often occurs many hours after the weld is completed.

Submersing weldments in glycerine shortly after the welds were completed


shows that hydrogen can be trapped in the weld metal (Figure 46). The
image on the left shows the surface of a weld bead, while the image on
the right shows a weld cut on the diagonal. In both pictures the hydrogen
trapped in the weld metal can be seen leaving the weld bead.

Figure 46—Weldments submersed in glycerine

These pictures clearly show that hydrogen has been trapped in the weld
metal. Hydrogen trapped in weld metal can create internal stresses that can
lead to underbead cracking, even in low-carbon steels. Hydrogen is a serious
concern when welding high-strength low-alloy, medium-carbon, high-carbon
and high-sulphur steels.

To protect sensitive base metals from the presence of hydrogen, low-hydrogen


electrodes are manufactured with electrode coatings that do not have organic
substances containing hydrogen.

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Composition of SMAW electrode coatings


Notes
SMAW electrode coatings can contain many different chemicals, minerals
and ores. Different combinations of these materials serve specific purposes.
This generally restricts each electrode type to a particular situation, such as
welding position, welding current or current setting.

The main chemical ingredients used in different combinations to produce


electrodes of different types are:

• cellulose
• rutile
• china clay, silica and mica
• potassium
• ferro-manganese
• iron oxide (magnetite, hematite)
• iron powder
• sodium silicate

Let us look at the purposes of each of these materials.

Cellulose
Cellulose is made from wood pulp. It helps form the inverted cup–type
shield at the electrode tip that gives direction to the shielding gases and to
the arc stream. Cellulose also produces the shielding gases. As the cellulose
is consumed, it forms a gaseous envelope of carbon dioxide and water
vapour that excludes oxygen and nitrogen. Sodium or potassium is added to
these coating to stabilize the arc.

Rutile
“Rutile” is another term for titanium dioxide. It makes the arc smooth and
stable and forms a hard, black slag that gives a smooth finish to the weld.
Like cellulose, rutile is frequently combined with sodium or potassium.

China clay, silica and mica


China clay, silica and mica are generally used in electrode coatings to
provide slag volume. In varying quantities, they are also important in
controlling the viscosity and the surface tension of the slag as well as the
rate at which the slag freezes.

Potassium
In electrode coatings, potassium is used as an arc stabilizer and as an ionizer.
As an ionizer, it alters the electrical characteristics of the arc and helps ease
and stabilize the flow of current. In addition to its use in compounds with
cellulose and rutile, potassium is combined with feldspar or with titanium. It
is commonly used in AC electrodes to promote a stable arc.

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Ferro-manganese
Notes Ferro-manganese is an alloy containing about 80% manganese. When used
in electrode coatings, it helps remove oxygen from the arc by combining
with the oxygen to form an oxide. The oxide then forms part of the slag.

Iron oxide (magnetite, hematite)


Magnetite and hematite are ores that produce a heavy slag. Their particular
property is that they can dissolve large quantities of oxides that might be
formed during the welding operation. Although the resulting weld is lower
in tensile strength, the appearance of the weld is smooth.

Iron powder
Iron powder can make up 10% to 60% of an electrode coating. It creates a
heavier coating that adds to the filler material produced by the electrode wire.
It also allows for the use of higher welding current. This increases the rate
of deposition of the weld. Iron powder also improves the appearance of the
finished weld, makes the weld more ductile and makes slag removal easier.

Using iron powder in the electrode also helps reduce arc instability during
AC welding.

Sodium silicate
Sodium silicate, more commonly known as “water glass,” is a heavy liquid,
quite viscous and sticky. It is used to bind together the various ingredients of
electrode coatings so that they can coat the core wire.

Metal transfer with SMAW electrodes


In the SMAW process, the heat of the arc melts the core wire of the coated
electrode and this metal is transferred across the arc gap to the base metal.
At the same time, the heat of the arc melts the base metal. The molten
metal from the electrode combines with the molten base metal in the weld
pool (or puddle) to form the weld metal.

There are a number of theories to explain how the molten metal in the
electrode is carried across the arc gap to the workpiece. None of these
explanations gives a complete picture. What is clear is that this metal
transfer always takes place, whether electrode positive or electrode negative.
It also occurs in opposition to the force of gravity when you weld in the
overhead position.

Gravity
Gravity is clearly a factor in metal transfer from electrode to weld pool.
When you are welding in the flat position it helps metal transfer. But when
you are welding in the overhead, vertical or horizontal positions, gravity has
an adverse effect. Using smaller diameter electrodes will help minimize this
by reducing the loss of weld metal.

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At the same time, you should keep the arc length as short as possible to
reduce the distance molten electrode metal has to travel. A long arc also Notes
increases the risk that molten metal will fall and burn you.

Gas expansion
The rapid expansion of gases at the tip of the melting electrode is another
factor in metal transfer. These gases form as the electrode coating burns
and breaks down, and as the electrode wire melts and produces carbon
monoxide. The gases will force metal and slag particles across the arc gap.

Electromagnetic force
The magnetic field associated with the arc has a pinching effect on the
melting electrode (Figure 47). This frees globules of molten metal, and the
electromagnetic force carries them across the arc gap.
Flux coating

Core wire

Pinch effect

Figure 47—Pinching effect of magnetic field on electrode

Electromotive force
The circuit voltage produces an electromotive force that pushes the globules
of molten metal along, regardless of the position in which you are welding.

Surface tension
Surface tension on the workpiece attracts the globules of filler metal and
slag from the electrode as they approach the molten weld pool. Once they
are part of the weld pool, surface tension helps keep the metal in place even
in the overhead position.

Now complete Self-Test 1 and check your answers.

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Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. Electrodes are manufactured with different types of core material so they


can be compatible with different
a. types of electricity
b. types of base metal
c. kinds of welding process
d. kinds of welding circuit setup

2. SMAW electrodes can help provide


a. slag
b. deoxidizing alloys
c. shielding gases
d. all of the above

3. SMAW electrodes are available in sizes ranging from 1.6 mm (1⁄16 in.) to
a. 3.2 mm (1⁄8 in.)
b. 4.8 mm (3⁄16 in.)
c. 6.4 mm (1⁄4 in.)
d. 8.0 mm (5⁄16 in.)

4. The slag produced by SMAW electrodes helps to control


a. bead shape, cooling rate and oxide contamination
b. cooling rate and oxide contamination, and also forms part of the
finished weld
c. oxide contamination and cooling rate, and prolongs electrode life
d. cooling rate and bead shape, and prolongs electrode life

5. An electrode classified as fast-fill would be appropriate to use for


a. production work on light-gauge materials
b. production work on plate
c. out of position welding
d. welds requiring little slag

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6. What type of electrode coating material is effective at forming the


inverted cup–type shield at the end of the electrode? Answers
a. iron powder
b. cellulose
c. ferro-manganese
d. iron oxide

7. One of the main ionizing ingredients used in electrode coatings is


a. china clay
b. sodium silicate
c. potassium
d. iron oxide

8. The electrode coating ingredient that is particularly effective in removing


oxides produced during the welding process is
a. cellulose
b. sodium silicate
c. potassium
d. iron oxide (hematite, magnetite)

9. The force responsible for transferring molten particles of metal across the
arc by means of a pinching effect is
a. gravity
b. electromagnetic
c. gas expansion
d. surface tension

10. Which length of electrode is the most commonly used?


a. 225 mm (9 in.)
b. 300 mm (12 in.)
c. 350 mm (14 in.)
d. 450 mm (18 in.)

11. Electrodes are manufactured in lengths that range from


a. 300 mm (12 in.) to 1000 mm (36 in.)
b. 225 mm (9 in.) to 700 mm (28 in.)
c. 300 mm (12 in.) to 700 mm (28 in.)
d. 225 mm (9 in.) to 1000 mm (36 in.)

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Notes

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P4-3 Learning Task 2: Notes


Classifications of low-carbon steel electrodes
Standards of coated electrode manufacture
Advances in welding technology have resulted in the development of a
wide variety of electrodes to meet different welding requirements. This has
made it necessary to have a method of electrode classification that ensures
uniformity of manufacture and performance.

The systems developed use a letter and number code to indicate the content
and performance specifications of an electrode. Manufacturers must print the
appropriate code number on the coating of every electrode (Figure 48). In
North America, three basic classification systems are used. These are the CSA,
AWS and ASME systems.

CSA E4918 AWS E7018

CSA E4310 AWS E6010

Figure 48—Electrode with code marking

The most general classification system is that developed by the American


Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). It uses F numbers to group
electrodes according to their filler metal and coating type. This system is
important in the complete definition of the specifications of any electrode,
but it is not the system that Welders normally use to identify individual
electrodes.

The classification systems Welders commonly use are those developed by


the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) in conjunction with the Canadian
Welding Bureau (CWB) and the American Welding Society (AWS). These
two systems both use a letter/number code to convey similar information.
The main difference between the systems is that the CSA system uses metric
measurement while the AWS system uses imperial measurement.

All low-carbon steel electrodes manufactured or used in Canada must meet


the standards published by the CSA in its Bulletin W48-06 and certified by
the CWB. These standards are almost identical to those published by the
AWS in its Bulletin A5.1.

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CSA and AWS designations


Notes There are over 150 different electrodes available in the area of low-carbon, low-
alloy, stainless and specialty steels. To choose the most appropriate electrode for
a particular job, you must understand the identification information given by
the code numbers in both the CSA and the AWS systems.

The code number provides the following information:

• if the filler metal rod is to be used for electric arc welding or gas welding
• the tensile strength of the welds produced with that filler metal rod
• the welding position recommended for use with that filler metal rod
• the kind of current supply and circuit setup to be used
• the composition of the filler metal rod coating

Under the CSA system that is used in Canada, an identification number


consists of a letter or letters followed by four digits (Figures 49–51).

E 43 1 0
designates electric designates tensile designates welding designates
welding strength in tens of position (see composition of
megapascals (MPa) Figure 50) coating and current
requirements (see
Figure 51)

Figure 49—E4310 electrode code

2nd to last digit Position


1 all positions except vertical down*
2 flat and horizontal fillet
3 flat position only**
4 vertical down
* Vertical down restrictions may vary between certifying authorities.
** Not a CSA or AWS designation.

Figure 50—Welding position indicated by second-last digit

Last Digit Coatings Current


0 Cellulose, sodium DCEP
1 Cellulose, potassium AC or DCEP
2 Titania, sodium AC or DCEN
3 Titania, potassium AC or DC
4 Titania, iron powder AC or DC
5 Basic, sodium-calcium DCEP
6 Basic, potassium AC or DCEP
7 Iron oxide, high iron powder AC or DCEN
8 Basic, iron powder AC or DCEP

Figure 51—Coating ingredients and current characteristics indicated by last digit

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The CSA and AWS specifications designate the characteristics of electrodes


in similar ways. Both electrode standards meet the same basic performance Notes
requirements, with minor variations.

The code numbers are the same in both systems except for the indication of
tensile strength (Figure 52). AWS code numbers indicate tensile strength using
the imperial system, in thousands of pounds per square inch, rather than in
megapascals.

CSA (MPa x 10) AWS (psi x 1000)


E43XX E60XX
E49XX E70XX
E55XX E80XX
E62XX E90XX
E69XX E100XX
E76XX E110XX
E83XX E120XX

Figure 52—Equivalent CSA and AWS minimum


tensile strength ratings of weld deposit

For example, the E4310 electrode can be designated in the AWS system as
E6010 (Figure 53).

AWS System (Imperial) CSA System (Metric)

Example: E6010 where E = Electrode Example: E4310 where E = Electrode


60 = minimum tensile strength (psi) x 1000  inimum tensile strength in
43 = m
1 = usability position megapascals (MPa) x 10

0 = type of coating, current, polarity 1 = usability position


0 = type of coating, current, polarity

Figure 53—CSA and AWS comparison

Many manufacturers use their own trade names and numbers for their
electrodes. On the job, you are just as likely to know electrodes by these names
as by their CSA identification number. For instance, the E4924 (AWS: E7024)
electrode may be known as Rocket 24®, Easyarc 12® or L.A. 7024®, but each
one will meet the CSA W48.1-06 and the AWS A5.1 standards.

You might come across electrodes that do not have certification


numbers. These electrodes do not meet standards required by
the CSA or AWS codes. If an electrode does not have a certifying
number, it does not meet code requirements.

Now complete Self-Test 2 and check your answers.

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Self-Test 2
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. The ASME F number classification system for electrodes classifies


electrodes according to their
a. current requirements
b. filler metal and coating type
c. polarity requirements
d. tensile strength

2. The main difference between the CSA and AWS electrode identification
systems is that the CSA system measures tensile strength in
a. megapascals
b. kilopascals
c. pounds per square inch
d. pounds per square foot

3. The second to last digit in the CSA electrode identification system


designates
a. coating ingredients
b. current requirements
c. welding position
d. tensile strength

4. To identify the main coating ingredients of an electrode, you would look


to the identification number’s
a. last digit
b. first digit
c. second to last digit
d. first two digits

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5. The digit “3” in the next to last position of an electrode identification


code designates Answers
a. flat and horizontal positions
b. low hydrogen and iron powder
c. AC or DCEN current
d. flat position only

6. The digit “8” in the last position of an electrode identification code


designates
a. flat and horizontal positions
b. low hydrogen and iron powder
c. AC or DCEN current
d. flat position only

7. In the AWS electrode identification system, the first two digits designate
tensile strength in
a. kilopascals
b. megapascals
c. thousands of pounds per square inch
d. thousands of pounds per square foot

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Notes

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P4-3 Learning Task 3: Notes


Select common electrodes for SMAW
Principles of electrode selection
To be effective, the electrode you choose for any given job should provide
the following characteristics:

• good arc stability


• swift deposition of filler metal
• maximum weld strength
• good weld appearance
• minimum weld spatter
• easy slag removal
• good handling in the given weld position

To help make sure that you achieve these conditions, there are seven factors
you should consider in choosing an electrode for a given job. These are:

• the properties of the base metal


• base metal dimensions
• joint design and fit-up
• welding position and thickness of weld deposit
• welding current
• service conditions
• production factors

Let us examine each of these in detail.

The properties of the base metal


The weld you make must be as strong as the base metal you are welding. To
achieve this, the electrode must provide the same mechanical properties as
the base metal and have a metallurgical composition compatible with the
base metal. This means that you need to know both the composition and
the strength of the base metal you are about to weld. This information will
determine the composition of the core wire, what alloying elements should
be in the electrode coating, and whether the electrode needs to be of the
low-hydrogen variety.

Base metal dimensions


Generally, thin material will require a small-diameter electrode, thicker
material a larger diameter electrode.

Joint design and fit-up


Some electrodes are particularly suited for work on specific types of joint
design. The CSA designation numbers do not include this information, but
when you are choosing an electrode you should consider the joint type.

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In addition, electrodes vary with respect to the amount of penetration they


Notes provide. When the edges of the base metal have not been bevelled and
when the fit is tight rather than open, choose an electrode that provides
deeper penetration.

Welding position and thickness of weld deposit


Your choice of electrode diameter will depend in part on welding position.
CSA electrode designation numbers indicate the welding positions for which
each electrode is particularly suited. For example, those with high deposition
rates are appropriate for flat and horizontal position welding. Fast-freeze
type electrodes are designed to perform effectively in the vertical and
overhead positions. Thicker electrodes are generally unsuitable for vertical
and overhead positions where gravity is a negative factor.

The thickness of the required weld deposit will also determine your choice
of electrode. In multi-pass groove welds, the narrower dimensions at the
bottom of the joint will generally call for a smaller diameter electrode, while
the fill passes will require a larger diameter electrode.

Welding current
The current that welding power sources produce can be AC, DC or both.
Many electrodes perform equally well with either AC or DC. But some
electrodes (as their numbers indicate) can be used only with AC, others only
with DCEN and still others only with DCEP.

Service conditions
On many jobs, the actual specifications for welds are given and will
generally dictate the electrode you will use. When you do not receive the
specifications, you must assess the conditions that the weld will encounter
when in use and choose the appropriate electrode. Conditions such as shock
loading or extreme temperature will require a particular electrode choice.

Production factors
Your choice of electrode could depend on production requirements. For
example, fast-fill electrodes that have high deposition rates might be a
desirable choice because of the increased productivity they provide.

Common low-carbon steel electrodes


The guidelines above provide a sound basis for choosing electrodes in
almost all circumstances. In practice, you will quickly become familiar with a
range of electrodes, their characteristics and the conditions for their use.

The following is an introduction to some of the more common SMAW


electrodes you will use when welding low-carbon steel. To help you become
familiar with both the CSA (metric) and the AWS (imperial) systems, the
AWS designation is given in parentheses after the CSA number.

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E4310 (E6010) Notes


E electric 43 m
 inimum tensile 1 a ll positions except 0 cellulose and
strength 430 MPa vertical downhill* sodium—DCEP only
(60 000 psi)
* Vertical down restrictions might vary between certifying authorities.

• all positions except vertical downhill (vertical downhill restrictions


might vary between certifying authorities)
• DCEP only
• classified as a fast-freeze electrode because of its quick solidification
• deep-penetrating arc
• often chosen for vertical and overhead welds
• cellulose flux creates good shielding gas production
• thin and easily removed slag
• excellent choice for X-ray-quality specifications
• common in shipbuilding, pressure vessels and storage tank construction
E4311 (E6011)
E electric 43 m
 inimum tensile 1 a ll positions except 1 c ellulose and
strength 430 MPa vertical downhill* potassium—AC or
(60 000 psi) DCEP
* Vertical down restrictions might vary between certifying authorities.

• all positions except vertical downhill (vertical downhill restrictions


might vary between certifying authorities)
• AC or DCEP
• classified as a fast-freeze electrode (AC version of E4310 (E6010))
• deep-penetrating arc
• cellulose flux provides good shielding gas production
• thin and easily removed slag
• excellent choice for X-ray quality specifications
• common in shipbuilding, pressure vessels and storage tank construction

E4313 (E6013)
E electric 43 m
 inimum tensile 1 all positions 3 t itania (rutile)
strength 430 MPa potassium—AC
(60 000 psi) or DC

• all-position electrode
• AC or DC (either polarity, DCEN preferred)
• classified as fill-freeze (fast-follow)

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• medium penetration
Notes
• rutile electrode coating
• medium slag coating that gives a good weld appearance
and flakes off easily
• popular for vertical down on light gauge and for use on simple AC
power sources

E4914 (E7014)
E electric 49 minimum tensile 1 a ll positions except 4 t itania (rutile) iron
strength 490 MPa vertical downhill powder—AC or DC
(70 000 psi)

• all-position electrode
• AC, DC (either polarity)
• medium to low penetration
• thick slag gives a smooth bead appearance
• slag flakes off easily
• thick flux coating contains iron powder, which adds to the filler metal
• high deposition rate increases productivity
• fill-freeze

E4924 (E7024)
E electric 49 minimum tensile 2 flat and horizontal 4 t itania (rutile) iron
strength 490 MPa positions powder—AC or DC
(70 000 psi)

• flat and horizontal positions


• AC, DC (either polarity)
• low penetration
• heavy slag, easily removed
• iron powder version of E4914 with up to 50% iron powder
• known as a contact electrode since the thick flux allows you to drag
the tip of the electrode along the base metal
• very clean and smooth weld
• fast-fill

E4918 (E7018)
E electric 49 minimum tensile 1 all positions except 8 low hydrogen,
strength 490 MPa vertical downhill potassium, iron
(70 000 psi) powder—AC or
DCEP

• all positions except vertical downhill


• low hydrogen (basic coating)

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• designed for low-alloy steels and unknown alloys that are prone to
underbead cracking from hydrogen entrapment Notes
• 25–40% iron powder in flux
• arc length must be kept short to prevent porosity
• designator after the number indicates the maximum level of hydrogen
(e.g., H2, H4, H16)

Stainless steel electrodes


The term “stainless steel” covers a wide range of alloys. Later modules of the
Level C training will provide more detail about alloys.

Historically, the most common stainless steel was called “18-8.” It contained
18% chromium and 8% nickel. Stainless steels in the 300 series contain
these approximate proportions.

Electrodes are numbered to indicate the base metal alloy on which they are to
be used. Since corrosion resistance is most important, matching the electrode
to the alloy is critical. When in doubt, consult the welding procedures written
for the job or a welding supplier who will supply literature.

At this point in the course, it is important to understand that with stainless


alloys it is wise to ask a specialist which electrode you should use. Another
good source of information is the Internet. Most specialty electrode
manufacturers have a website that gives advice on how to use their products.

The base metal alloy number of a stainless steel electrode will have a suffix
indicating the coating:

• EXXX-15 is lime-based, all-position, DC.


• EXXX-16 indicates titania coating, primarily flat position, AC or DC
(DC preferred).
• EXXX-17 indicates silica-titania coating, flat and horizontal position,
AC or DC (DC preferred).

Austenitic stainless steels


The most common stainless steel used in industry is austenitic stainless
steel. These are the 300 series. The numbers of the electrodes match the
numbers of the stainless base metal alloy. The letter “L” is often added to
the electrode or alloy number to indicate extra-low carbon content. This
reduces the risk of intergranular corrosion. They are considered to be non-
magnetic and carbon-free.

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The following are examples of common austenitic electrodes:


Notes
E308-16
Designed to join 304 and 308 stainless steel base metals. It is all-position
except vertical downhill.

E309-15
This electrode is used to join low-carbon steel to stainless steel base metals.
It is all-position except vertical downhill. If the incorrect electrode is used
to join stainless steel to low-carbon steel, the weld is likely to crack while in
service. This electrode contains extra nickel to prevent cracking.

E316-16
This electrode is designed to join 316 stainless steel.

Electrodes for welding cast iron


Cast iron is an extremely brittle material that requires special care when
welding. The electrode most commonly used with cast iron is called “Ni-rod.”
Ni-rod is usually 100% nickel, and so it is very expensive. To reduce costs,
electrodes that are 55% nickel are often used if machining afterward is not a
consideration or if multi-pass welds are required.

Following are types of electrodes for welding cast iron:

• ECI is a coated electrode that has a cast iron core wire.


• ESt is a coated electrode with a steel core wire. The weld produced is
very hard and not machinable.
• ENi is a coated electrode with a pure nickel or alloyed nickel core wire
(Ni-rod). The weld deposit produced with pure nickel is machinable.
It is important to properly prepare a cast iron weld joint before starting.
Often it takes longer to prepare the joint than to actually do the weld. Later
on in this module you will learn about some of those procedures.

Electrodes for hardfacing


Electrodes for hardfacing are applied to surfaces that require a hard skin. The
hardness of the skin depends on the alloys in the electrode.

There is no exact standard for hardfacing welding electrodes. Each


manufacturer produces different formulations and supplies data on the
weld beads produced and their expected hardness and toughness.

The various products create surfaces that range from very soft all the way up
to glass hard. When you apply a hardfacing weld, it is important to understand
the application. If the weld is too hard and brittle, it will fracture and break
away from the surface (spalling). If it is too soft, it will be quickly worn away.

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Hardfacing welding electrodes are based on several alloys made from


carbon, cobalt, nickel, chromium, tungsten and manganese. They can be Notes
loosely categorized as:

• tungsten carbides
• chromium carbides
• semiaustenitic steels
• austenitic manganese steels
• austenitic stainless steels
• martenisitic stainless steels
• carbon steel alloys

It is wise to consult the supplier as to the correct alloy to choose. The


purpose of hardfacing is to extend the life of the machinery being welded by
controlling wear. The wrong choice can not only be an expensive waste of
time and material but can even shorten the life of the equipment. In a large
mining operation, the correct choice can save millions of dollars per year.

Shielded metal arc cutting electrodes


The shielded metal arc cutting (SMAC) process uses electrodes specially
developed for cutting. These are not the same as the electrodes for shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW). Manufacturers have developed special electrodes
for cutting, piercing and bevelling stainless steel, copper, aluminum, bronze,
nickel, cast iron, manganese, steel and alloy steels.

The special feature of these cutting electrodes is the high-velocity gas and
particle stream they develop that cuts through the metal. The special slow-
burning ingredients in the electrode coating and the deep cavity in the
electrode end (Figure 54) are the features that help develop this cutting action.

Steel core

Coating

+ Deeply recessed electrode

Kerf

Arc stream and gas jet from


Plate electrode covering and wire

Figure 54—Shielded metal arc cutting (SMAC) electrode

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SMAC electrodes are available in the standard lengths. The most common
Notes length is 350 mm (14 in.). SMAC electrodes are available in diameters of
2.5 mm (3⁄32 in.), 3.2 mm (1⁄8 in.), 4.0 mm (5⁄32 in.), 5.0 mm (3⁄16 in.) and
6.0 mm (1⁄4 in.). These electrodes are used with a constant current machine
producing either AC or DC. Your choice of electrode sizes and current
settings for cutting depends on the thickness of the metal being cut.

Techniques to be used for cutting include the use of a very short arc. The
electrode can be dragged across the metal without any danger of it shorting
out because of the heavy coating and the recessed electrode wire.

Cutting with standard SMAW electrodes


Regular shielded metal arc welding electrodes can also be used for cutting
low-carbon steel. However, this will require a higher current than a SMAC
electrode would. SMAW electrodes used for cutting will last a little longer
if they are soaked in water for a few minutes before use. The absorbed
moisture slows down the vapourizing of the coating and helps produce a
deeper cup at the end of the electrode. This increased cavity creates a more
forceful jet action.

Never use a water-soaked electrode for welding. The absorbed moisture will
cause hydrogen to be trapped in the weld.

Now complete Self-Test 3 and check your answers.

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Notes

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Self-Test 3
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. It is essential to know the properties of the base metal before you weld
so you can select an electrode with the right
a. diameter
b. coating ingredients
c. length
d. weight

2. To weld thin base metal, you would usually select an electrode with
a. a larger diameter
b. deeper penetration
c. a smaller diameter
d. base metal thickness is not an important factor in electrode selection

3. For weld joints with tight rather than open fit-up, it is usual to select an
electrode with
a. deeper penetration
b. shallower penetration
c. moderate penetration
d. fit-up is not an important factor in electrode selection

4. An electrode that has a cellulose-type coating and a deep-penetrating


arc is the
a. E4914 (E7014)
b. E4313 (E6013)
c. E4310 (E6010)
d. E4924 (E7024)

5. E4313 (E6013) can be used with


a. AC only
b. AC and DC
c. AC and DCEP
d. AC and DCEN

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6. Which electrode has shallow penetration and is recommended for sheet


metal, including the vertical down position? Answers
a. E4313 (E6013)
b. E4918 (E7018)
c. E4311 (E6011)
d. E4914 (E7014)

7. Which electrode has a very high deposition rate?


a. E4310 (E6010)
b. E4311 (E6011)
c. E4918 (E7018)
d. E4924 (E7024)

8. A contact electrode is one that


a. requires special electrical contacts
b. is used to provide contact between special metals
c. is used in contact with the base metal
d. has a coating of special contact substances

9. The E4918 (E7018) electrode is suitable for use on high-sulphur


and high-carbon steels because its coating
a. contains iron powder
b. is low in hydrogen
c. contains potassium
d. is high in cellulose

10. Shielded metal arc cutting (SMAC) electrodes produce a high-velocity


gas and particle stream by using a special coating that
a. burns quickly
b. burns slowly
c. eliminates porosity
d. creates gas pockets

11. To use a standard SMAW electrode for cutting requires


a. less current
b. more current
c. a long arc
d. a constant potential machine

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Notes

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Module P4 Theory Competency P4-3

P4-3 Learning Task 4: Notes


Correct handling and storage of common
SMAW electrodes
SMAW electrodes are both fragile and expensive. You must handle
electrodes carefully at all times.

Handling of electrodes before and after use


Electrodes must be handled with great care to avoid breaking or cracking
the coating. An electrode with a damaged coating will usually perform
poorly. If pieces of the coating are actually missing, the result will be poor
weld appearance and porosity in the weld.

Because electrodes with very different properties can look the same, correct
handling of electrodes also includes marking them accurately after the package
has been opened. It is equally important to collect and clearly mark unused
electrodes that are being returned to storage. Do not risk producing a weld
that does not meet specifications just because you used the wrong electrode.
An electrode that is not clearly identified should be considered unusable.

Storage of electrodes
The main requirement for storing electrodes is to keep them dry. Not only
are electrode coatings fragile, but their composition allows them to pick up
moisture from the air.

Prolonged exposure to moisture can cause the coating to disintegrate. Even


if the disintegration is not obvious, the heat of the arc will actually blow
away portions of the coating. In either case, the electrode becomes useless
and must be discarded.

Any moisture that an electrode absorbs contains hydrogen. During welding,


some of this hydrogen is transferred to the weld metal. This can lead to a
number of problems with the weld. Depending on the composition of the base
metal, these problems can include embrittlement, porosity, cracking of the
weld and a rough weld appearance. In addition, welding with a moist electrode
increases the arc voltage, increases weld spatter and makes slag removal difficult.

Some electrodes (such as mineral-coated ones) are more prone to


absorbing moisture than others. The length of time electrodes can
be exposed to the atmosphere varies from 30 minutes to four hours
or longer, depending on the relative humidity of the atmosphere. For
example, the maximum exposure time for low-hydrogen electrodes
is between two and four hours, depending on the relative humidity.
A perfectly dry low-hydrogen electrode is essential to produce a
satisfactory weld. Low-hydrogen electrodes must be thrown away if
they have been directly exposed to water.

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With all electrodes, it is impossible to tell simply by looking at them whether


Notes they have absorbed dangerous amounts of moisture. To protect electrodes
from moisture, manufacturers ship them in airtight containers. On the job
site, electrodes are stored in sealed portable electrode containers.

Electrode ovens
Some electrodes can be safely stored at normal room conditions if the
temperature and relative humidity do not go above certain normal
tolerances. For other types of electrodes, electrode ovens are widely used to
guarantee a humidity-controlled environment for storage.

Ovens are essential for the more sensitive low-hydrogen and hardfacing
electrodes and for special-alloy electrodes such as stainless steel, brass,
bronze, aluminum, inconel and monel.

Electrode ovens can be the large type that are found in welding shops. These
are capable of holding several hundred kilograms of electrodes. There are
also smaller field ovens that can be connected to an auxiliary power supply.

Ovens are also useful for restoring electrodes that might have been exposed
to a certain level of moisture but that can be re-baked to make them
usable. Electrode manufacturers and suppliers provide information on
storage and re-baking conditions for their electrodes and, if available, these
recommendations should be followed (Figure 55).

Low-hydrogen electrode time limits outside of oven


For standard structural welding codes, low-hydrogen electrodes should
be used within four hours of being removed from the electrode oven.
For electrodes with strengths higher than E49XX (E70XX), the time limit
is two hours.

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CSA # AWS # Normal room Holding ovens Re-bake Notes


E4310 E6010 25 ºC ± 10 ºC Consult supplier
E4311 E6011 (80 ºF ± 20 ºF) for storage
(50–70% and re-bake
relative conditions.
humidity)
E4313 E6013 25 ºC ± 10 ºC 10 ºC to 20 ºC 135 ºC ± 15 ºC
(80 ºF ± 20 ºF) (20 ºF to 40 ºF)
above ambient
temperature
E4914 E7014 50% max. 1 hr. at temp.
relative
humidity
E4924 E7024
E4918 E7018 25 ºC to 140 ºC 350 ºC ± 25 ºC
(50 ºF to 250 ºF) (650 ºF ±
above ambient 50 ºF) for 1 hr.
temperature
Stainless steel 103 ºC to 127 ºC 179 ºC to
Hardfacing (215 ºF to 260 ºF) 315 ºC
High-strength (350 ºF to
alloy 600 ºF)
check
manufacturer
for detailed
procedure

Figure 55—Electrode storage conditions

For information on stainless steel electrodes and their application, see


the booklet Stainless Steels: Properties – How To Weld Them – Where To
Use Them at:
http://content.lincolnelectric.com/pdfs/products/literature/c64000.pdf

Now complete Self-Test 4 and check your answers.

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Self-Test 4
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. Pieces of broken coating missing from damaged electrodes can cause


in the weld.
a. slag inclusions
b. hard spots
c. porosity
d. lack of fusion

2. It is important to collect and accurately re-mark


a. damaged electrodes to be thrown away
b. unused electrodes to be returned to storage
c. electrodes to be used for a given job
d. all electrodes that look the same

3. If too much hydrogen is transferred to the weld deposit, the weld could
a. expand
b. contract
c. crack
d. become more ductile

4. Low-hydrogen electrodes that have been in direct contact with water


should be
a. dried in the sun
b. discarded
c. dried with a torch
d. dried in an oven

5. Cellulose-type electrodes should have a moisture content between 3% and


a. 4%
b. 5%
c. 6%
d. 7%

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6. The maximum exposure time for low-hydrogen electrodes is


Answers
a. 30 minutes to 1 hour
b. 1 to 2 hours
c. 2 to 4 hours
d. 4 to 8 hours

7. The types of electrodes that must be kept in an electrode oven are


a. all low-carbon steel electrodes
b. hardfacing, low-hydrogen and special-alloy electrodes
c. low-hydrogen, low-carbon steel and special-alloy electrodes
d. hardfacing, low-carbon steel and special-alloy electrodes

8. Proper handling of electrodes includes attention to the manufacturer’s


recommendations regarding
a. current and heat settings
b. joint type and preparation
c. welding technique and position
d. none of the above

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Notes

126 Welder Training Program — Level C


Theory Competency P4-4:
Basic weld joint design and weld positions

P4-4
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-4

Outcomes
Welding an effective joint requires careful attention to weld joint design and
preparation. The design of a weld joint is a major factor in the depth of penetration and
the strength of the completed weld. Weld joint design and welding position also affect
your choice of electrode, welding technique, current settings and speed of travel.

When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you should be
able to describe:

• the five basic weld joint designs and their many variations
• the types of welds and their acceptable dimensions
• continuous and intermittent welding
• the weld positions for fillet welds and for groove welds

Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in Module P4, you will take a
written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions that
are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-4:

• basic weld joint designs


• types of welds
• weld positions for fillet welds and groove welds

Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.

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P4-4 Learning Task 1: Notes


Basic weld joint design
Five basic joints
There are five basic joint designs used in welding (Figure 56). Each of these
has many variations. Your choice of which joint or variation to use will
depend on four important factors:

• the load applied to the weld (e.g., compression, torsion,


bending or fatigue)
• the way the load is applied (e.g., sudden, variable or steady)
• the thickness of the base metal
• the cost of the joint preparation and welding time
Tee joint
The tee joint joins two pieces of metal at right angles (90°) to each other.

Lap joint
The lap joint joins two pieces of metal that overlap.

Corner joint
The corner joint also joins two pieces of metal at right angles, but the joint is
formed at the ends of both pieces in an L shape.

Edge joint
The edge joint joins two pieces of metal that are turned up at the edges. It is
also called a “flange joint.”

Butt joint
The butt joint joins two pieces of metal lying in the same plane.

Lap joint Tee joint Corner joint

Butt joint Edge joint

Figure 56—Five basic weld joints

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Variations in weld joint design


Notes
On thicker material, the edges must be prepared to get additional weld
penetration. There are several ways of preparing the edges of a weld joint.

Tee joints
The square tee joint requires no edge preparation. It is widely used because it
is relatively inexpensive and easy to fit. On thicker material, the edges might
be prepared with a single bevel, double bevel, single J or double J (Figure 57).

Single bevel Double bevel Single J Double J

Figure 57—Edge preparations for tee joints

Tee joints that are welded on one side are only satisfactory for light static
loads. For heavy or fluctuating loads, tee joints need to be welded on both
sides to increase their strength.

Tee joints are relatively easy to design, and they provide maximum access for
welding. However, the chance of them being distorted is high. They are also
expensive because they need more filler weld material, especially on larger
tee joints and on joints that need to be welded from both sides.

Lap joints
Lap joints need little or no edge preparation. On thicker material, a single bevel
is all that is usually required, although such preparations are extremely rare. Lap
joints are often used for welds joining two materials of different thickness.

If a weld does not need great strength, a single lap joint might be enough to
provide a “tight” joint. Do not use a single lap joint when the weld will be
subjected to fluctuating, bending or twisting loads. For these types of loads,
weld the joint from both sides, or use a double lap joint (Figure 58).

Single lap joint Double lap joint

Figure 58—Variations on lap joints

Lap joints have two significant drawbacks. As with tee joints, the material
requirements are high. That means you can only get maximum tensile

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strength when the overlap is five times the thickness of the thinner member.
Also, the joint tends to lose its strength under stress loading. Notes

Corner joints
There are two types of corner joints: the open corner and the closed corner
(Figure 59).

Open Closed

Figure 59—Types of corner joints

Welders use the open corner joint more often than the closed corner joint.
Penetration is usually excellent, resulting in a full-strength weld. With the
closed corner, penetration is impossible on all but light-gauge sheet metal. On
thicker material, you must prepare the edges (Figure 60). A small root opening
can be left between the two pieces in order to ensure full penetration.

Single bevel Single V Double bevel

Single J Single U Double J

Figure 60—Edge preparation for corner joints

Square corner joints are relatively easy to prepare and assemble, but the
bevel, the V, the J and the U preparations require more skill and time to
accurately fit the joint.

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Corner joints are not satisfactory for heavy stress loading if they are only
Notes welded from one side. For heavy stress loading applications, corner joints
are welded from the inside before gouging the outside to sound metal and
welding. Although this increases the cost of the weld, it produces joints
capable of withstanding heavy stress loading.

Edge joints
Edge or flange joints are most commonly used on light-gauge material such
as sheet metal. The edges of the sheet metal are turned up with a piece of
metal-forming equipment called a “brake.” The turned-up edges reduce the
danger of burn-through on thin metal and at the same time help to prevent
distortion. On thin metal, no additional filler metal is required. With plate, the
edges must be prepared in order to ensure sufficient penetration (Figure 61).

Single bevel Single V Single J Single U

Figure 61—Edge joint preparations

Butt joints
Butt joints are the most widely used of the five designs. Like tee joints,
butt joints provide the most access for welding. They use the least weld
material. Butt joints allow 100% penetration, so they are effective for all
types of stresses.

Butt joints are the preferred joint for resisting fatigue stresses if complete
penetration is assured. A correctly prepared and welded butt joint is nearly
as strong as the base metal.

On thin metal, complete penetration and full strength can be achieved


using a square butt joint without extensive edge preparation. The thicker
the metal, the more edge preparation you need to do. There are two basic
designs: the bevel and the J. These basic butt joint designs have a number of
variations (Figure 62). We will discuss these below.

Square

Single bevel Single V Single J Single U

Double V Double bevel Double J Double U

Figure 62—Edge preparation on butt joints

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Joints that are prepared and welded from both sides are called “double joints.”
Joints that are welded from only one side are called “single joints.” To ensure Notes
complete penetration on single joints, you will often need to add a backing
strip or plate.

The main drawback of the butt joint is the higher skill and accuracy the
Welder needs to fit and weld the joint. Of the five joints, the butt joint is
the most difficult to master. It takes considerable experience to become
proficient in preparing and welding butt joints.

Common types of butt joints


Square butt joint
The square butt joint is the most economical joint to prepare, since it only
requires a simple shearing, planing or oxy-fuel cutting operation. The
square butt joint (Figure 63) is usually reserved for welding materials that
are not thicker than 6 mm (1⁄4 in.). On materials 4 mm to 6 mm (10 gauge
to ¼ in.) thick, the weld is often done from both sides of the joint to ensure
complete penetration.

Figure 63—Square butt joint

Single vee butt joint


The single vee butt joint (Figure 64) is commonly used with pipe, plate
and structural steel that is between 6 mm and 19 mm (1⁄4 in. and 3⁄4 in.)
thick. This joint can be prepared by bevelling with a cutting torch or
by mechanical means. As a final step in the welding process, it is often
necessary to back-gouge the reverse side of the joint and then apply a “seal”
pass. This further strengthens the joint and gives it a neat appearance.

Figure 64—Single vee butt joint

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Double vee joint


Notes Double vee joints (Figure 65) are used with steel plate that is 19 mm (3⁄4 in.)
or more thick. This joint requires fairly extensive and careful preparation,
which increases labour costs. But there is usually a saving in the amount of
weld metal deposited. With double vee joints there is less distortion, since
shrinkage of the weld metal is balanced on both sides of the plate. After the
root bead has been deposited, it is often necessary to back-gouge to sound
metal before depositing the second bead. This will ensure penetration from
both sides of the vee joint.

Figure 65—Double vee joint

Single and double U groove joints


Single and double U groove joints (Figure 66) are usually prepared using
oxy-fuel gouging or arc air gouging. These joints are used for high-quality
welding of pressure vessels and other highly stressed parts, usually over
25 mm (1 in.) in thickness. The joint’s shape permits complete control of
electrode movement in the root area and reduces the amount of filler metal
required compared to bevel preparations. These preparations guarantee
good fusion and penetration in the weld root without the added expense of
back-gouging.

Figure 66—Single and double U groove joints

Edge preparation on one member only


When it is not possible to prepare both members of a butt joint, you can use
a single bevel groove, double bevel groove or J groove preparation. With
the bevel groove or J groove, you must use proper joint fit and welding
procedures to obtain root penetration and fusion into the side walls of the
joint. These preparations reduce the amount of filler metal required.

Flare groove butt joint


You might be required to join the corner of a square structural tube to
another structural member. In these cases, the edge preparation is often in
the form of flare created by the corner radius of the tube (Figure 67). This
type of edge preparation can also happen with round bar, pipe or the 90°
corner of formed plate.

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Natural preparation
Notations in drawings sometimes describe a joint preparation as a “natural Notes
preparation” (Figure 67). This means that no cutting or grinding is required.
If the joint is tilted to create a natural preparation and the tilt is more than
30°, structural codes consider it to be a butt joint. The rules for depth of
penetration for butt joints will then apply.
Single flare butt joint

Natural preparation

Double flare butt joint

Double flare butt joint Single flare butt joint

Figure 67—Flare groove butt joints and natural preparation

Bevel angles
The common bevel angles used in preparing the edge of materials are:

• 30º—most common bevel for plate; provides a 60º included angle


• 37 ½º—a common bevel angle on pipe ends used in butt joints; gives
a 75º included angle
• 45º—a wider than usual bevel angle for vee butt joints; gives a 90º
included angle
The 90º opening requires a greater amount of weld. Narrower angles are
used unless there is a need for more access to the bottom of the weld joint,
as with cast iron and aluminum. Single-bevel joints are commonly 30º to 45º.

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Different thickness
Notes
If the two members of a butt joint are of different thicknesses, the end of the
thicker section must be sloped to meet the thinner, at a slope of not more
than 1 in 2.5 (1:2.5). The CSA and AWS guidelines call this a “4 in 10 (4:10)
slope” (Figure 68).

This connection prevents a sudden change in section and the concentration


of stress in one location. This is a major concern for structures. The 1:2.5
ratio is the recommended taper for dynamically loaded structures that
vibrate, such as bridges carrying road traffic.
10

Figure 68—1:2.5 taper and bevelled edge

Now complete Self-Test 1 and check your answers.

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Notes

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Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. There are five basic joint designs used in welding: lap, tee, corner, edge
and .
a. plug
b. vee
c. bevel
d. butt

2. Which type of weld joint is shown in Figure 69?


a. plug
b. tee
c. butt Figure 69
d. lap Single lap joint Double

3. The single vee butt joint is commonly used with steel plate that is
thick.
a. 3 mm to 10 mm (1⁄8 in. to 3⁄8 in.)
b. 6 mm to 19 mm (1⁄4 in. to 3⁄4 in.)
c. 19 mm to 25 mm (3⁄4 in. to 1 in.)
d. 25 mm to 38 mm (1 in. to 1 1⁄2 in.)

4. In order for lap and tee joints to support heavy or fluctuating loads, they
need to be
a. welded from both sides
b. prepared in a brake
c. back-gouged
d. single-bevel welds

5. The most commonly used corner joint is the


a. half-open
b. closed
c. flange
d. open

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6. If there is a difference between the thicknesses of two sections of a butt


joint, the end of the thicker section must be sloped to meet the thinner Answers
at a slope of not more than
a. 1:2.5
b. 1:3
c. 1:3.5
d. 1:4

7. Edge joints are generally used on


a. sheet metal
b. pipe
c. heavy-gauge metal
d. castings

8. Which type of joint is often back-gouged?


a. edge
b. tee
c. lap
d. butt

9. Which edge preparation is used on the tee joint in Figure 70?


a. single U
b. single bevel
c. single J
d. single vee

10. The butt joint shown in Figure 71 is a Figure


Single 70
bevel Double bevel Single J
a. single U
b. single J
c. double U
d. double J Figure 71

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11. The butt joint shown in Figure 72 is a


Answers
a. double bevel
b. double vee
c. double J
d. double U Figure 72

12. Which technique is often used to ensure complete penetration on single


bevel butt joints?
a. a backing bar
b. preparation in a brake
c. a flange vee
d. closed welding

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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P4-4 Learning Task 2: Notes


Weld types, their sizes and profiles
Types of welds
There are five main types of welds (Figure 73):

• surfacing weld
• tack weld
• fillet weld
• groove weld
• plug and slot weld

Surfacing weld Tack weld Fillet weld Groove weld Plug weld

Figure 73—Weld types

Surfacing welds
Surfacing welds are deposits of weld materials used to build up the surface
of metal or to replace metal on worn surfaces. Following are other terms
used to more exactly describe the surfacing welds:

• “Buildup” is intended to change dimensions such as thickness.


• “Buttering” means that the buildup is intended to provide a base
(transition) for another surface weld.
• “Hardfacing” is the application of surfacing welds intended to create a
hard or tough surface to control wear.
• “Cladding” is the application of surface welds that create a corrosion-
resistant or heat-resistant layer.

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Tack welds
Notes
Tack welds are a series of short welds used to hold the joint assembly in
place during the fit-up procedure (Figure 74). Each tack weld is a short
(sometimes temporary) weld about 13 mm (1⁄2 in.) long. Tack welds are
usually deposited at both ends of the weld joint and at roughly equal
intervals along the length of the joint.

Figure 74—Tack welds

Tack welds should be used on the opposite side of the weld joint whenever
possible. Joints that require welds on both sides should be tack welded on
the side opposite to the first side to be welded. On tee joints, tack welds are
used along the opposite side of the weld to prevent the upright plate from
leaning toward the weld (Figure 75).

Tack weld

Figure 75—Tee joints with and without tack joints

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Fillet welds
Notes
Fillet welds are used extensively on lap, tee and corner joints, where they
join two pieces of metal that are usually at right angles (90°) to each other. A
fillet weld consists of one or more beads or passes that are roughly triangular
in cross-section. There are a number of terms for describing various aspects
of a fillet weld (Figure 76).
Depth of fusion or bond

Leg

Face
Leg Toe

Throat

Root
Root penetration

Figure 76—Fillet weld

The ideal fillet weld is characterized by:

• joint faces at right angles (90°)


• face that is flat or slightly convex
• toes that merge smoothly with the surface of the joint members
• legs of equal length

In many cases, fillet welds are more economical than groove welds because
they are easier to assemble and require less edge preparation. On the other
hand, they usually use more weld filler metal, and they are less able to
withstand stress loads.

Fillet welds are not considered capable of carrying stress loads unless their
length is at least four times the leg length of the weld. For material up to
25 mm (1 in.) thick, stress-carrying fillet welds should not have a leg length
of less than 10 mm (3⁄8 in.).

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Profiles of fillet welds


Notes Fillet weld profiles can be either flat, convex or concave (Figure 77).

Size

Size

Size
45º

Flat Concave Convex

Figure 77—Fillet weld profiles

The most preferred profile is flat to slightly convex.

The choice of profile depends on several factors, including:

• welding position
• type of electrode
• type of joint
• stress requirements of the joint

Sizes of fillet welds


The size of a fillet weld is often designated as the length of its shorter
leg (the distance from the root of the weld joint to the toe of the weld;
Figure 78). This designation is accurate for flat and convex fillet welds. For
concave fillet welds, the size is not the leg length. The size of a concave weld
is its throat thickness (“T”) multiplied by 1.4. But there is a more correct
description of fillet weld size. First, imagine that you draw the largest equal-
leg triangle that you can inside the cross-section of the weld. The size of the
weld will be the length of each of the triangle’s legs.

Leg Long leg Leg

Leg Short Leg


T Leg T T

Effective size Size = short leg Effective size

Figure 78—Fillet weld dimensions

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Strength of fillet welds


The strength of a fillet weld is determined using the effective throat dimension. Notes
The effective or theoretical throat is the distance from the root of the weld to
the centre of the line connecting the equal legs of the triangle (Figure 78).
For flat and convex fillet welds, you can calculate the effective throat by
multiplying the length of the shorter leg by 0.707.

Welders often ask whether a weld is strong enough. Strength depends


on throat depth. For tee joint fillet welds on 10-mm plate, standard
practice will call for 8-mm fillet welds on both sides of the joint. The
throat of each fillet weld would be: 0.707 × 8 mm = 5.656 mm. The
two weld throats would add up to 11.312 mm (5.656 mm + 5.656 mm
= 11.312 mm), which is greater than the 10-mm thickness of the plate.
Therefore, the weld would be strong enough.

Figure 79 displays two 45º right triangles. The ratio of the sides is
displayed. This ratio is constant for all such 45º triangles. Finding the
throat as described above is simply an application of trigonometry. This
diagram explains how the numbers 0.707 and 1.414 were arrived at. It is
easier to remember something if you understand it.

0.707 1.414

1 1
0.707 0.707
0.707

0.707 1

Figure 79—Ratios of a 45º right triangle

The Welder is not expected to be an engineer, but by knowing this general


principle, he/she can ask questions if a weld appears to be undersize.

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Acceptable fillet weld profiles


Notes The three basic weld profiles are flat, concave and convex. But every weld
will be slightly different. You need to check each weld to make sure its
profile is acceptable (Figure 80). We will discuss this in more detail below.

Concave Flat

Size

Size
45º

Convexity (C) must not exceed


Convex 0.07 × face width + 1.5 mm (1⁄16")
Size

Size
Size C Size C

Acceptable fillet weld profiles

Insufficient throat Excessive convexity

Size Size

Excessive undercut Overlap Insufficient leg

Size Size Size

Unacceptable fillet weld profiles

Figure 80—Acceptable fillet weld profiles and unacceptable fillet weld profiles

On flat or concave fillet welds, the effective or theoretical throat is usually


the same as the actual throat thickness. On convex fillet welds, the actual
throat dimension is more than the effective throat, but this extra weld filler
metal does not increase the strength of the weld. For this reason, excessively
convex fillet welds are undesirable.

For similar reasons, excessively concave fillet welds are also undesirable. The
longer leg length requires additional weld material that does not contribute
to the strength of the weld. A flat or convex fillet weld with the same effective
throat (strength) uses less weld material and is a more economical weld.

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Note that on the flat profile (Figure 80) the toes of the weld must Notes
be at a 45° angle to the face of the weld. With convex profiles, the
convexity (C) must not exceed 0.07 × face width + 1.5 mm (1⁄16 in.).

Of the three profiles, convex fillet welds are much less susceptible to
shrinkage cracking than concave and flat fillet welds. Concave and flat fillet
welds are much more likely to crack, especially on heat-sensitive metals such
as the high-carbon steels. There are also fewer problems with undercutting
on convex fillets than on either concave or flat.

Concave fillet welds have two major advantages over the other two profiles:

• They provide a smoother contour at the toe of the weld.


• They provide a greater surface area for the distribution of stress loads.

Concave fillet welds are preferred for joints that are subjected to fatigue
stresses. Concave fillet welds are also used in such applications as inside
grain feed chutes, where free flow is desired.

Groove welds
Groove welds fill in the gap or groove between two pieces of metal. Groove
welds are most commonly used on butt joints. The weld on an open
corner joint or on specially prepared lap and tee joints can sometimes be
considered a groove weld.

Groove welds consist of a root bead, fill passes and a cap (Figure 81). The
number of passes will vary, depending on the thickness of the metal. On
thinner metal, the fill pass and cap can be combined into one pass. In some
cases a single pass is adequate for the entire weld.
Cap

Fill passes

Root face

Root bead

Root opening

Figure 81—Multi-pass groove weld

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The significant dimensions of groove welds include the root opening, the
Notes root face, the included angle, the thickness and the throat (Figure 82).
On bevelled joints, the bevel angle is important. On groove joints with a J
preparation, the root radius is significant.
Included angle

Bevel angle

Thickness (T)

Root face

Root opening

Groove or included angle

Throat
Thickness (T)

Root face

Root radius
Root opening

Figure 82—Groove weld dimensions

The size of the root opening, the root face, the included angle and
the root radius all affect the amount of weld required and the depth
of penetration. For example, too large a root opening, root face or
included angle will result in excessive penetration and the deposition
of unnecessary weld metal. On the other hand, dimensions that
are too narrow will make full penetration extremely difficult, if
not impossible. If the root radius on a U joint is too great, you will
deposit too much weld material, and the possibility of uncontrollable
distortion increases.

These dimensions will depend on the material thickness, the electrode size
and the welding process.

Groove weld size and profile


The size of a groove weld is the depth that the weld penetrates into the
groove, or the gap between the two pieces. In Figure 83, the weld size of
A (where penetration is complete) is the same as the thickness of the plate.

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Where penetration is incomplete, as in B, the weld size is the depth of the


penetration. In C (where the plates differ in thickness and there is complete Notes
penetration), the weld size is the thickness of the thinner plate.

Size Size
Size

A. Complete penetration B. Incomplete penetration C. Complete penetration

Figure 83—Groove weld sizes

Metal deposited above the surface of the plate is called “reinforcement.”


Profiles of groove welds show the amount of reinforcement at the centre
of the weld (Figure 84). This reinforcement must not be more than 3 mm
(1⁄8 in.), because excessive reinforcement is uneconomical and contributes
nothing to the strength of the weld. It decreases the working strength of the
weld joint because stresses concentrate at the toe of the weld.

R
Reinforcement (R)
must not exceed 3 mm (1⁄8")
R

Correct groove weld profile

Insufficient throat Excessive convexity

Excessive undercut Overlap

Figure 84—Groove weld profiles

Excessive reinforcement can be removed by gouging or grinding. There


must be no valley or groove along the edge or in the centre of the weld.

The width of a groove weld should not extend more than 3 mm (1⁄8 in.) beyond
the shoulder or edge of the joint on either side. Extra deposit beyond this is
uneconomical, because there is no corresponding increase in joint strength. It
also can negatively affect the heat-affected zone next to the weld bead.

Plug and slot welds


These welds are used mainly for lap joints. They are sometimes used for tee
joints where a fillet weld is not adequate or where the joint is not accessible

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for a fillet weld. When a slot is made rather than a circular hole, the weld is
Notes called a “slot weld” (Figure 85).

Weld
Weld

Figure 85—Plug and slot welds

To prepare the weld joint for a plug or slot weld, punch, drill or flame cut
the hole or slot in the overlaying plate. Position the plates, then make the
weld through the opening to the underlying plate. The hole or slot may or
may not be entirely filled in with weld metal and, on relatively thin metal,
the hole or slot might not be necessary.

Continuous and intermittent welds


Continuous weld joints extend without a break throughout the length of the
joint. Continuous welds are used on joints that require maximum strength
and tightness.

Intermittent welds are a series of short welds spaced along the length of
the weld joint (Figure 86). The size and the spacing of the welds depends
on plate thickness, the type of joint, the welding process and the strength
requirements of the weld.

Figure 86—Intermittent welds

Intermittent welds cannot be used on weld joints that require maximum


strength or on weld joints that must be sealed (airtight or watertight).
Where permitted, intermittent welding reduces the cost of labour and
materials. Intermittent welds are most commonly used on lap and tee joints.
They are sometimes used on square butt joints.

Now complete Self-Test 2 and check your answers.

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Notes

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Self-Test 2
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. Match the weld types with their applications.

1. single vee butt joint a. plug weld

2. tee joint b. fillet weld

3. hardfacing c. tack weld

4. holding plate prior to welding d. surfacing weld

5. through a lap joint e. groove weld

2. Which type of weld is most commonly used to weld lap, tee and corner
joints?
a. groove weld
b. bead weld
c. fillet weld
d. plug weld

3. To prepare a plug weld on plate, you need to


a. bevel the edges
b. place it in a brake
c. tack the plates at 90°
d. make a hole in the overlaying plate

4. Fillet welds are not considered capable of carrying stress loads unless their
a. length is four times the size of the weld
b. throat is twice the length of the shorter leg
c. legs are four times the depth of the throat
d. profile is flat

5. For flat and convex fillet welds, the size is determined by the
a. width of the weld
b. length of the shorter leg
c. length of the longer leg
d. depth of penetration

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6. The strength of fillet welds is determined by


Answers
a. the effective throat
b. the effective leg length
c. the theoretical penetration
d. multiplying the leg length by 1.4

7. On fillet weld profiles, convexity must not be more than


a. 1⁄16 the size of the weld
b. 1⁄8 the size of the weld
c. 0.07 × face width + 1.5 mm (1⁄16 in.)
d. 0.14 × face width + 1.5 mm (1⁄16 in.)

8. Excessively concave fillets are undesirable because they


a. are unable to withstand fatigue stresses
b. merge abruptly with the joint members
c. use weld material that does not increase their strength
d. require extra time for back-gouging

9. Which of the three profiles of fillet welds is the least susceptible to


shrinkage cracks?
a. flat
b. convex
c. concave
d. both a and c

10. Groove welds are most commonly


a. tee joints
b. lap joints
c. edge joints
d. butt joints

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11. In Figure 87, A indicates the C


Answers
a. root face
b. root opening
B
c. thickness A

d. bevel angle D
Figure 87
12. In Figure 87, B indicates the
a. included angle
b. root face
c. plate thickness
d. root radius

13. In Figure 87, C indicates the


a. bevel angle
b. included angle
c. plate thickness
d. root opening

14. In Figure 87, D indicates the


a. root face
b. included angle
c. bevel angle
d. root opening

15. The size of groove welds is determined by the


a. width between toes
b. depth of penetration
c. included angle
d. root radius

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16. The size of the weld in Figure 88 is the


Answers
a. thickness of the thinner plate
b. width of the weld
c. depth of penetration at A
d. thickness of the thicker plate
A

Figure 88

17. Reinforcement on a groove weld must not be more than


a. 1.5 mm (1⁄16 in.)
b. 3 mm (1⁄8 in.)
c. 5 mm (3⁄16 in.)
d. 6 mm (1⁄4 in.)

18. The width of a groove weld should not extend more than __________
beyond the shoulder of the joint on either side.
a. 1.5 mm (1⁄16 in.)
b. 3 mm (1⁄8 in.)
c. 5 mm (3⁄16 in.)
d. 6 mm (1⁄4 in.)

19. Intermittent welding cannot be used on joints where


a. maximum strength is required
b. edge preparation is required
c. watertightness or airtightness is required
d. both a and c

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Notes

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P4-4 Learning Task 3: Notes


Welding positions
Basic welding positions
There are four basic welding positions: flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead.
Welding techniques for the four positions vary according to the ease of
depositing the weld metal. Welding in the flat position is generally faster and
less tiring than in the other three positions. Whenever possible, you should
try to place your workpiece in the flat position.

The term “welding out of position” means welding in any position other
than flat. There are four positions that are used for plate and two that are for
pipe (Figure 89).

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Position Groove—Plate Groove—Pipe Fillet


Flat 1 1G 1G 1F

15º
15º

Pipe horizontal and


rotated, weld flat ± 15º

Horizontal 2 2G 2G 2F

Pipe vertical and not


rotated (fixed) during
welding, weld
horizontal (± 15º)

15º 15º

Vertical 3 3G N/A 3F

Overhead 4 4G N/A 4F

Pipe 5 N/A 5G 5F
15º
15º

Pipe horizontal and fixed, weld


at vertical, overhead ± 15º

Pipe 6 N/A 6G N/A


V 45º ± 5º

Figure 89—Welding positions

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Flat position (downhand)


In the flat position, the workpiece is positioned so that the weld joint is Notes
parallel to the floor. The electrode will generally point downward. For butt
joints on plate, the two pieces are simply placed on a flat surface. For lap
and tee joints, the two pieces of plate must be supported in an angled
position so that the actual joint is parallel to the floor (Figure 90). With
corner joints, the ends of the plate are positioned on a flat surface so that
the two pieces meet at the top to form a small tent.

Figure 90—Joints in the flat position

Horizontal position
Welds in the horizontal position are also parallel to the floor, but they are
done along a vertical surface. Weld metal is deposited from the upper side
of the weld joint. For butt joints, the electrode is held horizontally (parallel
to the floor), but for the other four weld joints it is usually either slightly
higher or lower than horizontal, depending on the technique used. For butt
joints, the two plates are supported in the vertical position, but the lap, tee
and edge joints can be set up and welded on a flat surface. With horizontal
welds, the main difficulty is that gravity causes the molten pool to flow
toward the lower side of the weld.

Vertical position
In the vertical position, the plate to be welded is positioned vertically and the
weld joint itself is vertical. The direction of travel can be uphill or downhill,
but the majority of vertical welding is usually done uphill, from bottom to
top. The electrode points slightly upward. As with horizontal welding, gravity
causes the molten metal to pull away from the edges of the bead and, unless
the weld pool is correctly controlled, molten metal will drip.

Overhead position
The overhead position is the reverse of the flat position: the weld is done
from the underside of the plate with the electrode pointing upward rather
than downward. Overhead welding is considered difficult to master. In
the overhead position, the force of gravity typically pulls the molten metal
from the toe of the weld bead to the centre of the bead, where it can drip.
These frozen drips of metal hanging from the weld bead are commonly
called “grapes.”

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Notes Abbreviations for weld position and weld type


In the welding trade, abbreviations can be used to indicate the type of weld
and the welding position (Figure 89).

Letter abbreviations are used to indicate weld type, as follows:

• F: fillet weld
• G: groove weld

Each weld position is designated with a number, as follows:

• 1: flat position (pipe rolled)


• 2: horizontal position
• 3: vertical position
• 4: overhead position
• 5: pipe—axis of pipe fixed at the horizontal
• 6: pipe—axis of pipe fixed at a 45° incline

The position number and the letter abbreviation are used together.
For example:

• 1G is a groove weld in the flat position.


• 3F is a fillet weld in the vertical position.
• 4G is a groove weld in the overhead position.
• 5G is a groove weld in a pipe with the axis of the pipe fixed
at the horizontal
A common weld joint design is a single-bevel butt joint with a specified root
opening and a backing bar. This is called a “GF weld,” meaning that it is a
combined groove and fillet weld. The welding sequence requires a fillet weld
to join the backing bar to the square edge of the joint. The fillet weld and the
bevelled edge then form a vee-groove joint. If this joint was to be done in the
vertical position on plate, it would be called a “3GF position.”

The single-bevel butt joint with backing is commonly used as a welding


qualification test as it tests your ability to weld a groove weld and a
fillet weld all in one exercise. You should expect to regularly face similar
qualification tests for CWB qualification and Welder certification.

Now complete Self-Test 3 and check your answers.

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Notes

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Self-Test 3
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. The easiest position for welding is the


a. flat
b. horizontal
c. vertical
d. overhead

2. Which weld position is shown in Figure 91?


a. flat
b. horizontal
c. vertical
d. overhead
Figure 91

3. Which weld position is shown in Figure 92?


a. flat
b. horizontal
c. vertical
d. overhead
Figure 92
4. Which weld position is shown in Figure 93?
a. flat
b. horizontal
c. vertical
d. overhead Figure 93

5. Which weld position is shown in Figure 94?


a. flat
b. horizontal
c. vertical
d. overhead

Figure 94

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6. Which weld position is shown in Figure 95?


Answers
a. flat
b. horizontal
c. vertical
d. overhead
Figure 95

7. A weld designated as 1G is a
a. fillet weld in the vertical position
b. groove weld in the flat position
c. fillet weld in the horizontal position
d. groove weld in the vertical position

8. A 4F weld is a
a. fillet weld in the flat position
b. groove weld in the vertical position
c. fillet weld in the overhead position
d. fillet weld in the horizontal position

9. A 2G weld is a
a. horizontal fillet weld
b. vertical groove weld
c. vertical fillet weld
d. horizontal groove weld

10. For a horizontal weld on a butt joint, the plates are positioned
a. flat
b. vertical
c. horizontal
d. at a 45° angle

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Notes

166 Welder Training Program — Level C


Theory Competency P4-5:
Causes of weld faults and distortions in
fabrication and methods for prevention and
control

P4-5
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-5

Outcomes
You must be familiar with many of the problems caused by weld defects and distortion.
With experience and a thorough understanding of these problems and their causes, you
will be able to avoid making most of them.

When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you should be
able to:

• define the three categories of weld faults


• describe basic weld faults, their causes and ways to avoid them
• describe the three types of distortion, their causes and ways to control each type
• define residual stress and the basic techniques for stress relief

Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in Module P4, you will take a
written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions that
are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-5:

• weld faults, their causes and ways to avoid them


• distortions, their causes and ways to control them

Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.

Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.

Distortion control
• The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, Lincoln Electric (This text is a “must read“
for every Welder.)
• http://www.lincolnelectric.com/knowledge/articles/content/distortion.asp

Creating High Quality Stick Welds: A User’s Guide


• http://www.lincolnelectric.com/knowledge/articles/content/stickweld.asp

Job knowledge for Welders


• http://www.twiprofessional.com/professional/protected/band_3/prof_jobknow.html

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P4-5 Learning Task 1: Notes


Basic weld faults and their causes
There are three categories of weld defects:

• dimensional faults, where the weld deposit does not meet the
specifications and requirements of the weld, including incorrect weld
sizes and profiles
• structural discontinuities, including such defects as porosity, undercut,
incomplete penetration and lack of fusion
• defects in the mechanical properties of the weld metal, including
reduced tensile strength, ductility, hardness or corrosion resistance

A Welder has limited control over defects in mechanical properties of the


weld metal. Mechanical properties can be affected by electrode selection,
heat input, cooling rate and welding technique.

Dimensional defects
Incorrect weld size
Any variation from the specified weld size
affects the distribution of stress in the weld.
This will affect the strength of the weld.

Undersized welds usually have insufficient


throat (Figure 96). This condition is also
called “underfill.” This reduces the strength
of the weld. Stresses concentrate at the
centre of the weld, increasing the likelihood
the joint will fail. Undersized welds are
Figure 96—Undersized weld
usually the result of a fast rate of travel.

Oversized fillet welds are too convex


(Figure 97). Oversized groove welds
have too much reinforcement.

These defects tend to produce notches


at the toe of the weld, where stresses
will concentrate. The weld metal also
will trap slag and gases, creating a
condition called “porosity.” Porosity
weakens the weld. Oversized welds can
also mean poor fusion of the weld and Figure 97—Oversized weld
base metal.

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Overlap
Notes “Overlap” is a condition in which too
much weld metal is deposited at the
toe of the weld (Figure 98). Overlap
is most often a sign of poor fusion
between the weld metal and base
metal. This condition is extremely
serious, because stresses concentrate
in notches that form at the toes of the
weld. In fillet welds, overlap will also
reduce the effective weld size.
Figure 98—Overlap
Dimensional defects also include the
distortion and warping that occur as a result of stresses from the heating and
cooling of the weld deposit and base metal during welding.

Structural discontinuities in the weld


Structural discontinuities include a broad range of weld defects such as
the following:

• undercut
• incomplete penetration
• underfill
• incomplete fusion
• porosity
• slag inclusions
• cracking

These defects often appear with size and profile problems. But they can also
occur in welds that meet size and profile specifications.

Undercut
“Undercut” means a cutting away of
the plate surfaces at the edge of the
weld (Figure 99). A sharp recess forms
in the plate where the next layer or
bead must fuse with the base metal.
The plate is thinner at this point, so the
joint is weaker. Joint failure is especially
likely when the undercut occurs at the
toe of the weld.

Undercut is usually caused by improper Figure 99—Undercut

electrode manipulation. Other causes are too much current, too long an arc
or slow travel. On joints that are not very accessible, undercut can be very
hard to avoid.

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Undercut can be corrected. When it occurs at the sidewall of the weld


between layers, you can deposit extra weld passes in the groove before Notes
depositing the next layer. At the surface of the weld where you can see the
defect, you can make extra passes until you reach 3 mm (1⁄8 in.) above the
base metal surface, normally the maximum permitted.

Incomplete penetration
Incomplete penetration is the failure of the weld pool and the base metal to
fuse together at the root of the joint.

On groove and fillet welds, this defect occurs when the areas above the root
reach fusion temperatures before the root does. The molten weld metal
forms a bridge across the joint and prevents the arc from reaching the root.

The main cause of incomplete penetration is a joint design that is not


suitable for the welding process being used. For single groove welds, there
are several conditions that can cause this discontinuity (Figure 100).

Root opening too small

Included angle too small

Root face too large

Figure 100—Incomplete penetration in a groove weld

Even when the joint is correctly designed, incorrect welding procedures can
cause incomplete penetration. If the current is too low, the weld metal is not
able to reach the root of the joint and/or the arc is not hot enough to melt
the base metal at the root. If the rate of travel is too fast, the weld metal
is deposited only on the surfaces above the root. Electrode size is also an
important factor, especially for the root bead. If the electrode is too large, it
will not fit into the narrow root opening.

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Underfill
Notes “Underfill” means there is not enough weld metal in the weld joint to bring the
face of the weld level with or above the surface of the base metal (Figure 101).

Figure 101—Underfill

Incomplete fusion
“Incomplete fusion” means that the layers of weld metal or the weld metal
and base metal did not fuse together (Figure 102). This failure can occur at
any point in groove and fillet welds. Overlap at the toe of the weld is often a
sign of inadequate fusion.

Figure 102—Incomplete fusion

The usual causes of incomplete fusion are:

• Failure to heat the base metal or the previously deposited weld metal
to the melting point. This usually happens if the electrode is too small,
the travel is too fast or the current is too low.
• Failure of the electrode flux to dissolve the oxides or other foreign
material on the surfaces being welded.

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Porosity
“Porosity” means that there are gas pockets in the weld metal (Figure 103). Notes
Porosity can be spread evenly in the weld metal or be grouped in clusters.

Figure 103—Porosity

Although too much porosity has a serious effect on the mechanical


properties of the joint, some welding codes allow a specified maximum
amount of porosity.

When the porosity is concentrated at the root, it is often called “wormholes”


or “piping.” This condition is regarded as a special case of incomplete
penetration.

The gases that cause porosity form during chemical reactions in the weld
pool as the weld metal is heated and cooled. Porosity usually is the result of
one of the following factors:

• overheating or underheating the weld metal


• too much sulphur or moisture in the base metal or electrode
• welding current too high or too low
• incorrect electrode manipulation
• oil or other contaminants on the weld joint
• defective or unsuitable electrodes
• too long an arc length
• arc blow

Slag inclusion
“Slag” is the metallic oxides and other solid compounds that chemical
reactions produce during the welding process. Sometimes slag can become
trapped in the weld metal. Like gas, it creates porosity in the weld metal
(Figure 104).

Figure 104—Slag inclusion

In SMAW, slag can form when flux is trapped in the weld pool. The stirring
action of the arc can force the slag into the molten metal. Slag can also

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be pushed ahead of the arc and then be covered over by the weld pool.
Notes Because it is less dense than molten metal, slag tends to rise to the surface of
the pool, where it can be chipped away when the weld is cooled.

Several factors can prevent the release of slag from the weld pool.
These include:

• high viscosity of the weld metal


• rapid cooling
• too low a welding amperage
• incorrect manipulation of the electrode
• undercut on previous passes

You can prevent slag inclusions by doing the following:

• prepare the weld joint correctly before depositing each weld bead
• make sure to maintain the correct weld bead contour for each layer so
that the arc can access the weld joint completely
• make sure you clean all slag from the surface of the previous weld bead
You can also help to promote the release of slag by making sure that the
weld pool becomes hot enough to reduce its viscosity (thickness) and by
pre- and post-heating to slow down the cooling process.

Cracking
Cracks are the most dangerous weld defects. They happen when stresses
are greater than the ultimate strength of the base metal. Cracking that
occurs shortly after the weld metal has been deposited and is just beginning
to solidify is called “hot cracking.” Hot cracking is more likely with certain
metals, especially the high-alloy steels and high-temperature alloys.

Cracking that occurs later, as the metal is approaching room temperature


or after the weld has cooled completely, is called “cold cracking.” Cold
cracking is much less common than hot cracking.

External cracks
Cracking that is visible or external usually occurs in the weld metal (Figure 105).
External cracks might run across the face of the weld metal and sometimes
extend into the base metal. These are called “transverse cracks.”

“Longitudinal cracks” run lengthways along the weld, usually down the
centre of the weld deposit. “Crater cracks” form in the centre of the crater
and can become a starting point for longitudinal cracking. Crater cracks are
usually the result of interruptions in the welding procedure.

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Notes

Crater cracks Longitudinal cracks Transverse cracks

Figure 105—External cracks

There are several causes of external cracks. The most common are:

• too much strain on the weld joint


• too rapid cooling (particularly on hardenable and brittle metals)
• too little deposit on weld passes
• incorrect choice of electrode

Less-common causes of external cracks are defects such as:

• porosity
• lack of penetration
• slag inclusion
• incomplete fusion

You can avoid most cracking by doing the following:

• increase the thickness of the weld deposit on the first bead


• decrease the speed of travel to allow more weld metal to build up
• use correct pre- and post-heat treatments

Internal cracks
Internal cracks usually occur within the heat-affected zone of the base metal
(Figure 106). Underbead cracking (a type of internal crack) occurs almost
exclusively in steel. It is often related to not using or improper use of low-
hydrogen electrodes. Hairline cracks at the toe of the weld are caused by hot
cracking in or near the fusion zone of weld and base metal.

Internal cracks happen mostly in metals that have been hardened and
that are less ductile. They often occur with other weld faults such as
undercutting, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration and slag inclusions.

You can prevent internal cracking by doing the following:

• use low-hydrogen electrodes


• follow correct pre- and post-heating procedures
• pay careful attention to correct fit-up and welding procedures

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Notes

Toe cracks

Underbead
cracks
Figure 106—Internal cracks

Now complete Self-Test 1 and check your answers.

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Notes

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Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. Undersized welds are often the result of


a. rate of travel that is too fast
b. welding current that is too low
c. incorrect polarity
d. rate of travel that is too slow

2. Which weld defect is shown in Figure 107?


a. incomplete penetration
b. cracking
c. porosity Figure 107
d. undercut

3. Which weld defect is shown in Figure 108?


a. porosity
b. lack of fusion
c. cracking
Figure 108
d. slag inclusion

4. Which weld defect is shown in Figure 109?


a. slag inclusion
b. incomplete penetration
c. undercut
Figure 109
d. overlap

5. Which weld defect is shown in Figure 110?


a. incomplete penetration
b. slag inclusion
c. porosity
d. undercut

Figure 110

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6. Which of the following is the most common cause of incomplete


penetration? Answers
a. failure to heat the base metal
b. too small an electrode
c. rate of travel that is too slow
d. incorrect joint design

7. Hot cracking is a particular problem with


a. low-carbon steel
b. high-alloy steel
c. low-hydrogen electrodes
d. joints that are cooled slowly

8. Crater cracks most often occur when the


a. base metal has been preheated
b. current is too low
c. welding has been interrupted
d. electrode is defective

9. You can help prevent slag inclusion by


a. cleaning all slag from the surface of the previous weld bead
b. reducing the current setting
c. using coated electrodes or fluxes
d. using a shorter arc length

10. Undercut is generally caused by


a. improper cleaning of base metal
b. too little current
c. too rapid cooling
d. improper electrode manipulation

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Notes

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P4-5 Learning Task 2: Notes


Methods of distortion control
One of the main problems in welding is controlling distortion and residual
stresses. These occur in metal as it is heated and cooled during the welding
process. “Distortion” means a change in shape of the weld and the resulting
change in shape of the weldment. “Residual stress” is the buildup of internal
stresses within the weld metal or the weldment. If a weld is bigger than it is
supposed to be, there might be too much distortion or residual stress. Too
much residual stress can cause cracking.

Distortion caused by welding is always a problem and challenge when


working with metals. It can also be a personal embarrassment that could
lead to finger pointing and head-scratching. This embarrassment can be
avoided by asking yourself these simple questions before welding:

1. Is this weldment going to distort when I weld it?

2. Have I taken enough precautions to control the distortion?

The answer to question number 1 is always “Yes.”

The answer to question number 2 is often “No.”

If your answer to number 2 is “No,” then this is the time when


planning can save large amounts of time, money and embarrassment.

The underlying cause of distortion and residual stresses is that metals


expand (become larger) when heated and contract (become smaller)
when they cool. If metals are allowed to expand and contract freely
(with no restraint), neither distortion nor residual stress is likely to
occur. If the metal is restrained in a way that prevents free expansion
and contraction (as is the case with weldments), distortion and the
buildup of internal stresses develop.

We can use butt joints as an example of this (Figure 111). When the joint is
welded, the base metal in the weld area expands. But the surrounding cooler
metal restrains this expansion. The heated weld and base metal must expand
upward, in the unrestrained direction. Upon cooling, this displaced metal
contracts, pulling in the surrounding metal across the width of the weld joint.
This pulling force causes the edges of the weldment to bow upward, resulting
in distortion.

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Notes

No distortion but may be high in stresses Extreme distortion

Figure 111—Distortion in a butt joint

If the edges of the weldment had been rigidly restrained to prevent movement,
distortion would be controlled and kept to a minimum, but the residual stresses
would be high.

The susceptibility of a metal to distortion depends on its mechanical and


physical properties. High-alloy steels are more prone to distortion than
low-carbon steels, and larger welds generally undergo more distortion than
smaller welds.

Types of distortion
Heating and cooling cause metal to expand and contract in all three
dimensions: length, width and depth. If the metal is restrained to limit
expansion along any of these dimensions, there will be distortion due to
contraction in that dimension. The distortion is a product of the metal
contracting in all three dimensions, which results in the restrained dimension
being smaller. The larger the dimension, the greater the distortion.
Distortion is likely to be greater on a long weld than on a short weld.
Generally, contraction is greater along the length and across the width than
in the depth of weldments.

The types of distortion are:

• longitudinal
• transverse
• angular

Longitudinal distortion
“Longitudinal distortion” is distortion or shrinkage along the length of the
weld deposit. It is particularly serious in long welds along strips of steel.
This distortion causes the overall length of the weld to shrink (Figure 112).
Longitudinal shrinkage is mainly the result of the contraction (upon
cooling) of the weld reinforcement above the surface of the weld joint. This
contraction draws in the ends of the weld deposit so that they bow inward
as the weld cools.

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Notes

Figure 112—Longitudinal distortion

You can reduce longitudinal distortion by minimizing the reinforcement on


groove welds and the convexity on fillet welds. Somewhat more control is
possible by spreading the heat evenly on both sides of the weld. You can
also use high welding speeds and multiple passes.

You can also use techniques such as back stepping, and in some cases
clamping might be necessary. After longitudinal distortion has occurred, it
can sometimes be corrected by welding from the back side of the joint.

Transverse distortion
“Transverse distortion” means the tendency for the plates in butt joints to
pull together down the length of the joint as you are welding (Figure 113).
The plates are pulled together by the contraction across the face of the weld
metal as it cools. The amount of movement mostly depends on the speed
of welding. Generally, a slower deposition rate increases the likelihood of
transverse distortion, while a faster rate helps to control it.

Figure 113—Transverse distortion

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There are several mechanical methods you can use to prevent transverse
Notes distortion. One way is to place tack welds at the ends of the joint and
spaced along the length on longer welds (Figure 114).

Figure 114—Tack welds control transverse distortion

You can also place a wedge about 300 mm to 450 mm (12 in. to 18 in.)
ahead of the welding to hold the plates apart (Figure 115). Another method,
called “pre-spacing,” requires aligning the plates at an angle so that the
weld joint gap increases along the length of the joint. The shrinkage will pull
them into the correct alignment (Figure 115).

Wedge

Wedging the weld joint

Pre-spacing the weld joint

Figure 115—Wedging and pre-spacing weld joints

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Angular distortion
“Angular distortion” means that the angle between two pieces of base metal Notes
changes as the weld metal cools and contracts. It is easiest to see on tee
joints (Figure 116). This distortion happens when only one side of the joint
is welded. Shrinkage across the width of the weld deposit pulls the vertical
member of the tee joint toward the welded side. A tee joint might also bow
inward because of longitudinal shrinkage.

You can often correct angular distortion of a tee joint by welding the other
side of the joint. The shrinkage that occurs on the second side pulls the
vertical member up to its original position.

Tee joint

Square butt joint

Single vee joint

Figure 116—Angular distortion

A single vee butt joint is also prone to angular distortion. The weld metal
contracts more at the face than at the root of the joint (Figure 116). With
the square butt joint, angular distortion is much less likely because the weld
metal is able to contract evenly across the joint.

Angular distortion is greater on single vee butt joints than on single U joints.
It is least on double vee and double U butt joints. You can sometimes correct
angular distortion on butt joints by welding from the back side.

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Distortion control
Notes
You can minimize or eliminate distortion by doing the following:

• avoid over-welding
• deposit the greatest amount of weld metal in the shortest time
• spread the heat as evenly as possible (for example, using weld
sequencing)
• balance welds around the neutral axis
• use mechanical methods such as clamps or strongbacks to restrain or
prebend
• preheat and post-heat when necessary

Avoid over-welding
Use the smallest permissible size on fillet welds and, where possible,
use intermittent rather than continuous welds. On butt joints, choose a
joint design that uses a minimum of weld metal. A U joint preparation is
preferable to a vee preparation (Figure 117). If you must use a single vee
preparation, bevel it to make the smallest permissible included angle.

Figure 117—U joint uses less weld metal

Deposit the greatest amount of weld metal in the shortest time


The slower the rate of welding, the more time there will be for the heat to
spread ahead of the weld pool. This diffusion of heat input greatly increases
the chances of distortions. Because of this, a high rate of travel is usually
recommended on joints that are susceptible to distortion.

Wherever possible, try to weld in the flat position and use electrodes as
large as possible for the particular weld joint. Iron powder electrodes are
particularly good, because they have a high deposition rate.

On multi-pass welds, apply as few passes as possible to complete the joint.


Making many small passes causes more distortion than making a few large
passes. This is especially true when transverse shrinkage is a concern. For
welds prone to longitudinal distortion, the correct technique is to make
multiple passes, each leaving a small deposit.

Spread the heat as evenly as possible


The rate of heating and cooling is different at different places within the weld
joint, depending on how close the metal is to the weld pool. Behind the weld
pool, the metal is cooling and contracting. In front of the weld pool, the

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metal is heating and expanding. Expansion and contraction will not be the
same everywhere, making distortion more likely. By maintaining a high rate of Notes
travel, you can minimize the differences in heat input (Figure 118).
Temperature

315 ºC
(600 ºF)

400 ºC
(750 ºF)

Direction of travel
Direction of travel

510 ºC
(950 ºF)

600 ºC
(1100 ºF)

980 ºC
(1800 ºF)

Weld point

Slow travel speed Fast travel speed

Figure 118—Travel speed and heat input

Other techniques for keeping the heat input as even as possible include the
following:

• back-step welding sequence


• intermittent welding sequence
• on long seams, start the welding sequence at a distance from the end
of the joint
• welding sequence that is more or less symmetrical around the centre

These methods break up the weld into short sections. This helps to control
distortion and the buildup of residual stresses. The principle is that the
shrinkage from one weld is offset by the shrinkage from the following welds.

In the back-step welding sequence, the weld begins a short distance from
one end, and the direction of travel is toward that end (Figure 119). The
second deposit begins the same distance in from where you started the
first deposit and runs into the first deposit. The third deposit runs into the
second, and so on along the seam. With SMAW, the maximum length of
each step is usually the distance that one welding electrode can cover. The
length between steps in the end is judged by experience.

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Notes Direction of travel of individual weld bead segments


1 2 3 4 5

Direction of travel along weld joint

Figure 119—Back-step welding sequence

With the intermittent welding sequence (Figure 120), short weld deposits
are applied with spaces in between. Weld deposits can be spaced on one
side or alternately on both sides of the joint, for example on a tee joint. The
first weld is made at the beginning of the joint. A section is skipped, and
the second weld is applied farther down the joint. When full strength is not
required, the spaces are left and not welded.

Direction of travel of individual weld bead segments


1 3 2

Direction of travel along weld joint

Figure 120—Intermittent welding sequence

In an alternate back-stepping sequence, the first weld begins a short


distance from the centre of the joint. The direction of travel progresses
toward centre and should end at centre. The second weld begins the same
distance from the opposite side of centre. It also progresses toward centre
and meets the previous weld at centre. All the following welds run toward
centre, connecting to the previous weld. This sequence is continued,
alternating from side to side, until the joint is completed (Figure 121). This
produces a full-length weld seam while limiting distortion.

Direction of travel of individual weld bead segments


6 4 2 1 3 5

Direction of travel along weld joint

Figure 121—Alternate back-step sequence

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You can control longitudinal distortion on long seams by starting the first
weld a short distance in from the beginning of the joint. The direction of Notes
travel of the first weld is toward the beginning of the joint. Then start the
main weld from the starting point of the first weld and progress in the
opposite direction to the end of the joint (Figure 122).
Start point

First weld Main weld

Figure 122—Technique for long seams

On large sections of plating, individual plates could be larger than


1500 mm × 6000 mm (5 ft. by 20 ft.). The welding of the plates would require
sequencing for both the plates as a whole and the welds within each joint. The
welding of the plates would normally begin at a central point and proceed
outward (Figure 123). The aim is to maintain a welding sequence that is more
or less symmetrical around the centre. The welding of the joints would follow
one of the sequencing techniques mentioned previously. This would be typical
practice on a bottom plate for a bulk storage tank welded on-site.

3 3

2 1 2

3 3

Figure 123—Technique for plating

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Balance the welds around the neutral axis


Notes Alternately welding on opposite sides of a butt joint will cause the shrinkage
forces to balance each other around the neutral axis. The result is that the
joint remains straight.

The “neutral axis” is the line that the assembly flexes around when it is bent
slightly. It is the location where the metal is not stretching or compressing
when the assembly is flexed. For a simple beam, the neutral axis is the same
as the centreline and centre of gravity.

Use mechanical methods


There are several mechanical methods for minimizing distortion. These
include pre-bending, clamping and pre-spacing.

A weldment can be pre-bent and restrained with clamps to compensate for


warping in the other direction (Figure 124). Once the weldment has cooled
and the clamps are removed, shrinkage forces will pull the plate back to
the desired alignment. The clamps must be spaced and aligned carefully to
avoid the buildup of internal stresses.

Figure 124—Pre-bending

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Like pre-bending, pre-spacing or offsetting welds compensates for the


distortion that will occur when the completed joint shrinks (Figure 125). As Notes
the joint shrinks, the offset vertical member of the tee joint will be pulled
into correct (90°) alignment. Likewise, the two offset members of the butt
joint will also be drawn into proper alignment.

Tee-joint Butt-joint

Figure 125—Offsetting

You can use this same principle by clamping or tack welding assemblies
back to back before welding. This is useful if you are making more than
one identical welded assembly. A typical application would be to control
distortion when welding the sides of a truck dump box (Figure 126). The left
and right sides can be clamped together with a spacer between to pre-bend
them as well.

• Clamp back-to-back with Dump box side panel


spacer in the centre 10 ga. steel
• Weld
• Let cool
• Unclamp
Outside

Inside

Figure 126—Welding assemblies clamped back to back

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Preheating and post-heating


Notes Preheating and post-heating techniques play an important part in
controlling the buildup of internal stresses that lead to distortion.

Preheating controls the expansion of the metal evenly throughout the


weldment. Entire sections of the weldment might need preheating. In some
cases, only specific sections might need preheating (Figure 127). Preheating
techniques require considerable care to make sure the heat is distributed
evenly throughout the metal and that the structure is allowed to cool slowly.

Preheated areas

Weld area

Figure 127—Preheating on specific sections

Post-heating is used mainly to relieve residual stresses after the weld is


completed. Post-heat treatments are more important with alloy steels, cast
iron and other non-ferrous metal.

Now complete Self-Test 2 and check your answers.

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Notes

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Self-Test 2
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. Define “distortion.”

2. Define “residual stress.”

3. Distortion occurs as a result of the


a. hot cracking in the weld metal
b. uncontrolled expansion and contraction within a metal
c. pre- and post-heat treatments
d. porosity in the weld metal

4. Which two types of welds are most prone to distortion?


1. large welds, 2. small welds, 3. welds on high-alloy steels, 4. welds on
low-carbon steel

a. 1, 3
b. 1, 4
c. 2, 3
d. 2, 4

5. Identify the type of distortion shown in Figure 128.


a. transverse
b. angular
c. depth
d. longitudinal

Figure 128

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6. Identify the type of distortion shown in Figure 129.


Answers
a. transverse
b. angular
c. depth
d. longitudinal

7. Identify the type of distortion shown in Figure 130. Figure 129

a. transverse
b. angular
c. retrograde
d. longitudinal No distortion but may be high in stresses Figure
Extreme 130
distortion

8. Longitudinal distortion is a particular problem on


a. thick plate
b. wide sections of plate
c. long weld joints
d. very deep welds

9. To control longitudinal distortion, you should


a. use slow rates of travel
b. use single passes if possible
c. keep reinforcement and convexity to a minimum
d. place a wedge in the centre of the weld joint

10. Transverse distortion results from


a. shrinkage along the length of the weld joint
b. shrinkage across the face of the weld metal
c. shrinkage along the edges of the weld bead
d. shrinkage along the root of the weld joint

11. Give two techniques to avoid transverse shrinkage.

1.

2.

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12. Generally, there is less distortion if you use


Answers
a. fast welding speeds
b. multiple passes
c. small electrodes
d. a long arc

13. Which welding technique is shown in Figure 131?


a. offset Direction of travel of individual weld bead segments
1 2 3 4 5

b. strip
c. intermittent Direction of travel along weld joint

d. back-step Figure 131

14. Which welding technique is shown in Figure 132?


a. offset Direction of travel of individual weld bead segments
1 3 2

b. strip
c. intermittent Direction of travel along weld joint

d. back step Figure 132

15. Which of the following is a mechanical means of controlling distortion?


a. intermittent welding
b. pre-bending
c. back step sequences
d. multi-pass welding

16. Which of the following butt joint preparations is most prone


to angular distortion?
a. square butt joint
b. single vee butt joint
c. double vee joint
d. U butt joint

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

198 Welder Training Program — Level C


P4-6
Theory Competency P4-6:
Main factors of SMAW
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-6

Outcomes
By this point in your study, you have learned the basic information about shielded metal
arc welding and its applications.

When you have completed the Learning Task in this Theory Competency, you will be
able to describe:

• the main factors of SMAW and their importance

Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in module P4, you will take a
written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions
that are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-6:

• the main factors of SMAW and their importance

Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.

Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.

Additional online lessons and information


• http://www.lincolnelectric.com/knowledge/training/weldcurriculum.asp

Welder Training Program — Level C 201


202 Welder Training Program — Level C
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-6

P4-6 Learning Task 1: Notes


Main factors of SMAW
Creating welds of high quality takes skill and concentration, which you will
develop only with much practice. But there are certain things you can do to
speed your progress. Before beginning each weld, you need to consider the
following five factors:

• Welder comfort and position


• welding power source settings
• arc length
• electrode angle
• speed of travel

Welder comfort and position


It is easier to weld if you are in a comfortable position and if you have a clear
view of the area in front of and behind the electrode. Most Welders find that
placing their arms correctly enables then to maintain control of the arc yet
remain comfortable.

If you are right-handed, brace your right wrist with your left hand and place
your left elbow on the welding bench. Use your left elbow as a pivot while
you move the electrode along the base metal. For right-handed Welders, the
usual direction for flat-position welding is from left to right. If you are left-
handed, your arm positions and weld direction will be reversed. Eventually
you should be able to weld with one hand.

Bracing your body against something stationary can help you to hold steady.
Placing your elbow on the welding bench helps, but you can also lean your
hip against the edge of the bench to improve your ability to hold steady.

If you weld standing upright with no part of your body touching a


steady point, you will find that you will have difficulty steadying yourself
in the dark of the helmet. Your free hand or some part of your body
must have a physical reference.

Try to stand completely still with your eyes closed. It is hard to do,
because your nervous system uses visual and tactile (touching) cues to
locate your body and keep it oriented. When you are in the dark under
your helmet, you lose most of those visual cues.

Before you strike an arc, make sure your head is in a good position for an
unobstructed view. You will find that your depth perception will be limited if
you view your welding from directly ahead or directly behind the direction
of travel.

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Notes Before you start the weld bead, check that you have the correct polarity,
your amperage settings are correct, your workpiece lead connection is
secure, your gloves are on and you actually have a welding helmet on
your head.

Most experienced Welders will admit they have forgotten that they took
their helmet off for a minute, then nodded their head and struck an arc.

Consider bending your electrode if needed to make it easier to reach the


weld location. If you bend your electrode, bend it as close to the electrode
holder as possible. This limits the cracking of the electrode coating.

Before welding, turn the welding power source off and check that you can
move the electrode through the full distance. Rolling your wrist can extend
that distance. Wrapping your arm partially around circular weld joints allows
you to reach behind. Unwrap your arm as you weld.

Welding power source setting


When preparing to weld with DC current, you must check that the polarity
setting (either EN or EP) is correct for the type of electrode you are using.
With AC current you have no choice of polarity, since the current reverses
direction 120 times per second.

You must also make sure that the current or amperage is correctly set for the
electrode you are using, the type of weld joint, the weld position, the type
of material to be welded and the travel speed required for the weld. The
current setting determines the welding temperature, which will affect the
quality and soundness of the weld.

Also consider how you will adjust your fine settings. Each manufacturer uses
slightly different terms or symbols on the controls, such as “arc force,” “arc
crisp” or “arc soft.”

Arc length
“Arc length” is the distance from the end of the electrode to the workpiece.
It is determined by the diameter of the electrode, but it might change with
the welding position and the amount of current required. When the arc
length is correct, the arc makes a distinct crackling sound. When it is too
long, the crackling changes to a hissing sound. When it is too short, the
electrode will stick to the base metal. Normally the arc length is equal to the
electrode core wire diameter.

Welding arcs that are too long prevent good penetration and fusion, permit
the absorption of oxygen and nitrogen into the weld and produce excessive
weld spatter. In addition, they increase the possibility of arc blow.

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Electrode angle
Notes
“Electrode angle” includes two angles: the work angle and the travel angle.
Both angles are taken from a line perpendicular to the weld axis at the weld
pool. The work angle is taken in a transverse plane from the weld axis. The
travel angle is taken in a longitudinal plane from the weld axis (Figure 133).
The travel angle is also referred to as the “drag angle” or the “push angle.”
Drag angle is when the electrode is pointing toward the weld deposit. Push
angle is when the electrode is pointing in the direction of travel. Normally,
you weld with a 10° to 20° drag angle (Figure 133).

10º–20º

Direction of travel
90º

Electrode work angle Electrode travel angle

End view Side view

Figure 133—Electrode angle

Using the correct work and travel angles is important in preventing undercut,
slag inclusions and porosity. It also makes it easier for you to deposit weld
metal and to obtain the desired weld profile, fusion and penetration.

Travel speed
The “travel speed” is the speed at which you move the electrode along the
weld joint. Generally, the travel speed should be such that 25 mm (1 in.) of
electrode produces 25 mm (1 in.) of deposit. This is the average speed. You
might need to go faster or slower, depending on the welding position and
the size of the deposit required.

Now complete Self-Test 1 and check your answers.

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Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. Generally, the speed of travel should be such that 25 mm (1 in.) of


electrode will produce of deposit.
a. 5 mm (3⁄16 in.)
b. 10 mm (3⁄8 in.)
c. 19 mm (3⁄4 in.)
d. 25 mm (1 in.)

2. The arc length is usually the diameter of the electrode


core wire.
a. half
b. the same as
c. twice
d. three times

3. The electrode should normally be held at a drag angle of to


an imaginary line perpendicular to the base metal.
a. 10° to 20°
b. 30° to 40°
c. 40° to 50°
d. 60° to 70°

4. When using DC electrodes, what are the two welding power source
settings that you must check before beginning your weld?
1. arc length, 2. polarity, 3. current, 4. electrode angle, 5. speed of travel

a. 1, 2
b. 1, 5
c. 2, 3
d. 3, 4

5. When the arc length is correct, what sound is produced?


a. buzzing sound
b. soft hissing sound
c. clicking sound
d. crackling sound

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6. Three problems that occur when the arc length is too long are
Answers
a. penetration too deep, absorption of gases in the weld and too much
weld spatter
b. penetration too shallow, decreased arc blow and less weld spatter
c. less absorption of gases in the weld, increased arc blow and
too much spatter
d. increased arc blow, excessive spatter and incomplete penetration

7. The welding current setting determines the that is applied


to the weld.
a. composition of weld metal
b. resistance
c. pressure
d. heat

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Notes

208 Welder Training Program — Level C


Theory Competency P4-7:

P4-7
Hardfacing procedures using SMAW
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-7

Outcomes
Hardfacing is important in industries where machinery and equipment suffer extreme
wear, corrosion or high temperatures. Hardfacing can be deposited using the OFW,
SMAW, GMAW, GTAW, SAW, FCAW and MCAW processes.

When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you should be
able to describe:

• the hardfacing process and its applications


• the types of wear that hardfacing is designed to resist
• the electrodes for hardfacing with SMAW
• the problems you might face when hardfacing and how to avoid them

Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in Module P4, you will take a
written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions that
are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-7:

• all aspects and uses of the hardfacing process and its applications

Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.

Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.

Additional information on hardfacing


• http://content.lincolnelectric.com/pdfs/products/literature/c7710.pdf

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212 Welder Training Program — Level C
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-7

P4-7 Learning Task 1: Notes


Hardfacing procedures
“Hardfacing” is the application of a hard, wear-resistant metal or metal alloy
to the surface of a softer metal by a welding process. “Hard surfacing” is a
non-standard term for hardfacing.

Hardfacing is applied to protect the parent


or base metal from various types of wear.
On bulldozers, for example, the blade is
hardfaced where the corners meet with
the cutting edge. On dragline buckets,
hardfacing is applied to the bottom wear
plates, the teeth and the cutting edge.

A typical hardfacing application would be Figure 134—Hardfacing


on shovel tooth
one designed to protect shovel teeth from
the extreme wear of service (Figure 134).

Before starting a hardfacing project, you should look for sources of reliable
information. Errors in applying hardfacing can mean a waste of time and
material. In extreme cases, errors can cause damage to perfectly serviceable
and very expensive pieces of equipment.

Some sources of good information are:

• hardfacing electrode manufacturers


• original equipment manufacturers
• equipment maintenance and service manuals
• consulting welding engineers

Welding processes for hardfacing


All welding processes can be used for hardfacing. But the arc welding process
is most commonly used because it is fast and economical. The welding
procedure normally does not change, but special hardfacing electrodes and
welding rods are used.

A possible drawback of using the SMAW process is the deep penetration of


the arc. This causes the molten base metal to mix with the deposit metal.
If there is too much admixture (base metal in the mix), the base metal will
dilute the wear-resistant properties of the deposit metal. The hardfacing will
then no longer be as effective at resisting wear.

Do not use oxyacetylene and gas tungsten-arc processes to hardface steels


sensitive to overheating.

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Types of wear
Notes
The types of hardfacing electrodes and welding rods you should use for
hardfacing depend on the wear that the base metal will face. In order to
choose the correct hardfacing material, you must consider the following
types of wear:

• abrasion
• impact
• erosion
• corrosion
• oxidation
• compression
• thermal shock

Abrasion
Abrasion removes metal by gouging or grinding. It is caused by the
continuous exposure of the metal parts to the scouring friction of earth,
sand, gravel or other gritty substances. Abrasion can also occur when metal
parts grind against one another. Metal-to-metal wear is a seizing or galling
type of wear that rips and tears a metal surface. It usually happens in places
that are hard to lubricate properly.

Impact
Impact is a pounding, battering type of wear. It can split, break, chip,
mushroom or otherwise deform the metal surface. Dipper buckets and rock-
crushing hammers have impact wear.

Erosion
Erosion is a gouging type of wear that washes away or grooves the metal
surface. The usual cause is steam, liquids or solids moving rapidly across or
against a metal surface. This occurs in ducts, pipes, pumps and valves.

Corrosion
Corrosion is wear that pits, perforates and eventually dissolves metal parts.
Contact with moisture, acid, acid fumes, gas fumes or salts can cause
corrosion.

Oxidation
Oxidation is a special form of corrosion that affects some metals when
they are exposed to a combination of heat and air. The resulting wear is a
crumbling or flaking of the metal surface.

Compression
Compression is a squeezing type of wear. The usual cause is a heavy static
load or loads that gradually increase pressure on a metal surface. This pressure
can cause a metal surface to lose its original shape. Compression wear is an
important consideration when close dimensional tolerances are important.

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Thermal shock
Thermal shock is cracking or splitting caused by exposing metal parts to Notes
temperature extremes such as rapid heating and cooling cycles.

Hardfacing electrode materials


Many types of hardfacing welding rods and electrodes are available. Often,
more than one type of wear will occur at the same time, making it hard to
choose the best hardfacing material for the job. Some materials provide
excellent resistance to abrasive wear but are poor at resisting impact
wear. Other materials have the opposite strengths and weaknesses. For
this reason, it is important to know the characteristics of commonly used
hardfacing materials.

High-speed steels
The high-speed steel alloys provide a hard, wear-resistant surface, even at
high temperatures. They are also well suited for resisting metal-to-metal
wear. These alloys are not as effective at withstanding impact loads, as they
tend to crack. Typical applications for high-speed steel alloys include cutting
tools, shear blades, reamers and chain sprockets.

High-speed steel electrodes fall into three classifications, depending on their


carbon content. EFe5-A has the highest carbon content, EFe5-B has medium
carbon content and EFe5-C has the lowest carbon content. Higher carbon
content provides higher abrasion resistance.

Austenitic manganese steels


Manganese steel hardfacing materials are tough and abrasion resistant.
Manganese steel also provides good resistance to impact wear. These alloys
become work hardened, which means that they become harder as they are
hammered or battered.

In the mining industry, manganese steel is often applied to ore chutes,


where it provides resistance to the abrasion wear of sliding rocks and the
impact wear of the rocks striking the chute.

Chromium carbides
Chromium carbide hardfacing materials are slightly lower in hardness and
abrasion resistance than tungsten carbide. Chromium carbide is slightly
softer, making it preferable to tungsten carbide for impact loads. It also
provides good resistance to corrosive wear.

Chromium carbide alloys can be either ferrous based (iron based) or non-
ferrous based. The ferrous-based chromium carbide alloys provide excellent
resistance to abrasion and maintain their hardness at higher temperatures.
The non-ferrous alloys are usually based on cobalt or tungsten. They are
especially good at resisting corrosive wear and are a good choice for
applications such as a lime kiln auger.

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Tungsten carbide
Notes Tungsten carbide is the hardest hardfacing material and provides the most
resistance to abrasion. It is commonly applied to earth- or rock-cutting
tools such as rotary bits for oil rigs. Machine parts that are in contact with
highly abrasive material are often hardfaced with tungsten carbide. Tungsten
carbide is a poor material for impact wear, because its hardness makes it
brittle and it will shatter under impact.

Copper alloys
Aluminum bronze, phosphor bronze and silicon bronze are commonly used
copper alloys. These alloys provide good corrosion resistance and high-
quality sliding friction-bearing surfaces. Copper in its pure state is rarely used.

Nickel chromium alloys


Nickel chromium alloys provide good resistance to metal-to-metal wear and
corrosion. They are able to retain their hardness at higher temperatures.
They are very good on metals where distortion could be a problem. Typical
applications include seal rings, screw conveyors and valves. With nickel-
based alloys it is particularly important that the surface of the metal be
absolutely clean and free from rust, dirt, oil or scale.

AWS codes
The chart in Figure 135 lists the AWS identification for the most commonly
used hardfacing electrodes.

Alloy Type Electrode Specification


High-speed steels EFe5-A
EFe5-B
EFe5-C
Austenitic manganese steels EFeMn-A
EFeMn-B
Ferrous-based chromium carbides EFeCr-A1
Non-ferrous–based chromium carbides ECoCr-A
ECoCr-B
ECoCr-C
Tungsten carbides EWC-12/30 EWC-40
EWC-20/30 EWC-40/120
EWC-30/40
Copper-based alloys ECuSi ECuA1-E
ECuA1-A2 ECuSn-A
ECuA1-B ECuSn-C
ECuA1-C ECuSn-E
ECuA1-D
Nickel-based alloys ENiCr-A
ENiCr-B
ENiCr-C

Figure 135—Common hardfacing electrodes

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Depositing hardfacing material


Notes
You must carefully consider the wear factors before deciding which hardfacing
material is the most suitable for the job. Alloy content and rate of cooling
must be designed specifically to produce the required resistance to wear. You
must also consider the procedures involved in producing a deposit with the
desired hardfacing characteristics.

Surface preparations
The surface must be clean and free of cracks and distortion in order to
ensure a good bond. Solvent will remove grease and oil, while dust and rust
can be removed by mechanical means such as grinding and brushing. Arc-
gouging or grinding will remove cracks, distortions, discontinuities and old
hardfacing deposits.

Buildup
The application of some hardfacing materials might be limited to two or
three layers. You should rebuild badly worn surfaces with filler metal similar
to the base metal before applying hardfacing.

Sometimes the weld metal in this buildup is different from the base
metal. This could be in order to create a surface that can more effectively
support and bond to the final hardfacing. Buildup or covering with an alloy
that is different from the base metal is sometimes called “buttering” or
“cladding.” Be careful when using these terms because they have slightly
different meanings.

Preheating
Preheating is not usually necessary in hardfacing, although the materials
should be at a temperature of 21 ºC to 38 ºC (70 ºF to 100 ºF). Higher
preheat might be required for medium- to high-carbon and low-alloy steels
in order to prevent weld cracking, underbead cracking, spalling or stress
failure. Very large or rigid parts might also require preheating. Torches,
electrical heating devices and ovens are commonly used for preheating,
depending on the size of the part and the equipment available.

When preheating is required, you must maintain the correct temperature


throughout the process (Figure 136). Check the temperature during welding
and after any interruptions in welding. Manganese steel, in particular, must
be monitored to avoid overheating. The temperatures listed below are only
recommendations. The actual temperature required will depend on the
application and past experience.

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Metal Celsius Fahrenheit


Notes
Low-carbon steel 40 ºC–140 ºC 100 ºF–300 ºF
Medium-carbon steel 140 ºC–260 ºC 300 ºF–500 ºF
High-carbon steel 260 ºC–430 ºC 500 ºF–800 ºF
Low-alloy steel 40 ºC–260 ºC 100 ºF–500 ºF
Manganese steel 40 ºC–95 ºC 100 ºF–200 ºF
Cast iron 650 ºC–760 ºC 1200 ºF–1400 ºF

Figure 136—Figure 136—Recommended preheating temperatures for hardfacing

Cooling rate
The cooling rate has a great impact on the control of undesirable hardfacing
side effects. It also determines the wear resistance of the hardfacing material.
Sometimes the cooling rate is slowed to reduce the undesirable side effects,
although this reduces the wear resistance.

Methods to control the cooling rate include the following:

• preheating the weldment


• maintaining the correct temperature by using a secondary source of
heat from a heating torch, or by only using the heat input from the
welding arc or welding torch during hardfacing
• post-heating the weldment
• retaining the heat by insulating the surface with dry sand, lime or a
fireproof blanket after hardfacing will usually reduce residual cooling
stresses, weld cracking and distortion without affecting wear resistance

Types of hardfacing patterns


Waffle pattern
This pattern effectively traps sand and dirt, which then provide protection
from abrasive wear of the base metal (Figure 137). The pattern size and
orientation will vary according to the application.

25–75 mm
(1–3")

Figure 137—Waffle pattern

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Parallel line pattern (Stringer beads)


With the parallel line pattern, stringer beads run in the direction of the Notes
material flow (Figure 138). This pattern is particularly suited for the teeth of
dipper shovels that work with rock. The rock rides on the hardfacing beads
and the base metal is protected.

25 mm (1")

13 mm (½")

Figure 138—Parallel line pattern

Button pattern
The button pattern (Figure 139) is economical and resists impact wear. The
base metal does not overheat during application. The button pattern makes a
good second application when hardfacing over parallel line or waffle patterns.

Figure 139—Button pattern

The pattern is staggered to the direction of flow of the gravel or earth


moving across the surface.

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General guidlines for hardfacing


Notes
Some general guidelines for hardfacing include the following:

• be cost effective
• use the pattern to control distortion and cracking
• apply an open bead pattern if abrasive material is going to fill the
openings
• apply beads with consideration to the type of material
• apply beads with consideration to the type of wear

Problems in hardfacing
The problems you might encounter in hardfacing include the following:

• cost
• dilution
• spalling
• stress failure
• cracking
• distortion

You need to be aware of these problems, their causes and how to avoid them.

Cost
Hardfacing must be cost effective. The cost of hardfacing not only includes
direct costs such as labour and consumables, it also includes downtime and
service life of the equipment.

Dilution
Hardfacing deposits can vary because of dilution with the base metal.
As explained earlier, the deep penetration of the SMAW arc can result in
dilution of the deposit metal. To limit dilution caused by the filler metal and
the base metal mixing too much, use:

• larger diameter electrodes


• the manufacturer’s recommended polarity and lower current settings
• the flat and vertical downhill welding positions
• faster rates of travel

Larger diameter electrodes produce less dilution because the heat is not as
concentrated. Less heat concentration means it does not penetrate as deep,
which results in less dilution.

DCEN produces shallower penetration with a lower, wide bead profile.


AC is moderate in both penetration and profile. DCEP produces deeper
penetration with a higher, narrow bead profile. DCEP is common practice,
but you should follow the electrode manufacturer’s recommendations.

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Welding in the lower settings of the manufacturer’s recommended current


range produces less base metal penetration, resulting in less dilution. Notes

Welding position also influences the amount of dilution. The flat and
vertical downhill positions produce the least dilution. The vertical uphill and
horizontal positions produce the most dilution.

Faster rates of travel do not allow the base metal to heat up as much. This
produces a higher bead profile and less penetration. The higher bead profile
may be desired in some hardfacing applications but could cause spalling in
others. Less penetration results in less dilution.

Spalling
Spalling occurs when the surfacing weld metal breaks away from the base
metal. The degree of spalling ranges from tiny chips to large chunks. The
base metal might be exposed if the chunks are large enough.

You can avoid spalling by following these procedures:

1. Prepare the surface. A good bond is possible only when the surface is
perfectly clean and smooth.

2. Control the cooling rate. If the cooling rate is too fast, brittle areas might
occur in the base metal. These areas will crack and lead to spalling.

3. Limit deposit thickness. Do not apply more hardfacing layers than specified.
Heavy hardfacing deposits increase the chance of spalling due to shrinkage
stress. If a thicker deposit is necessary, apply buildup before hardfacing.

Stress failure
Stress failure occurs when stresses caused by welding are added to
weldments already having high retained internal stresses. Examples of parts
having high retained internal stresses are highly rigid parts, shrink-fitted
parts, large castings and parts hardened by heat treatment. These can
fracture under additional stresses caused by welding.

To avoid stress failure:

• preheat slowly and evenly to the upper region of the recommended


temperature range
• toughen parts (temper) hardened by heat treatment with controlled
heating to specified preheat temperatures followed by slow cooling
• avoid interruptions during the welding process
• postheat evenly to the upper region of the recommended
temperature range
• cool the part slowly and evenly in a furnace or cover it with an
insulating material

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Weld cracking
Notes There are three common types of weld cracks: underbead cracking,
transverse or cross-cracking and longitudinal or centre-line cracking.

Underbead cracking occurs in the heat-affected zone of the base metal


adjacent to or under the weld. The cracks might not be visible on the surface,
but they can lead to more serious defects such as spalling or weld cracking.

Methods used to avoid underbead cracking:

• preheat and post-heat the weldment


• cold welding with stress relieving by peening
• control the rate of cooling

Preheat and post-heat temperatures range from 65 °C to 300 °C (150 °F


to 600 ºF). You should consult the electrode supplier and equipment
manufacturers for recommended temperatures and procedures.

Transverse or cross-cracking typically occurs on hardfacing deposits that


were applied to provide resistance to severe abrasion wear. It occurs most
commonly in massive rigid or complexly shaped parts.

Cross-cracking is caused by residual stresses in the weld deposit and rigidity


within the weldment. Cross-cracking relieves these stresses, and in turn
it helps prevent spalling or distortion. Extensive cross-cracking must be
avoided, as it can reduce the strength of the structure. Preheating is the
best way to control cross-cracking, with preheat temperatures in the 650 °C
(1200 °F) range.

Longitudinal or centre-line cracking typically occurs down the centre


of the weld bead. The deposit most susceptible to this type of cracking is
the flat bead shape. To avoid centre-line cracking, apply a slightly convex
weld bead, use a low current and apply a stringer bead with minimum
oscillation (motion).

Distortion

Distortion is the most universal problem with welding.

Before you start hardfacing, ask yourself these simple questions:

1. Is this weldment going to distort when I weld it?

2. Have I taken enough precautions to control the distortion?

The answer to question number 1 is always “Yes.”


The answer to question number 2 is often “No.”

If your answer to number 2 is “No,” then this is the time when planning
can save large amounts of time, money and embarrassment.

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Metal expands when heated and contracts when cooled. Distortion Notes
occurs when unbalanced stresses are created during this expansion
and contraction. Hardfacing always creates some degree of distortion.
Controlling this distortion might only require holding the weldment
with a clamp.

Occasionally, an extra buildup of hardfacing is applied to allow for distortion.


The hardfacing is then finished by machining or grinding. After welding,
distortion in the structure can be straightened while the part is still hot and
malleable. Contact hardfacing suppliers, process experts and equipment
manufacturers to find the correct procedure for your application.

There are other methods for avoiding or reducing distortion:

1. Allow distortion forces to work positively. Offset flat, thin or simply


shaped weldments by pre-bending, forming or clamping before starting
the weld. This allows the distortion forces to correct the part by pulling it
into its original or desired shape.

2. Balance the stresses. You can control distortion in weldments that cannot
be straightened after welding by balancing the stresses during welding.
Weld or clamp two similar parts back to back or to a strongback, a
fixture or a fabrication table. Then balance welding with an alternating
welding sequence.

3. Do not overheat the part. There are several ways to control the
temperature to reduce the chances of high rigidity. Use a low current
and promote even cooling by using a fan, blasting with compressed air
or circulating water through the part if it is water jacketed. Weld in two
separate areas, allowing the first to cool while you weld the second.

4. Relieve internal stresses. This is very important when cooling highly


stressed pieces such as large parts, rigid shapes and shrink-fitted parts.
Preheat the entire weldment slowly and evenly before welding and then
peen each layer during cooling.

Now complete Self-Test 1 and check your answers.

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Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. The sliding, scraping type of wear that removes metal by gouging or


grinding is called
a. impact
b. compression
c. corrosion
d. abrasion

2. A pounding, battering type of wear that splits, breaks, chips, mushrooms


or otherwise deforms the metal surface is called
a. erosion
b. impact
c. thermal shock
d. oxidation

3. Which hardfacing material is the most abrasion resistant?


a. chromium carbide
b. tungsten carbide
c. semiaustenitic steel
d. austenitic manganese steel

4. To reduce spalling, cracking and distortion when hardfacing, you must


control
a. the corrosion rate
b. the cooling rate
c. elongation
d. the arc length

5. Which of the following means the breaking away of particles of weld


metal from the base metal or underlying hardfacing layers?
a. spalling
b. peening
c. cladding
d. surfacing

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6. An effective way to slow the cooling rate is by


Answers
a. increasing penetration
b. faster travel speed
c. preheating
d. peening

7. The best method of relieving stresses, especially in large weldments, is by


each layer during the welding process.
a. peening
b. pre-bending
c. cleaning
d. chipping

8. Which of the following hardfacing electrodes is a ferrous-based


chromium carbide alloy?
a. ECuA1-E
b. EFeCr-A1
c. EFe5-C
d. ECoCr-A

9. Which of the following hardfacing electrodes is a tungsten carbide alloy?


a. EFe5-A
b. EFeMn-8
c. ECoCr-C
d. EWC-20/30

10. Which of the following hardfacing electrodes is a nickel-based alloy?


a. EFeMn-A
b. ECuA1-E
c. ECoCr-B
d. ENiCr-A

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11. One way to help control dilution is to


Answers
a. use low current settings
b. preheat
c. weld in the horizontal position
d. ensure slower, uniform cooling

12. Which hardfacing pattern is suited to resisting impact wear?


a. waffle pattern
b. parallel line pattern
c. button pattern
d. oscillating pattern

13. Which hardfacing pattern protects the base metal while trapping dirt
and sand?
a. waffle pattern
b. parallel line pattern
c. button pattern
d. oscillating pattern

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Theory Competency P4-8:
Procedures for SMAW on grey cast iron

P4-8
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-8

Outcomes
Grey cast iron has special characteristics that require procedures different from those for
welding low-carbon steel.

When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you should be
able to describe:

• the special problems in welding grey cast iron


• hot welding and cold welding of grey cast iron
• electrodes for welding grey cast iron
• joint preparation for grey cast iron

Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in module P4, you will take a
written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions
that are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-8:

• repairing grey cast iron with the SMAW process

Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.

Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.

Guidelines for welding cast iron


• http://www.lincolnelectric.com/knowledge/articles/content/castironpreheat.asp

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P4-8 Learning Task 1: Notes


Procedures for SMAW on grey cast iron
Grey cast iron is most commonly used for machinery frames, beds, housings
and small parts such as brackets, sprockets and levers. Most welding done
on grey cast iron is for the repair or maintenance of these items.

Grey cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon. It has properties quite
different from those of low-carbon steel. The high carbon content (minimum
1.5%) makes grey cast iron much less ductile with lower tensile strength
than low-carbon steel.

The carbon is present in two forms: a combined form with the iron,
and a free form called “graphite.” The graphite flakes give the metal its
characteristic grey colour on fractured surfaces.

Welding grey cast iron


Grey cast iron castings are made by pouring the molten metal into
moulds. The castings are then cooled very slowly. When you are
welding a casting, it is important that the cooling process be very
slow and even. If the rate of cooling is faster than when the casting
was originally made, the heat-affected zone around the weld will
become highly brittle and crack-sensitive.

The best way to control the cooling rate is to preheat the casting. If the mass
of the casting around the weld area is cool, it will draw the heat away from
the weld area. This causes the weld area to cool too quickly. If you preheat
the whole casting, the warmed mass surrounding the weld cannot rapidly
draw away the heat. The heat of welding is retained longer in the weld area,
and cooling can take place slowly and evenly.

Problem solving when welding on grey cast iron


The main concern when welding on a casting is to prevent it from cracking
or forming hard spots as it is being heated or cooled.

Cracking and hard spots are also a problem when casting an original
product during manufacturing. Castings are often designed with cooling
in mind. They are made thicker in areas even though the thickness is not
required for strength. The extra material is there to retain heat while the
remainder of the casting is cooling in the sand mould. If the casting design
is incorrect and one area of a casting cools too quickly, a casting will crack.
This would require redesign, not for strength, but for thickness and shape so
that cooling is even in the mould.

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When you preheat a casting before welding, imagine how it will expand and
Notes contract. Apply the heat evenly so that the casting will expand evenly and
not build up any internal stresses. Once the casting has been repaired, it
must be post-heated and cooled evenly. Uneven cooling causes uncontrolled
contraction, which will develop into shrinkage stresses within the casting
and lead to cracking.

Weld failure from oil and grease


Cast iron will absorb oil. If you have ever used a cast iron frying pan, you likely
saw the oil come to the surface of the pan when it was heated on the stove.
In the same way, cast iron machinery parts will have oil impregnated in the
surface. Preheating is an effective way to make sure that trace amounts of oil
are burned away. Welding on any oily surface will give you a poor-quality weld.

Planning

If you choose to do a repair using the hot method, make sure you
have all your materials at hand. Planning a repair is more than half
the secret to success.

Don’t hesitate to use other sources of information. Welding electrode


suppliers want you to be successful, otherwise you will not return to
purchase more of their product. Your workmates might have seen failures
or successes. They are another source of countless tricks and techniques to
make the job easier.

One method to test if you have enough preheat and a compatible


electrode is to weld a flat bar to the preheated casting with a short fillet
weld. Snap the weld by levering the flat bar. The better the preheat and
electrode selection, the more casting the fracture will tear out. This is
a useful though rough guide for checking your preheat and electrode
compatibility for any cast iron.

A large propane burner–style torch, called a “tiger torch,” connected to a


propane cylinder is effective at providing an even, high-volume heat. Do
not be in a rush to heat up the casting for repair. Heating it too quickly
limits how evenly the heat is distributed throughout the casting. Remember,
uneven heating or cooling will give you cracking problems.

A hand-held infrared temperature sensor is relatively cheap and provides a


quick, accurate and convenient way to measure temperatures.

Temperature crayons such as “Tempilstik°” are another way to tell when


you have reached the correct preheat temperature. These crayons are rated
and melt at specific temperatures. Simply mark the workpiece with the
crayon rated for the temperature you need. When the metal reaches the
rated temperature, the mark will melt. You will often require several different
crayons according to the preheat or post-heat temperatures you might use.

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Deoxidized, ground or polished cast iron or iron carbon alloy steel will
oxidize when heated, showing colours that indicate its temperature Notes
(Figure 140). This is another method that can be used to judge the
approximate temperature of metal. When preheating metal, this method is
not as accurate as temperature-controlled methods or Tempilstiks°, but it is
very useful because it is convenient.

Iron and steel colours Degrees ºC Degrees ºF


Light yellow 225 440
Straw yellow 240 460
Brown yellow 260 500
Full purple 280 540
Light blue 300 570
Dark blue 340 640
Low cherry red 540 1000

Figure 140—Temperatures indicated by colours of polished iron and steel

When welding cast iron:

Avoid strong drafts and cold air. Do the repair away from open doors
and breezeways. A strong breeze or cold air could chill your casting and
cause your repair to crack and fail.

Insulating
Two very effective products for controlling cooling and keeping the heat in
the casting are Kaowool® and vermiculite. Other commonly used products
are dry sand, lime, absorbent clay (floor dry) and firebrick.

Kaowool®
Kaowool® is a mineral wool batting material. It comes in many sizes. A
common thickness is 2.5 cm (1 in.). It is used to line furnaces and as high-
temperature insulation.

Kaowool® is relatively expensive, but it can be reused several times.


However, the material is fragile, and it eventually crumbles if folded or
twisted too much.

Technically, Kaowool® is a ceramic fibre (alumino silicate). It does not


contain asbestos. But it can irritate if you inhale the fibres over long
periods. Wear a dust mask when you handle it.

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On large casting repairs, you can preheat your casting, then have a helper
Notes continue keeping the casting warm while you weld up the fracture. Once
the repair is done, evenly post-heat the complete casting. Cover with
Kaowool® and let it cool as slowly as possible.

Vermiculite
Vermiculite is commonly used to insulate hollow concrete block walls and to
condition soil. It is a lightweight, granular material that can be purchased at
most garden supply stores. Vermiculite is also called “perlite.” Vermiculite is
light and clean. It can be reused many times.

A barrel of vermiculite is ideal for burying small castings in. The


material will prevent the casting from cooling. Be careful when
retrieving the casting because it might still be hot, even a day later.
The barrel containing the hot casting must be marked “HOT.”

Dry sand, lime and absorbent clay

Dry sand and lime can be used to control cooling on casting repairs.
But they are not the best insulator, since they will absorb a great deal
of heat.

Absorbent clay, which is used as floor absorbent, is a granular clay. Although


not ideal, it can be used to control cooling.

Dry sand, lime and absorbent clay are used in the same way as vermiculite.
Remember, the barrel containing the hot casting must be marked “HOT.”

Firebrick
Firebrick can be stacked into the shape of a custom-made furnace for heating
your casting. Although the firebrick keeps the outside air from cooling what
is inside, it does not insulate well. However, firebrick does retain heat, acting
as a heat reservoir to slow the cooling of the casting.

Filler metal alloy choice


Electrodes other than nickel are used mainly because of their lower cost.

Nickel electrodes are preferred for the following reasons:

• The nickel alloy weld deposit is relatively soft, allowing the casting to
be machined or drilled after welding.
• A 36% nickel iron alloy contracts much less than both carbon steel and
cast iron. You create a 36% nickel iron alloy like this when the nickel
filler metal mixes with the cast iron during welding. The less shrinkage
there is, the less chance there is for cracks to develop.
The main problem with using nickel alloys is that they cost five to ten times
as much as regular low-carbon steel electrodes. It is common for people
to argue about spending an extra $50 on the repair of a $1000 casting. In

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reality, nickel electrodes are cost effective because they increase your chance
of success. Notes

In all cases, you must use minimum amperage when welding. The electrode
must fuse to the surface of the cast iron. You do not want deep penetration,
which dilutes the weld deposit alloy, increases the carbon content of the
filler and reduces its ductility.

Buttering
In a large weld joint on cast iron you can reduce the cost by limiting the
amount of nickel filler metal you use. This is done by a procedure called
“buttering.” “Buttering” means surfacing the weld joint with a nickel alloy,
then completing the weld with a less-expensive filler metal. The layer of
nickel filler metal is compatible with the cast iron base metal and provides a
base for the secondary filler metal. The secondary filler metal can be a lower
nickel alloy or low-carbon steel electrode.

Stop-hole drilling
If you are welding a crack, it is a good idea to drill a stop hole. This is a hole
3.2 mm (1⁄8 in.) in diameter drilled just beyond where the crack ends. The
aim is that if the crack spreads, it will stop at the hole. An alternative to stop-
hole drilling is to run a small weld bead at 90° across the end of the crack.

Welding procedures
Hot welding
When the casting has been preheated, the procedure is called “hot welding.”
Ideally, the entire casting should be preheated so that expansion and
contraction will be even throughout the structure. Small castings such as
sprockets or levers can be preheated using an oxy-fuel gas flame. A preheat of
about 260 ºC (500 ºF) is usually recommended to control distortion and slow
the cooling rate. Preheating also cleans the casting by burning off oily residue.
Once you have preheated a casting, complete the welding without delay
and without interruption.

For larger castings such as housings and machine frames, you should always
try to preheat the entire casting in a furnace or firebrick oven. Preheat to
about 510 ºC (950 ºF).

If the casting is cooled very slowly, you can use cast iron cored electrodes. To
promote slow, even cooling, reheat the casting in the oven, then bury it in
an insulating material.

Cold welding
Many small castings can be welded successfully without preheat, although
slow cooling is always essential. With cold welding, the aim is to keep the
casting as cool as possible. You should use a minimum of current and small-
diameter electrodes.

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Apply just enough heat to ensure fusion. Large castings require extreme
Notes care, because the metal must not be heated in any one spot for longer
than necessary. Too much heat in one area causes uneven expansion and
contraction in the surrounding metal, which might lead to cracks or fractures.

Deposit the weld beads in short lengths (about 50 mm [2 in.] or less).


Separate the deposits from each other by using a skip or back-step
sequence. This will help avoid a buildup of heat in any one area. Peening
immediately after welding is required.

Peening to control weld metal shrinkage


The weld metal will shrink more than the surrounding cast iron, especially
if it is nickel or steel. This uneven shrinkage leads to the buildup of residual
stresses in both the weld metal and the cast iron.

One way to counteract bead shrinkage is to lightly peen each bead segment as
it cools (Figure 141). This highly recommended approach stretches the weld
metal, preventing (or at least reducing) bead shrinkage as the weld cools.

50 mm (2")

Figure 141—Peening the bead segments

Patching with low-carbon steel


It is very difficult to find pieces of grey cast iron that are suitable for
repairing fractures on grey cast iron containers and housings. For this
reason, low-carbon sheet or plate is often used. Because low-carbon steel is
more ductile than grey cast iron, the thickness of the low-carbon steel patch
should not be more than 60% of the thickness of the cast iron.

If you use rectangular plate, round the corners as much as possible to


meet the shape of the structure you are patching and to reduce stress
concentrations.

To avoid excessive heat input, use an alternating welding sequence. To prevent


excessive bead shrinkage, peen after each deposit to stretch the weld metal.

Repair time
If you will be using the cold welding procedure, take your time doing the

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job. The common procedure is to start the job in the morning and do one
25 mm (1 in.) long weld bead at a time. Do not do the next weld until you Notes
can put your hand on the first weld and feel no discomfort.

Using the cold welding procedure, a 150-mm (6-in.) repair might take
all day to complete. You can do a small weld, peen it, then go work on
something else. Although the repair has taken all day, you will have spent
less than half an hour actually working on the repair.

Both hot welding and cold welding grey cast iron take about the same
amount of time to complete the repair. With cold welding, time is spent
waiting for each short bead to cool. With hot welding, time is spent on
preheating and controlled cooling of the repair.

Electrodes for welding grey cast iron


The system for identifying filler metal used in fusion welding grey cast iron
is quite different from the classifications of the low-carbon steel or low-alloy
electrodes. Cast iron filler metal is identified by letters only, rather than by
letters and numbers (Figure 142).

The first letter shows whether it is a welding rod or an electrode:

R = welding rod
E = electrode

The next letters identify the filler metal. For example, CI stands for cast iron
and NI stands for nickel.

AWS Category Description


Welding rod intended for oxyacetylene welding (OFW). Cast iron
RCI
deposit.
ECI Coated electrode with a cast iron core. Cast iron deposit.
ESt Coated electrode with a steel core. Deposit is hard and not machinable.
Coated electrode with a nickel alloy core. Deposit is machinable when
ENI
using a 99% nickel electrode.

Figure 142—AWS codes for cast iron filler metal

SMAW electrodes for grey cast iron


ECI group
Cast iron cored electrodes are generally used on castings that are subjected
to high stresses where the strength of the weld must be the same as the
base metal. Preheating and slow, even cooling are necessary. If you follow
the correct procedures and cooling rates, the deposit will be machinable.

Colour matching is often important in restoration projects on antiques. Use a


cast iron or carbon steel filler metal to match the appearance of the original
casting.

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ESt group
Notes The ESt electrodes are not widely used. This is because it is almost impossible
to prevent the formation of a hardened zone between the weld and the base
metal. ESt electrodes are generally used only for repairing small surface pits
and cracks. Occasionally they are used for repairing castings that do not
require machining.

Bead shrinkage is a major problem with steel electrodes. Since steel shrinks
more than cast iron, high stresses develop as the weld area cools. This might
lead to cracking.

Steel electrodes are particularly good for penetrating corners and other
hard-to-reach places. They are more effective at joining parts that cannot be
properly cleaned before welding.

ENI group
The ENI or nickel electrodes are the most widely used for welding cast iron.
Welds made with these electrodes are ductile and can be machined even
without preheating. Nickel is particularly effective because it keeps mixing of
the base and weld metal to a minimum.

As the weld cools and solidifies, the graphite from the cast iron is not held
in solution by the nickel, but remains as flakes. This gives the deposit its
ductility and makes it easy to machine. The graphite flakes also increase
weld size, reducing shrinkage stresses.

Castings with higher graphite content are difficult to weld. The deposit
tends to “ball up,” preventing fusion with the parent metal. For these welds,
you should use an electrode with a greater graphite flux action.

The disadvantage of nickel as a filler metal is that it can only be used on cast
iron that can be scrupulously cleaned. Preheating will often clean cast iron
sufficiently, but sometimes the casting must be ground, wire brushed or
soaked in solvent. This can greatly increase the cost of the repair.

The most widely used electrode size is 3.2 mm (1⁄8 in.), although most
electrodes are available in sizes ranging from 2.5 mm (3⁄32 in.) to 3.2 mm
(1⁄8 in.). Current settings are generally low, from 70 A to 90 A. Both AC and
DC can be used. AC is preferred, because it gives a smoother operation at
low current values and produces a less-penetrating arc.

Weld joint design


Butt joints in grey cast iron can be prepared by chipping, grinding or cutting
with an arc air gouging torch. The major difference in weld joint design for
grey cast iron compared to other base metals is the larger included angle,
which can be as large as 90°.

Your weld joint design depends on the thickness of the cast iron. On castings
up to 38 mm (1 1⁄2 in.) thick, a single vee joint is usually appropriate. With

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thicker castings, a single U joint or a double vee joint is necessary to ensure


penetration. On very thick castings, use a double U joint. Notes

On vee joints, the included angle should be 60° to 90°. On U joints, the
bevel face should slope at a 20° to 25° angle, and the root radius should be
4.8 mm (3⁄16 in.) to 6.4 mm (1⁄4 in.) (Figure 143).

60º–90º 20º–25º
r = 4.8–6.4 mm

1.6–3.2 mm 1.6–3.2 mm

3.2 mm 3.2 mm

20º–25º
60º–90º r = 4.8–6.4 mm

1.6–3.2 mm 1.6–3.2 mm

3.2 mm 3.2 mm

Figure 143—Weld joint design

Often it is not practical to make a root face and gap. The alternative is to leave
part of the fracture line on the mating surfaces to allow exact positioning of
the broken pieces. This is called a “fracture match.”

Full penetration might not be possible unless you back-gouge. In most cases,
back-gouging is not an option. The weld itself will be stronger than the cast
iron, so incomplete penetration would not be a concern.

On small castings, you can bevel with a grinding wheel. For castings thicker
than 25 mm (1 in.), you should use an carbon arc gouging torch or a
pneumatic bevelling machine. You could also use a pneumatic chipping
hammer to rough out the grooves and then finish them by grinding. The
disadvantage of chipping is that it can cover up critical defects in the castings.

After grinding a cast iron surface in preparation for welding, you can use
an oxidizing flame to burn off any trace amounts of graphite smeared over
the surface by the grinding wheel. Other ways to finish the ground surface
are to hand file or use a carbide burr on a die grinder. Repair literature often
suggests this extra step.

Now complete Self-Test 1 and check your answers.

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Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. Which of the following filler metals for welding grey cast iron has a nickel
base?
a. ESt
b. ENI
c. ECI
d. RCI

2. When hot welding large castings such as housings, you should preheat
the entire casting to
a. 200 °C (390 °F)
b. 250 °C (480 °F)
c. 390 °C (730 °F)
d. 510 °C (950 °F)

3. Low-carbon steel used to patch cast iron should not be more than
of the thickness of the cast iron.
a. 30%
b. 40%
c. 50%
d. 60%

4. Vee butt joints in cast iron should have an included angle up to


a. 90°
b. 100°
c. 110°
d. 120°

5. The size of the electrode most commonly used for SMAW grey cast iron is
a. 1.6 mm (1⁄16 in.)
b. 2.5 mm (3⁄32 in.)
c. 3.2 mm (1⁄8 in.)
d. 4.0 mm (5⁄32 in.)

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6. On U joints, the slope of the bevel face should be about


Answers
a. 10°
b. 20°
c. 30°
d. 40°

7. Which of the following helps to control weld bead shrinkage when cold
welding grey cast iron?
a. peening right after depositing each weld bead segment
b. machining right after depositing each weld bead segment
c. quenching after the weld is completed
d. post-heating the weldment

8. Which butt joint preparation should you use for very thick castings?
a. square butt
b. single vee butt
c. double U butt
d. double vee butt

9. Which filler metal is generally considered unmachinable?


a. ECI
b. ESt
c. ENI
d. ECN

10. What is the free carbon in grey cast iron called?


a. ferrite
b. austenite
c. graphite
d. pearlite

11. The main reason to preheat a grey cast iron welding repair is
a. to reduce the rate of cooling of the repair
b. to increase the rate of cooling of the repair
c. to prevent the casting from shrinking
d. to prevent the casting from distorting

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12. Which of the following is the most effective way to measure the
Answers temperature of your preheat?
a. temperature colour chart
b. ultraviolet temperature sensor
c. temperature crayon
d. rate of the heat waves rising from the surface of the casting

13. What is the main reason casting repairs fail?


a. The casting bends out of shape.
b. The welds develop porosity.
c. The base metal melts from too much preheat.
d. The casting cracks due to improper repair procedure.

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Theory Competency P4-9:
Safety precautions for handling, welding and
cleaning stainless steel alloys

P4-9
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-9

Outcomes
This Theory Competency will introduce you to the welding of stainless steel alloys.
It includes information on the hazards associated with stainless steel and its proper
handling.

Upon completion of this Theory Competency, you should be able to describe:

• safety precautions for handling and welding stainless alloys


• correct procedures to maintain corrosion resistance and quality finish of stainless
steel products
• the correct welding procedures for welding stainless steels

Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in Module P4, you will take
a written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions
that are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-9:

• the use of personal protective equipment for stainless steel welding


• hazards from fumes, radiation and dust
• methods and precautions for cleaning and treating stainless steel
• procedures for choosing filler metals and welding stainless steel

Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.

Optional: The following resources are optional and are NOT required to complete this
Theory Competency. The optional resources provide further information on a specific
topic. If you want more information on these resources, please see your instructor.

Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety


• http://www.ccohs.ca/

Hexavalent Chromium Compliance


• http://content.lincolnelectric.com/pdfs/community/safety/mc0810q1.pdf

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P4-9 Learning Task 1: Notes


Safety precautions for handling and welding
stainless steel alloys
What is stainless steel?
The term “stainless steel” is a loose description for a large family of iron-based
alloys that contain over 10% chromium and usually some nickel. As the name
suggests, these alloys resist corrosion to varying degrees. The most popular
are the 300 series.

The majority of stainless steel is used to provide a clean and rust-free surface.
Stainless steel is commonly used in the medical equipment, bakery, dairy,
brewing, petrochemical and pulp and paper industries. Most consumers are
aware of the characteristics of stainless steel, because the alloy is so common
in food utensils and kitchenware.

Safety precautions
Radiation
You are already familiar with arc flash. When welding stainless steel, be
mindful that large areas of the material reflect light better than carbon
steels. It is common for Welders to be burned on the back of the neck or
ears when welding in an area panelled with stainless steel sheet. A cloth
hood worn under the welding helmet prevents this sort of injury.

Welding slag
The coating on a stainless steel weld bead remains on the surface of the
bead until it starts to cool. At that point, it pops off violently. It is common
to be hit in the face by hot-popping slag after welding. Caution and a pair of
safety glasses will prevent personal injury.

Hexavalent chromium
From the description above, it would seem that if the material is used in
food preparation, it must be safe. Although that is true of the finished
product, some forms of chromium can be hazardous.

We all have chromium in our bodies, and in fact we require chromium three.
One kind of chromium, called “chromium six” or “hexavalent chromium,”
can be dangerous. Hexavalent chromium particles can be created during
welding and grinding operations. These are a cancer risk to workers if inhaled.

The American Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)


standard requires workplace environmental studies to be conducted when
chromium alloys are welded. The threshold limit value (TLV) is set at 5
micrograms or less per cubic metre of air in an eight-hour working day.

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For this reason, there must be active ventilation wherever any chromium
Notes alloy is being welded or ground. The workers are also wise to wear an
approved respirator.

Pickling and passivating


When fabrication and welding operations are complete, it is often necessary
to thoroughly acid-clean (pickle) and then passivate the stainless steel.

The aim of these treatments is to increase the corrosion resistance of the


stainless steel by removing all surface contamination, then placing a thin
layer of chromium oxide on the surface. This thin “passivated” layer is what
protects the metal from corrosion.

Many of the paste compounds or solutions used for pickling and passivating
are highly corrosive. It is important to read the labels on the containers and
make sure that you are using rubber gloves and face protection. You must
consult the MSDS at your workplace. You are dealing with very powerful
acids, and being too careful is better than being not careful enough.

Citric acid compounds are becoming popular for passivating stainless


steels. This acid is environmentally friendly, because it is based on the acid
in oranges and lemons. Keep in mind that it is still an acid and should be
handled with care.

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P4-9 Learning Task 2: Notes


Correct procedures to maintain corrosion
resistance and quality of finish when using
stainless steel
The most common stainless steels are the 300 series, also called “austenitic
stainless steel.” They are easily identified by their finish. They are considered to
be non-magnetic. A small magnet will not stick to the surface of these steels.

These alloys are made from elemental iron, chromium and nickel. Their
carbon content is very low, 0.15% to as little as 0.03%.

If carbon steels make contact with stainless alloys, they will cause
a rust stain to appear on the surface of the stainless steel. The stain
often appears weeks or months later when the piece is put into
service. If you inspect scrap stainless steel in a salvage bin, you will
often see evidence of carbon steel contamination.

For this reason, you must prevent stainless steel from coming into contact
with carbon steel. Follow these guidelines:

• Do not allow sparks from grinding carbon steel to land on


stainless steel.
• Do not use carbon steel wire brushes on stainless steel.
• Use a stainless steel wire brush to clean stainless steel, but never use
it on carbon steel or it will transfer carbon steel to the stainless steel
surface.
• Before cutting stainless steel with power shears, wipe clean all the
cutting edges and the handling table to remove any carbon steel
particles that could imbed in the stainless steel. Before cleaning your
equipment, use proper lockout procedures.
• The jaws of lifting clamps and other clamping devices that are made of
carbon steel will leave rust marks on the stainless steel.
• When plasma-cutting stainless steel, be careful that the sparks do not
damage surface finishes nearby.

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• Some odd things happen with stainless alloys, and it is important to


Notes follow procedures. If two pieces of stainless steel are bolted tightly
together and left outdoors in the weather, corrosion will develop
between the two pieces while the outer surface will remain clean. This
effect is called “crevice corrosion” or “anaerobic (without oxygen)
corrosion.” For this reason, do not store stainless steel sheets outdoors
stacked tightly together.
• Bolting aluminum directly to stainless steel will result in the aluminum
being eaten away by corrosion over time (months).
• The correct choice of stainless steel filler metal is critical to obtain
maximum corrosion resistance. If the weld metal is different in alloy
content from the base metal, then corrosion will occur.

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P4-9 Learning Task 3: Notes


Correct welding procedures required for
welding stainless steels
Buckling and distortion
Stainless steels expand at a higher rate than carbon steels. This contributes
to the problems of weld distortion.

Stainless steels do not conduct heat as well as carbon steels. As a result,


welding heat tends to concentrate more around the weld deposit. This
temperature difference between the weld area and the base metal increases
the distortion effect.

Be aware that distortion problems are greater when welding stainless
steels compared to carbon steels. The same measures taken to
control distortion with carbon steels can be used with stainless steels.

Filler metal choice


It is important to choose the correct welding filler metal when welding
stainless steels in order to match strength and corrosion resistance. Follow
these guidelines:

• Identify the base metal alloy or alloys being used.


• Identify the corrosion resistance, general appearance or strength of the
application.
• Identify the correct welding filler metal for the application from
manufacturers’ literature or job specifications.

Welding carbon steel to stainless steel


You can use stainless steel filler metal to weld carbon steels as long as you
understand the following:

• Use a high nickel content filler metal (E309, E312). Otherwise, the
fusion zone of the weld bead could become extremely hard and
brittle, resulting in cracking and failure during service.
• Corrosion resistance is greatly reduced in the area of the weld deposit
next to the carbon steel.
• A carbon steel part completely covered in stainless steel weld beads
would be protected from corrosion. A common practice is to build a
carbon steel tank or container, then line the inside with stainless steel
weld beads. This might be cheaper than building the tank out of solid
stainless steel or using carbon steel plate clad with a layer of stainless
steel on one side.

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Notes It is important to question what the correct handling and welding


procedures are when dealing with stainless steels. If you are not familiar
with how things are done at your worksite or how the customer wants it
to be done, ask for clarification.

Now complete Self-Test 1 and check your answers.

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Notes

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Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. Stainless steels do not rust because


a. the non-magnetic characteristic repels rust
b. the chromium content protects the metal
c. the nickel content protects the metal
d. the chromium oxide skin protects the metal

2. Rust stains on a piece of stainless steel indicate


a. a defect in the stainless alloy
b. particles of carbon steel have been deposited on the surface
c. the stainless steel has been overheated
d. water has been sitting on the stainless steel

3. You should wear safety glasses all the time when welding stainless steel,
even under your welding helmet, because
a. you need the extra protection from the reflection of light
b. you need the protection from fumes reaching your eyes
c. you need protection because arc strikes are more dangerous
d. hot slag pops off the weld beads without warning

4. The post-weld treatment for stainless steel that places a thin layer of
chromium oxide on the surface is called
a. anodizing
b. pickling
c. passivating
d. acid etching

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Theory Competency P4-10:
Guided bend tests: Preparation and testing
procedures

P4-10
Module P4 Theory Competency P4-10

Outcomes
This Theory Competency will introduce you to guided bend tests.

When you have completed the Learning Tasks in this Theory Competency, you should be
able to describe:

• the three types of guided bend tests and the equipment used
• the preparation of bend test coupons
• the requirements for determining whether a bend test is successful

Evaluation
When you have completed all the Theory Competencies in Module P4, you will take
a written test. You must score at least 70% on this test. The test will include questions
that are based on the following material from Theory Competency P4-10:

• guided bend test methods


• the equipment used to perform the tests
• the requirements for passing a bend test

Resources
Required: All required resources are contained within this Theory Competency.

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P4-10 Learning Task 1: Notes


Guided bend tests
Guided bend tests are used to evaluate a groove weld for weld quality and
properties of the metal. They show weld quality by revealing incomplete
penetration, lack of fusion, porosity or cracks in the weld. They show the
properties of the metal by revealing any lack of ductility, insufficient tensile
strength or brittleness in the metal.

Weakness in a weld can be due to poor welding technique or to deficiencies


in the properties of the metal. In either case, weakness will affect the ability
of the weld to withstand the stress of service.

This is the most common procedure used to evaluate welds and qualify
Welders. You should expect to repeat similar exercises throughout your career.
Always consult the welding inspector and your supervisor to confirm the exact
methods required. A simple misunderstanding can result in a failure.

Guided bend test equipment


To do a guided bend test, you will first cut a bend test specimen or
“coupon” from the test weldment. These are from 12 mm to 38 mm (1⁄2 in.
to 11⁄2 in.) wide and 150 mm (6 in.) long, depending on the welding
code requirement. The coupons are ground so that the weld deposit
reinforcement is flush with the base metal and the corners are rounded.

The bend test coupon is then placed in a guided bend test jig (Figure 144).
As the punch is lowered (usually by hydraulic pressure), the coupon bends to
take the shape of the die. The size and shape of the test jig will depend on the
welding code requirement and the size and strength of the test weldment.
Guided bend test jigs can be of an alternate design using rollers, but regardless
of their design, the weld test coupon must be bent to a specific radius to meet
specific welding code requirements.

Punch
(Plunger)

Coupon

Die

Figure 144—Guided bend test jig

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The bend test coupon is then removed from the jig and the weld area is
Notes examined for cracks or other defects. Welds that display cracks or open
discontinuities measuring more than 3 mm (1⁄8 in.) in any direction are
considered defective. Cracks occurring at the corners of the coupon are
not considered unless there is definite evidence of slag inclusion or other
discontinuity.

Types of guided bend tests


Guided bend tests can be classified as face, root or side bend tests,
depending on how the bend test coupon is placed in the jig. Face and root
bend tests are used for material with a thickness of 20 mm (3⁄4 in.) or less.
For material over 20 mm (3⁄4 in.) thick, side bend tests are generally used,
because root and face bend tests are usually too difficult to perform on
thicker materials.

Face bend test


For a face bend test, the bend test coupon is inserted in the guided bend
test jig so the weld face is toward the die (Figure 145). The weld face is
subjected to the greatest tensile stress as the coupon is bent. Face bend tests
provide a good overall test of the quality of the weld.

Punch

Bend test coupon


Weld reinforcement ground flush

Root

Weld face
Face

Weld reinforcement ground flush Die

Figure 145—Guided face bend test

Root bend test


For a root bend test, the bend test coupon is inserted in the guided bend
test jig so that the root of the weld faces the die (Figure 146). The root is
subjected to the greatest tensile stress. The root bend test would reveal any
lack of fusion or incomplete penetration in the weld area.

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Punch
Notes

Bend test coupon


Weld reinforcement ground flush

Face

Weld root
Root

Weld reinforcement ground flush Die

Figure 146—Guided root bend test

Side bend test


For materials thicker than 20 mm (3⁄4 in.), side bend tests are usually
performed. To make a bend test coupon, a 10 mm (3⁄8 in.) thick cross-section
of the weld joint is cut from the test piece. The bend test coupon is placed in
the guided bend test jig with the side showing the greater visible discontinuity
directed toward the die (Figure 147).

As the punch is lowered, the tensile stress tends to pull the weld metal away
from the base metal through the depth of the weld.

Punch

Coupon

Die

Figure 147—Guided side bend test

Causes of failure on guided bend tests


Welds might fail guided bend tests for several reasons. The most common
reason for failure is weld defects. These are usually caused by poor welding
technique, joint preparation and electrode quality. As you gain more
welding experience and practice, you will face these problems less often.

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Failure on bend tests can also result from poor ductility in the electrode or
Notes using an electrode that is not compatible with the base metal.

Some metals, such as high-alloy steel, do not bend easily. They will fail a bend
test even though the weld is sound. Bend tests are not particularly appropriate
for evaluating weld quality on weld joints of high-alloy steels or on weld joints
in which the electrode characteristics do not match those of the base metal.

Bend test failures can also be caused by:

• improper preparation of the bend test coupon (direction of polishing


marks and radius at corners)
• quenching of the test weldment after welding
• quenching of the bend test coupon after oxy-fuel gas cutting
• droplets of molten metal and slag striking previously cut bend test
coupons that were not immediately removed from the catch tray of
the burning table

Now complete Self-Test 1 and check your answers.

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Notes

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Self-Test 1
Answers
Choose the correct response for each question and put it in the Answers
column. Cover your answers when reviewing the test for study purposes.

1. What are the three types of guided bend tests?


a. cap, root and side bend tests
b. snap, root and side bend tests
c. cover, root and side bend tests
d. face, root and side bend tests

2. A weld bend test coupon will fail the bend test if an open discontinuity
appears that is greater than
a. 1.6 mm (1⁄16 in.)
b. 3.0 mm (1⁄8 in.)
c. 4.0 mm (5⁄32 in.)
d. 5.0 mm (3⁄16 in.)

3. Face and root bend tests are used for material with a thickness of
or less.
a. 6 mm (1⁄4 in.)
b. 13 mm (3⁄8 in.)
c. 20 mm (3⁄4 in.)
d. 25 mm (1 in.)

4. Side bends are normally performed when the material thickness is over
a. 6 mm (1⁄4 in.)
b. 13 mm (3⁄8 in.)
c. 20 mm (3⁄4 in.)
d. 25 mm (1 in.)

5. Bend tests are not an appropriate evaluation of weld quality on


a. low-carbon steel
b. groove welds
c. 10 mm (3⁄8 in.) material
d. high-alloy steel

264 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Theory Competency P4-10

6. Identify the component indicated by A in Figure 148.


Answers
7. Identify the component indicated by B in Figure 148.

8. Identify the component indicated by C in Figure 148.

Figure 148

Now go to the Answer Key and check your answers.

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Module P4 Theory Competency P4-10

Notes

266 Welder Training Program — Level C


Answer Key
Answer Key
Module P4 Answer Key

Answer Key Notes

P4-1: Shielded metal arc welding and its applications


Self-Test 1
1. b. the weld deposit

2. d. open circuit voltage

3. a. coated electrode

4. d. 5500 ºC to 6600 ºC (9900 ºF to 11 900 ºF)

5. d. protects the molten metal from the atmosphere

6. a. the electrode coating

7. c. the arc is struck

8. b. voltage

9. c. arc voltage

10. c. volts (V)

11. b. amperes (A)

Self-Test 2
1. b. avoid touching the victim if he or she is still in contact with the
source of power

2. a. metal container

3. c. repair them with proper electrical tape

4. b. are disconnected and/or locked out

5. c. 12 m (40 ft.)

6. c. a Welder’s helmet with filter lens

7. b. No. 12

8. d. light leaks from a cracked lens or improper installation

9. a. dark

10. d. none of the above

11. b. remove the electrode from its holder

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Module P4 Answer Key

P4-2: SMAW equipment and its operation


Notes
Learning Task 1: Basic principles of electricity

Practical Exercise
Answer to Part A
3. b. Doubling the length of leads will double the resistance and double
the voltage loss (3.72 V).

3. c. Doubling the amperage will double the resistance and double the
voltage loss (3.72 V).

3. d. Doubling both the length of leads and the amperage will quadruple
the resistance and quadruple the voltage loss. (7.44 V)

Answer to Part B
0.25 Ω/km = 0.000 25 Ω/m
Cable length = 100 m × 2 = 200 m (allow for both the electrode and
workpiece leads)

Total resistance = 200 × 0.000 25 = 0.050 Ω


E = I × R = 150 A × 0.050 Ω = 7.5 V

The voltage drop is excessive. Use larger welding leads or reduce the distance.

Self-Test 1
1. a. amperage

2. c. resistance

3. c. greater

4. a. E = I × R

5. c. increase

6. c. a magnetic field

7. c. the magnetic field around the conductor collapses

8. b. windings

9. b. lower

10. a. current flowing in the conductor

270 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Answer Key

Self-Test 2
1. d. all of the above Notes

2. c. Electrons flow consistently from the negative pole to the positive pole.

3. d. 120 times per second

4. b. single-phase and three-phase alternating current

5. c. produces a more consistent level of power

6. a. in the electrode

7. b. the temperature of the workpiece

8. d. DC current

Self-Test 3
1. a. arc voltage increases and amperage decreases

2. c. volt-amp curve

3. b. after the welding power source is turned on and before the arc is struck

4. a. arc voltage

5. c. maintain stable amperage levels even when the arc voltage fluctuates

6. c. maintain a stable voltage level

7. b. the voltage decreases to almost zero

Self-Test 4
1. b. lower voltage and higher current than the line supply

2. a. AC only

3. d. to concentrate the magnetic field

4. b. higher voltage line current

5. d. they use high-frequency current

6. a. a transformer/rectifier welding power source

7. b. an engine-driven generator

8. b. amperage and voltage

9. a. reduces the high voltage coming in to low voltage going out

10. d. inverter

11. d. remote control

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Module P4 Answer Key

12. d. power requirements, current output, duty cycle


Notes
13. c. operate at rated capacity for 6 minutes out of every 10

14. d. should be used for home repair projects needing less than 20% duty
cycle operation

15. c. when there is no load on the circuit

16. d. all of the above

Self-Test 5
1. b. twist-head type

2. c. cut off the damaged end and make a new connection

3. d. It makes the location of the workpiece connection easy to change.

4. d. magnetic clamp

5. b. localized heat buildup of the cable and connection

6. a. greater flexibility

7. c. length of lead required and the current level desired

8. d. mechanical

9. a. establishes a full electrical connection

10. d. all of the above

P4-3: Low-carbon steel electrodes for shielded metal arc


welding
Self-Test 1
1. b. types of base metal

2. d. all of the above

3. d. 8.0 mm (5⁄16 in.)

4. a. bead shape, cooling rate and oxide contamination

5. b. production work on plate

6. b. cellulose

7. c. potassium

8. d. iron oxide (hematite, magnetite)

9. b. electromagnetic

272 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Answer Key

10. c. 350 mm (14 in.)


Notes
11. d. 225 mm (9 in.) to 1000 mm (36 in.)

Self-Test 2
1. b. filler metal and coating type

2. a. megapascals

3. c. welding position

4. a. last digit

5. d. flat position only

6. b. low hydrogen and iron powder

7. c. thousands of pounds per square inch

Self-Test 3
1. b. coating ingredients

2. c. a smaller diameter

3. a. deeper penetration

4. c. E4310 (E6010)

5. b. AC and DC

6. a. E4313 (E6013)

7. d. E4924 (E7024)

8. c. is used in contact with the base metal

9. b. is low in hydrogen

10. b. burns slowly

11. b. more current

Self-Test 4
1. c. porosity

2. b. unused electrodes to be returned to storage

3. c. crack

4. b. discarded

5. d. 7%

6. c. 2 to 4 hours

Welder Training Program — Level C 273


Module P4 Answer Key

7. b. hardfacing, low-hydrogen and special-alloy electrodes


Notes
8. d. none of the above

P4-4: Basic weld joint design and weld positions


Self-Test 1
1. d. butt

2. d. lap

3. b. 6 mm to 19 mm (1⁄4 in. to 3⁄4 in.)

4. a. welded from both sides

5. d. open

6. a. 1:2.5

7. a. sheet metal

8. d. butt

9. b. single bevel

10. a. single U

11. b. double vee

12. a. a backing bar

Self-Test 2
1. 1. e. groove weld, 2. b. fillet weld, 3. d. surfacing weld, 4. c. tack weld,
5. a. plug weld

2. c. fillet weld

3. d. make a hole in the overlaying plate

4. a. length is four times the size of the weld

5. b. length of the shorter leg

6. a. the effective throat

7. c. 0.07 × face width + 1.5 mm (1⁄16 in.)

8. c. use weld material that does not increase their strength

9. b. convex

10. d. butt joints

11. a. root face

12. c. plate thickness

274 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Answer Key

13. b. included angle


Notes
14. d. root opening

15. b. depth of penetration

16. a. thickness of the thinner plate

17. b. 3 mm (1⁄8 in.)

18. b. 3 mm (1⁄8 in.)

19. d. both a and c

Self-Test 3
1. a. flat

2. a. flat

3. b. horizontal

4. a. flat

5. d. overhead

6. c. vertical

7. b. groove weld in the flat position

8. c. fillet weld in the overhead position

9. d. horizontal groove weld

10. b. vertical

P4-5: Causes of weld faults and distortions in fabrication


and methods for prevention and control
Self-Test 1
1. a. rate of travel that is too fast

2. c. porosity

3. b. lack of fusion

4. a. slag inclusion

5. d. undercut

6. d. incorrect joint design

7. b. high-alloy steel

8. c. welding has been interrupted

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Module P4 Answer Key

9. a. cleaning all slag from the surface of the previous weld bead
Notes
10. d. improper electrode manipulation

Self-Test 2
1. Distortion is a change in shape of the weldment. Too much distortion
results in a weldment that exceeds dimensional tolerances.

2. Residual stress is the buildup of internal stresses within the weld metal
or base metal.

3. b. uncontrolled expansion and contraction within a metal

4. a. 1, 3

5. d. longitudinal

6. a. transverse

7. b. angular

8. c. long weld joints

9. c. keep reinforcement and convexity to a minimum

10. b. shrinkage across the face of the weld metal

11. Any two of the following:

• tacking the ends and the middle of the weld joint


• placing a wedge ahead of the welding
• pre-spacing the weld joint
12. a. fast welding speeds

13. d. back step

14. c. intermittent

15. b. pre-bending

16. b. single vee butt joint

P4-6: Main factors of SMAW


Self-Test 1
1. d. 25 mm (1 in.)

2. b. the same as

3. a. 10° to 20°

4. c. 2, 3 (polarity and current)

5. d. crackling sound

276 Welder Training Program — Level C


Module P4 Answer Key

6. d. increased arc blow, too much spatter and incomplete penetration


Notes
7. d. heat

P4-7: Hardfacing procedures using SMAW


Self-Test 1
1. d. abrasion

2. b. impact

3. b. tungsten carbide

4. b. the cooling rate

5. a. spalling

6. c. preheating

7. a. peening

8. b. EFeCr-A1

9. d. EWC-20/30

10. d. ENiCr-A

11. a. use low current settings

12. c. button pattern

13. a. waffle pattern

P4-8: Procedures for SMAW on grey cast iron


Self-Test 1
1. b. ENI

2. d. 510 °C (950 °F)

3. d. 60%

4. a. 90°

5. c. 3.2 mm (1⁄8 in.)

6. b. 20°

7. a. peening right after depositing each weld bead segment

8. c. double U butt

9. b. ESt

10. c. graphite

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Module P4 Answer Key

11. a. to reduce the rate of cooling of the repair


Notes
12. c. temperature crayon

13. d. The casting cracks due to improper repair procedure.

P4-9: Safety precautions for handling, welding and


cleaning stainless steel alloys
Self-Test 1
1. d. the chromium oxide skin protects the metal

2. b. particles of carbon steel have been deposited on the surface

3. d. hot slag pops off the weld beads without warning

4. c. passivating

P4-10: Guided bend tests: Preparation and testing


procedures
Self-Test 1
1. d. face, root and side bend tests

2. b. 3.0 mm (1⁄8 in.)

3. c. 20 mm (3⁄4 in.)

4. c. 20 mm (3⁄4 in.)

5. d. high-alloy steel

6. punch

7. bend test coupon or specimen

8. die

278 Welder Training Program — Level C

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