Unit 4 Functions

■ What is a function?
A function is a reason why we communicate. Every time we speak or write, we do
so for a reason. What we say has a purpose or function. Here are some examples of
functions:
apologising greeting clarifying inviting advising agreeing disagreeing
refusing thanking interrupting expressing obligation expressing preferences
We can describe language itself in terms of its grammar or its lexis. Functions are a
way of describing how we use language. When we describe the functions of language
we focus on the use of the language and its meaning for the people who are in the
context where it is used.

■ Key concepts
Look at this table. What do you think an ‘exponent’ is?

Context Exponent Function

A boy wants to go to the
cinema with his friend tonight. tonight.’
He says:
A girl meets some people for
the first time. She wants to get
to know them. She says:
A customer doesn’t
understand what a shop
assistant has just said. The
customer says:
A girl writes a letter to a
relative thanking her for a
birthday present. She writes:
‘Let’s go to the cinema Suggesting/making a
suggestion about going to the
cinema
‘Hello. My name’s Emilia.’ Introducing yourself
‘Sorry, what do you mean?’ Asking for clarification
(asking someone to explain
something)
‘Thank you so much for my Thanking someone for a
lovely …’ present

The language we use to express a function is called an exponent. The sentences in

the middle column in the table above are examples of exponents. In the third column,
the functions are underlined. You can see from the table that we use the -ing forms
of verbs (e.g. suggesting, asking) to name functions. The words after the function in the
third column are not the function. They are the specific topics that the functions refer
to in these contexts.
An exponent can express different functions at the same time. It all depends on the
context it is used in. For example, think of the exponent ‘I’m so tired’. This could be
an exponent of the function of describing feelings. But who is saying it? Who is he/
she saying it to? Where is he/she saying it?, i.e. what is the context in which it is being
said? Imagine saying ‘I’m so tired’ in the following different contexts:
Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. UCL, Institute of Education, on 10 Apr 2017 at 16:16:46, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at
https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139062398.006
27
 Module 1

Context Possible function

A boy talking to his mother while he does his Requesting (asking) to stop doing homework
homework
A patient talking to his doctor Describing a physical state

One exponent can express several different functions because its function depends on
the context. One function can also be expressed through different exponents. Here
are five different exponents of inviting someone to lunch. In what different situations
would you use them?
Informal
Lunch?
Coming for lunch?
Come for lunch with us?
Why don’t you come for lunch with us?
Would you like to come to lunch with us?
We would be very pleased if you could join us for lunch.
Formal
These exponents express different levels of formality, i.e. more or less relaxed ways
of saying things. Generally speaking, formal (more socially distant) language is used
in more official and important situations amongst people who do not know each
other very well. Informal (more socially casual) language often occurs in relaxed
situations, amongst friends, people who know each other well or treat each other in
a relaxed way. Informal exponents are sometimes colloquial, i.e. very casual and
conversational, such as He’s off his head, i.e. crazy. There are also neutral exponents
which we use when we want to show neither great respect nor too much casualness
towards the person we are talking to. They fall between formal and informal. ‘Why
don’t you come for lunch with us?’ is an example of a neutral exponent.
People usually choose to use the level of formality that suits a situation. This
is called appropriacy. A teacher greeting her class could choose to say ‘I’d like
to wish you all a very good morning’ or ‘Hi, guys!’. Both of these are likely to be
inappropriate (unsuitable) in many classroom situations, the first because it is too
formal and the second because it is too informal. It would probably be appropriate
(suitable) for the teacher to say ‘Good morning, everyone’ or something similar. Of
course, we sometimes use inappropriate language on purpose to create some effect,
e.g. a shop assistant using great formality with a customer may be signalling that he
would like the customer to leave. Language that reflects the situation in which it is
used is often referred to as register. ‘Hi’ is an example of informal register, ‘A very
good morning to you’ an example of formal register.

■ Key concepts and the language teaching classroom

Read these tips and tick the ones which are most important for you.
● Coursebooks in the 1980s and 1990s were often organised around functions. Each
new unit focused on a new function, e.g. Unit 1 Expressing likes and dislikes, Unit
2 Making suggestions, Unit 3 Agreeing and disagreeing. These books were based on
the Functional Approach (see Unit 15).
Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. UCL, Institute of Education, on 10 Apr 2017 at 16:16:46, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at
https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139062398.006
28
 Unit 4 Functions

● A focus on functions in the classroom can lead to an emphasis on communication

and learning language in chunks.
● Writing is sometimes taught through functions, e.g. when learning to write letters
of complaint, learners can learn exponents for greeting, explaining your reason for
writing, describing your complaint, asking for satisfaction, signing off.
● Nowadays, we usually find functions taught together with the structures they
contain so that learners do not become confused by meeting a wide range of
grammatical patterns together at the same time. We can see this in the extract from
a map of a coursebook below. In the third column a grammatical structure is given
together with exponents of the function ‘Expressing likes’ which are expressed
through this structure.
Functions Grammar
Unit 6 Expressing likes First and third person present simple affirmative:
I like …, he/she likes …
Unit 7 Expressing First and third person present simple negative:
dislikes I don’t like …, he/she doesn’t like …

● Combining functions and grammar helps to give grammar meaning and context. It
also helps learners to learn functions together with grammatical structures that they
can then transfer to other contexts for use.
See Unit 15 for more on the Functional Approach, Units 16 and 17 for teaching activities for functions,
Units 19 and 21 for lesson planning, and Units 27–28 for classroom functions.

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES (See page 238 for answers)

1 List at least three different exponents for each of these functions and choose
a different register for each exponent: agreeing, clarifying, giving an opinion,
thanking.
2 Go through the list of exponents you made in 1 and mark them F (formal), N
(neutral) or I (informal). Think of situations in which it would be appropriate or
inappropriate to use these exponents.
3 Look at your list of exponents. Which would you teach to classes of secondary
school learners, 5-year-old beginners, advanced business students?

REFLECTION
Think about these comments from teachers. Which do you agree with and why?
1 Learners prefer learning functions to learning grammar.
2 Learning functions is more useful for intermediate or advanced learners than for
beginners.
3 It is very useful for learners to learn functions for essay writing and letter writing.
4 Primary learners do not need to learn functions.

Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. UCL, Institute of Education, on 10 Apr 2017 at 16:16:46, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at
https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139062398.006
29
 Module 1

DISCOVERY ACTIVITIES

1 Look at your coursebook. Does it teach functions? Why / why not?

2 What kinds of activities are used in your coursebook to introduce and practise
functions? How does the coursebook help learners deal with the grammar of the
functions?
3 In your Teacher Portfolio list six functions your learners might need to help them
use English outside the classroom. List the most useful exponents for them, too.
4 To find out more about functions and exponents, look at Chapter 5 of Threshold
1990 by J.A. van Ek and J.L.M. Trim, Council of Europe, Cambridge University
Press 1998.
5 Here are some common functions: declining an invitation, enquiring, expressing
obligation, expressing preference, expressing ability, expressing intention, expressing
necessity, expressing permission, expressing probability, expressing prohibition. Use a
dictionary and/or the TKT Glossary to find their meanings. Can you think of two
exponents for each one?

TKT practice task 4 (See page 245 for answers)

For questions 1-6, read the conversation between two friends in a restaurant. Match the
underlined sentences with the functions listed A-G.
There is one extra option which you do not need to use.

Functions

A predicting
B making an excuse
C making a suggestion
D asking for clarification
E ordering
F agreeing
G disagreeing

Conversation
Janet: This meal really isn’t nice. Nothing’s fresh and everything tastes a bit strange.
Chris: Yes, you’re right. (1) We could complain to the manager.
Janet: (2) That’s a bit rude, isn’t it? Maybe we could ask the waiter for something else.
Chris: (3) Are you saying you’d like the same dish again?
Janet: No, that’s not really a good idea. (4) It would probably be as bad as this one.
Chris: But it’s better than doing nothing.
Janet: (5) True.
Chris: OK, call the waiter and tell him.
Janet: Oh no, not me. (6) I hate doing those kinds of things.
Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. UCL, Institute of Education, on 10 Apr 2017 at 16:16:46, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at
https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139062398.006
30