08 July 2010
In co-ordination with;
Submitted to
Submitted by;
Rajeev Ranjan
MBA Class of 2011
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
Summer Intern, School of Good Governance and Policy Analysis
Rajiv Gandhi Mission for Watershed Management
Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal
Certificate
This is to certify that Mr. Rajeev Ranjan, an intern from MBA Program of Indian Institute
of Technology, Kanpur was associated with the Rajiv Gandhi Mission for Watershed
Management, Madhya Pradesh under the summer internship scheme of School of Good
Governance and Policy Analysis.
He has undertaken a study on “Design and efficiency of water harvesting structures &
suggested measures for optimum utilization & its sustainability” assigned to him by the
department. He was associated with the department for a period of two months starting from
10th May, 2010.
The work has been successfully completed by the intern and a copy of the report has been
received. During the internship he has worked satisfactorily and added value to himself as
well as to the department.
We wish him all the very best for his future endeavours.
First and foremost I would like to thank IME department at IIT Kanpur for providing me an
opportunity to work with School of Good Governance and Policy Analysis. I would like to
thank Director General Mr. H.P. Dixit, Director (Knowledge Management) Dr. U.C. Pandey,
Mr. Amitabh Shrivastava, Mr. Gaurav Khare, Mr. Gaurav Aggrawal and all staff at SGGPA,
Bhopal for their continuous support and guidance during the project.
I would like to devote my sincere gratitude to Mr. Umakant Umrao (IAS) (Director, Rajeev
Gandhi Mission for Watershed Management, Bhopal) for his encouragement , support and
valuable inputs to the project. I was privileged to experience a sustained enthusiastic and
involved interest from his side.
I am indebted to Mr. Vivek Dave, Deputy Commissioner, Rajeev Gandhi Mission for
Watershed Management for his patronage, guidance, inputs and enthusiasm for the positive
outcome of the project. His willingness to help me at any given moment has provided me fuel
for my study. I am thankful to Mr. Ravishankar Gachle, Mr Vivek Sharma, Mrs. Jyotsna
Sarvaikar, Mr Anwar Hussain and all staff at RGMWM for their support and guidance
during the project.
Besides I am thankful to Project Officers at Betul, Gwalior,Ujjain and Bhopal for their co-
ordination and help. I owe a lot to Dr. S.K. Pathak of WALMI, Bhopal, Dr. S.K. Shrivastava,
Mr. K.D. Pathak, Mr. Jaypal Gurjar, Mr. O.S. Dhakre and other staffs at Zila Panchayats for
their contribution and help.
Last but not the least I am thankful to my class mates here at Bhopal for extending a helping
hand at every juncture of need.
The report on design and efficiency of water harvesting structures and optimum utilization of
water is final conclusion of the internship with the School of Good Governance and Policy
analysis. Any study related to field cannot be completed without field visits. I was allowed to
visits different agro climatic zones of Madhya Pradesh to see the suitability of the structures
for that zone.
Almost all area where I was taken for a visit had structures as per guidelines laid by
watershed mission and the Government of India. Every district has contour trenches, RMS,
Stop dam, check dam, Gabion structure, Field bunding, Plantation, SHGs, Nursery etc. The
design of these structures is either done by an expert or in consultation with an expert. The
difference between efficient and inefficient structure is, its type and its suitability to the
location and the geographical condition of the area. A structure built on wrong location is of
no use. Similarly it is not a wise decision to construct a structure, which is not used by the
community. Efficiency of such a structure is zero. During visits, I have observed that some
basic design principle is neglected during the construction. A percolation tank near CRPF
camp in Bhopal has no waste weir arrangement. It is a very fundamental negligence due to
which the structure becomes inefficient. Similarly if a technically sound structure is built on
a wrong location, water will not be checked or stored by the structure and it will flow from
elsewhere. Therefore the design of a dam is to be done on the basis of
the topographical setting of the impounded area, to calculate the height and length of
the dam wall, its gradient, width and the depth of the foundation, taking into account
the nature of the underlying formation;
details of the cut-off trench, to reduce seepage losses;
height of stone pitching on the upstream slope to avoid erosion due to ripple action
and on the
Down stream slope from rain by suitable turfing;
upstream and downstream slopes
to be moderate so that shear stress is not induced in the foundation beyond a
permissible limit; and
stability of the dam.
Due to time constraint we have, it is difficult to go for a check for design for each structure
and find out efficiency of each structure within such a short duration of internship. It requires
more data to be processed and will take around 6-8 months. Therefore, the report has a
common guideline with suggested recommendation on structures like Percolation Tank/Stop
Dam/Check Dam/Ponds etc. The guidelines laid here are indicative and may vary according
to actual site conditions. An important suggestion for harvesting water is to do forestation.
Each ponds or percolation tank should be well covered with plants and shrubs. It not only
helps in conserving soil and moisture but also prevents from siltation of the structures or to
the pond. To decrease evaporation loss in semi arid regions it is suggested to increase depth
and decrease the surface area. Evaporation is directly proportional to surface area.
Evaporation is also counter checked by plantation.
Efficiency of a structure can be found out with its usage by the community. The report
suggests a mathematical model for checking efficiency of a watershed. C/CA ratio is just a
For optimum utilization of water, the report deals with linear programming model. There are
two types of model on which lot of research have been carried out. Goal programming
method is the other mathematical model. Dealing with the LP model, more information is
required to know exact benefit and usage of the water. It is a mathematical model which
requires information on crop pattern, soil texture, rainfall, weather throughout the year, area
required for each crop, area available etc. Once these information are made available,
objective function and its constraints are well defined and its optimum utilization can easily
be find out by using Microsoft excel solver application. The software also does sensitivity
analysis which is quite useful in making decisions.
I have suggested this mathematical approach to find out efficiency and its optimum
utilization. Any changes in design of structures cannot be suggested until the design is
checked according to its strength, usage and failure. We have two months for our study,
which in my opinion is too short to quantify the efficiency and optimum use of water.
However I have tried my best to come with an approach for it. If further study is allowed on
it, I am sure we will be able to get a quantifiable result. We are studying these structures in
the month of May and June. In these months almost all water harvesting structures are dried.
We are not able to verify the claim of the contractor or PIA members. The data on the
usefulness of these structures will be more accurate in monsoon. However I have observed
some basic design negligence in making some of these structures. Some of them are listed
below.
These are very basic in nature and can be avoided. I have discussed more on it in the
report. To know about the suitability of a structure, it is imperative to know design
strength, its usage and its present condition. These structures can be made effective by
making slight changes if it not operating on its design strength. We can also make it
effective by modifying its catchment area depending on the location of the structure.
1. Introduction 7
2. Theory and guidelines for common structures for
Harvesting water and preventing soil erosion 8
3. Factors affecting Runoff 8
4. Erosion control measures on agricultural land. 9
5. Mechanical control measures for non-agricultural land 9
6. Madhya Pradesh Agro Climatic Zones 10
7. Soil structure 12
8. Visit report for different agro climatic zones 13
9. Suggested measures, Recommendation and
Schematic diagram of some common structures 27
10.Volume percolating through a Percolation Tank 29
11.Artificial Recharge through Underground Bandhara 43
12.Water Harvesting requirement for crops 46
13.Designing of a water harvesting systems 46
14.Calculation of C:CA ratio 47
15.Linear programming model 50
16.Improving Control over water delivery 54
17.Conclusion 56
18. References 61
Madhya Pradesh the Heartland State of the country is a land locked and rain fed state
comprising an area of 308,000 Sq. kms in 50 districts and 313 blocks with the population of
60 million. The state lags behind in the development indices due to lack of efficient
management of its natural resources. About 73% agriculture in the state is rain-fed and
agricultural production gets severely affected in the event of untimely or erratic rains or a dry
spell. Ground water has been exploited excessively that further worsened the situation.
Further it has been a fact that many areas face drought conditions year after year in a row.
Bhopal, Aug 19 (ANI): Madhya Pradesh Chief Minister Shivaraj Singh Chouhan said the
state is witnessing the worst drought of the century. As many as 37 districts of the state were
declared drought hit as they are suffering from scanty of rainfall.
Madhya Pradesh is a state where water scarcity is severe. People are queuing for hours to get
water. The above statement issued by the chief minister is just a glimpse of the problem.
When it comes to public, they are left with no option, especially those whose income are
based on agriculture. Therefore an effective system is required for optimum use and
conservation of water.
It was, therefore, felt necessary to plan and efficiently execute a community based movement
to find an abiding solution to water problem through water conservation activities with proper
coordination between local community and government. A strategy was conceived where in
government would provide resources, technical assistance and guidance in coordination with
concerning departments to the community’s initiatives for water conservation. The
community was supposed to take upon itself the responsibility of proper management of
water utilization process. There is no denying the fact that conservation of water is linked to
basic requirement of community. Therefore it was felt that the strategy should be based on
past experiences and an approach which would help to rope in extensive community
participation.
Water is essential for all life and is used in many different ways - for food production,
drinking and domestic uses and industrial use. It is also part of the larger ecosystem on which
bio diversity depends. Precipitation, converted to soil and groundwater and thus accessible to
vegetation and people, is the dominant pre-condition for biomass production and social
development in dry lands. The amount of available water is equivalent to the water moving
through the landscape. It also fluctuates between the wet and dry periods. Fresh water
scarcity is not limited to the arid climatic regions only. Even in areas with good supply, the
access to safe water is becoming a critical problem. Lack of water is caused by low water
storage capacity, low infiltration capacity, large inter-annual and annual fluctuations of
precipitation and high evaporative demand.
In Madhya Pradesh, the major water supply comes from groundwater. Of the same
groundwater sources, the Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) estimates that 25% of the
sources are over exploited (CGWB 2005). This is due to both over exploitation of
groundwater sources combined with inadequate recharge structures.
Theory and guidelines for common structures for harvesting water and
preventing soil erosion
Precipitation and Runoff
The term precipitation signifies all form of water that is received by earth from atmosphere
and includes rainfall, snowfall, frost, hail etc. In Madhya Pradesh major contribution of
water is through rainfall. The magnitude of rainfall (or form of precipitation ) varies with
space and time. Rainfall generally describes that forms of precipitation where the size of
droplets are more than 0.5 mm. Some rains are beneficial, as they supply the needs of
vegetation, damaging rains may come at a rate which is greater than the infiltration capacity
of the soil and cause high rate of runoff and erosion.
Rainfall parameters.
Runoff
Surface runoff is defined as the precipitation that flows over the ground surface and through
channels to larger streams. Runoff is a part of rainfall that flows towards rivers, oceans, etc.,
as surface or subsurface flow. Generally the surface flow is called as Runoff.
Following points must be kept in mind before planning various mechanical control measures.
1. Increasing the time of concentration and their by allowing more runoff water to be
absorbed and held by the soil.
2. Intercepting a long slope into several short ones so as to maintain less than a critical
velocity for a runoff water; and
3. Protection against damage owing to excessive runoff.
1. Contour cultivation
2. Contour bunding
3. Graded bunds
4. Bench Terracing
5. Grassed waterways
6. Diversion drains
1. Contour trenching
2. Boulder check dams
3. Vegetative barriers
Sod flumes
Sod checks
Shrub checks
Trees and shrubs
4. Check dams
5. Brush dams
6. Double row post brush dams
Gully plugs help in protection of gully beds by reducing speed of runoff water, redistributing
it, increasing percolation, increasing siltation and improving moisture.
Sr. Name of the agro Names of the Major soil type Average
No climatic zones districts Rainfall
1 Chattisgarh Plains 1.Balaghat 1.Red and Yellow 1.1623
2.Seoni 2.Mixed Red and Black 2.1170
2. Northern hill region of 1. Sidhi 1.Red and yellow 1.1287
Chhatisgarh 2. Shahdol 2.Red and yellow medium 2.1326
3. Dindhori black 3.1241
4. Anuppur 3.Red and yellow
5. Mandla 4.Red and yellow medium 5.1370
black
5.Red and yellow medium
black
3 Kymore plateau and 1. Panna 1.Mixed Red and Black, 1.1213
Satpura hills 2. Satna Deep black 2.896.3
3. Rewa 2.Mixed Red and Black 3.1035
4. Katni 3.Medium and Black 4.1027
5. Umaria 4.Mixed Red black, Deep 5.1326
black
5.Red and yellow black
4 Central Narmada 1.Harda 1.Deep black 1.1417
Valley 2.Hoshangabad 2.Deep Black 2.1294
3.Narsingpur 3.Deep black 3.1105.2
4.Jabalpur 4.Deep Black 4.1161.9
5 Vindhyan Plateau 1.Guna 1.Medium and deep black 1.349.8
2.Rajgarh 2.Medium black 2.497.8
3.Vidisha 3.Medium and deep black 3.645.1
4.Bhopal 4.Medium Black 4.194.3
1. Depth of soil
2. Structure of soil
3. Water storing capacity
4. Permeability
5. Basic infiltration rate
6. Slope
7. Relief
8. Acidity
9. Alkalinity
1. Slope area
2. Rainfall
3. Runoff
4. Slope
5. Contour lines (Across or Along)
6. Possibility of Contour bunding
7. Soil depth
8. Soil texture
9. Measure for soil if already taken
10. Crop pattern (Single crop/Double crop)
11. Designing for gates of a stop dam
12. Siltation in the area (otherwise adequate silt cover needs to be provided)
13. Vegetation percentage
14. Catchment area
Bhopal is the capital of Madhya Pradesh and the administrative headquarters of Bhopal
District and Bhopal Division. The city was the capital of the former Bhopal state. Bhopal
is also known as the Lake City for its various natural as well as artificial lakes and is one
of the greenest cities in India. Bhopal has an average elevation of 499 metres (1637 ft).
Bhopal is located in the central part of India, and is just north of the upper limit of
the Vindhya mountain ranges. Located on the Malwa plateau, it is higher than the north
Indian plains and the land rises towards the Vindhya Range to the south. The city has
uneven elevation and has small hills within its boundaries. The major hills in Bhopal
comprise of Idgah hills and Shyamala hills in the northern region and Arera hills in the
central region. The municipality covers 298 square kilometers. It has two very beautiful
big lakes, collectively known as the Bhoj Wetland . These lakes are the Upper Lake (built
by King Bhoj) and the Lower Lake. Locally these are known as the Bada Talab and Chota
Talab respectively. The catchment area of the Upper Lake is 361 km² while that of the
Lower Lake is 9.6 km².
Bhopal has a humid subtropical climate, with mild, dry winters, a hot summer and a
humid monsoon season. Summers start in late March and go on till mid-June, the average
temperature being around 30 °C (86 °F), with the peak of summer in May, when the highs
regularly exceed 40 °C (104 °F). The monsoon starts in late June and ends in late
September. These months see about 40 inches (1020 mm) of precipitation, frequent
thunderstorms and flooding. The average temperature is around 25 °C (77 °F) and the
humidity is quite high. Temperatures rise again up to late October when winter starts,
which lasts up to early March. Winters in Bhopal are mild, sunny and dry, with average
temperatures around 18 °C (64 °F) and little or no rain. The winter peaks in January when
temperatures may drop close to freezing on some nights. Total annual rainfall is about
1146 mm (46 inches).
As discussed above, Bhopal is surrounded by hilly and plain terrains. It also has
undulated terrain. On hilly portion staggered contour trenches have been supported with
shrubs and Jatropha plants. Jatropha plants survival and growth depend on the
environment. Bhopal experiences extreme weather conditions. Due to the weather
condition growth of Jatropha on hilly areas are critical. We have come across stop dams,
check dams, percolation tanks and contour bunding. However siltation is a big problem
for the structures. Near CRPF area it has been found that trenches are filling up rapidly
due to siltation. The same was situation at a stop dam. Upstream portion was filled up
1. Geo code:2D4C8K
2. District code :21
3. Zila Panchayat : Ujjain
4. Water availability during the year
a. June, July : Dry
b. August,September,October,November,december,January : Normal
c. February and March : Insufficient
d. April, May :Dry
5. Sources of water: Pond-1, Wells-60, Tube wells-02..Nil check dam, nil stop dam, Nil
canals.
Ujjain is severely facing ground water depletion. Almost every block has ground water
exploitation more than 100%.it is very imperative to adopt rain water harvesting methods to
avoid scarcity of water. Water shed mission is working not across all areas. Therefore
difference is clearly visible between the treated areas and non treated areas. Common
structures are constructed across the district. The Project Officer Mr. Shrivasta is also taking
help of a retired civil engineer who has an experience more than thirty years in the field. This
ensure about technical part of the structures. Every structure is built properly. The structures
are cost effective and ensured optimum utilization. The soils are black cotton and at some
parts it is clayey. Clayey soils are not suitable for percolation. Therefore it should be avoided
to construct any percolation tanks in clayey soils. Before watershed mission, there was no
percolation pond. Watershed has helped in constructing percolation ponds in the area. We
have seen wells near the ponds which are being recharged through these ponds. The water
table are just 5-6 feet below the ground. However local labours are not available to work
under NAREGA. There are enough production of other crops like onion and others where
locals work on a pay which is substantially more than NAREGA. Most of the structure is
built by concrete. Some gabion structure was observed as well. Clayey soils in the area
Structural observations
Stop dam and Gabion structure are properly built and located in the area.
A full concrete stop dam is constructed within 2 lacs/ Cost effective structure
Water table is found 5-6 ft below GL at places where watershed mission is operating.
Community is aware and informative
C/CA ratio falls in the region between 1-2.
BCC :1-2 m deep
Soft Rock :2-5 m deep
Hard rock strata after that.
1. Block :Bhitarwar
2. Guideline :Hariyali
3. Geo code:2C3C1G
4. Beneficial area: 165.399 Ha
Gwalior district has mostly cohesion less soil. Due to this soil, permeability in the area is
varying between moderate to high. The soil is either sandy or sandy loam. Some parts of the
area has also been observed with black cotton. Depth of the soil varies between 1-2m. 2.25%
of the area is covered with hills and around 4% is covered by Nala and rivers. Crop pattern is
mostly single but at some places it is double. In Gwalior almost all type of structures are
existing. Since the project started late in the district their impact cannot be seen immediately.
Some of the structures were new and just completed. Gwalior watershed mission has two
unique part in their structures. They have built stop dams across existing culverts and bridges
apart from a new one. This is a new concept but the effect has to be seen.(See appendix 1for
structures) Existing culvert and bridges are built to give a passage of water. Making a stop
dam across the structure will work as percolation and irrigation pond. They have also
constructed circula stop dams. These type of dams are very efficient to disengage the sudden
thrust of water. Force is evenly distributed on the circumference of the dam. However cost is
increased by 15-20%. Community involvement is proper and they were very informative as
well. Plantation is also managed by SHGs with their own nursery. The mission has also
treated a nala with series of stop dams bult over it. Soil erosion is properly checked by
constructing series of stop dams. Before watershed treatment Hariyali and plant life survival
was very low. Now farmers are using SHGs nursery and taking help of the mission to
develop plants and hariyali. Agricultural production has now been increased.
The climate of Betul is fairly healthy. Its height above the plains and the neighbourhood of
extensive forests moderate the heat, and render the temperature pleasant throughout the
greater part of the year. During the cold season the thermometer at night falls below the
freezing point; little or no hot wind is felt before the end of April, and even then it ceases
after sunset. The nights in the hot season are comparatively cool and pleasant. During the
monsoon the climate is very damp, and at times even cold and raw, thick clouds and mist
enveloping the sky for many days together. The average annual rainfall is 40 in. Betul district
is rich in forests and biodiversity. The main timber species of Betul Forest is Teak. Many
miscellaneous types of trees such as Haldu, Saja, Dhaoda etc. are also found in abundance.
Many medicinal plants are also found in the forest areas of Betul. Large amounts of
commercially-important minor forest produce such
as Tendu leaves, Chironji, Harra, Amla are also collected from the forests of Betul. Asia's
biggest wood depot in Betul. The major rivers flowing in the district are the Ganjal River (a
tributary of the Tapti River), and the Morand River and the Tawa River (tributaries of
the Narmada River). The Tapti river originates from Multai in the Betul district;
Multai's Sanskrit name 'Multapi' means 'origin of Tapi or the Tapti River'.
LAND CLASSIFICATION
AREA(InThousand
TYPE
Hect.)
Forest area 405.2
Uncultivated area 42.4
Fodder area 26.7
Barer Area 25.3
Betul district is a very nice example of Ridge to Valley concept. Since it is surrounded by
hills. Soil erosion in the area was very high. Hilly areas are properly treated with contour
trenches. The valleys at hills are checked with earthen check dams. Continuous trenches and
staggered trenches are properly mixed to check the flow of water. However the treatment at
some portion are not completed due to administrative reasons. Common structures seen in the
area are percolation ponds, trenches, contour bunding, check dams and stop dams. On hilly
portion trenches are supported with plants and have shown considerable growth. However
some more needs to be done considering the fact that it has mostly a hilly terrain.
Percolation tanks are artificially created surface water bodies, submerging a land area with
adequate permeability to facilitate sufficient percolation of impounded surface runoff to
recharge the ground water. These have come to be recognized as a dependable mode for
ground water recharge in the hard rock terrain. The hard rock areas with limited to moderate
water holding and water yielding capabilities often experience water scarce situations due to
inadequate recharge, indiscriminate withdrawal of ground water and mismanagement. These
are quite popular in Madhya Pradesh. The percolation tank is more or less similar to check
dams or nala bund with a fairly large storage reservoir. A tank can be located either across
small streams by creating low elevation check dams or in uncultivated land adjoining
streams, through excavation and providing a delivery canal connecting the tanks and the
stream.
Percolation tanks should normally be constructed in a terrain with highly fractured and
weathered rock for speedy recharge. In case of alluvium, the bouldary formations are
ideal. However, the permeability should not be too high that may result in the percolated
water escaping in the downstream as regenerated surface flow.
The aquifer to be recharged should have sufficient thickness of permeable Vadose zone to
accommodate recharge. The Vadose zone should normally be about 3 m below the
ground level to minimize the possibility of water logging.
The benefited area should have sufficient number of wells, hand pumps etc. A minimum
well density of 3 to 5 per square kilometres is desirable. The aquifer zone should extend
upto the benefited area.
Submergence area should be uncultivated as far as possible.
The nature of the catchment is to be evaluated based on Strange’s Table for classification
under Good, Average and Bad Category. It is advisable to have the percolation tank in a
good/ average catchment.
Rainfall pattern based on long-term evaluation is to be studied so that the percolation tank
gets filled up fully during monsoon (preferably more than once).
Soils in the catchment area should preferably be of light sandy type to avoid silting up of
the tank bed.
The location of the tank should preferably be downstream of runoff zone or in the upper
part of the transition zone, with a land slope gradient of 3 to 5%.
The yield of a catchment area is generally from 0.44 to 0.55 MCM/sq.km in a low
catchment area. Accordingly, the catchment area for small tanks varies from 2.5 to 4
sq.km and for larger tanks from 5 to 8 sq.km.
The size of percolation tank is governed more by the percolating capacity of the
formation under submergence rather than the yield of the catchment. Therefore,
depending on the percolation capacity, the tank is to be designed. Generally, a percolation
tank is designed for a storage capacity of 2.25 to 5.65 MCM. As a general guide the
design capacity should normally not be more than 50 percent of the total quantum of
utilizable runoff from the catchment.
The design of percolation tanks involves detailed consideration of the following aspects:
P R f Rr I rf ET L O f (Vi Vt ) (1)
In order to estimate accurately the volume of water percolated below the tank (P), the
different variables of equation (1) are measured or approximated as detailed hereafter.
Volumes Vi and Vt are function of the tank water level and geometry. In semi-arid climate
storm events are very brief; in the tank, 85% of the flood occurs in only 45 min, so if the tank
does not overflow, the other variables can be neglected during a flood event and variation of
volume can be considered as the total runoff (Rf) and direct rainfall input (Rr). Rf and Rr are
estimated flood event-wise using the relationship between water level and volume and
surface. Hence, it is necessary to determine the water level in the tank at any point of time
and the topography of the bottom of the tank.
Irrigation surface return flow (Irf) is locally measured after an inventory of all irrigated fields
of which excess water flows into the tank.
A check dam is a small dam, which can be either temporary or permanent, built across a
minor channel, swale, bioswale, or drainage ditch. Similar to drop structures in purpose, they
reduce erosion and gullying in the channel and allow sediments and pollutants to settle. They
also lower the speed of water flow during storm events. Check dams can be built
with logs, stone, or sandbags. Of these, the former two are usually permanent or semi-
permanent; and the sandbag check dam is usually for temporary purposes. Also, there are
check dams that are constructed with rockfill or wooden boards. These dams are usually used
only in small, open channels that drain 10 acres (0.040 km2) or less; and usually do not
exceed 2 feet (0.61 m) high. Many check dams tend to form stream pools. Under low-flow
circumstances, water either infiltrates into the ground, evaporates, or seeps through or under
the dam. Under high flow (flood) conditions, water flows over or through the structure.
Coarse and medium-grained sediment from runoff tends to be deposited behind check dams,
while finer grains are usually allowed through. Extra nutrients, phosphorus, nitrogen,
heavy metals, and floating garbage are also trapped or eliminated by the presence of check
dams, increasing their effectiveness as water quality control measures. In nearly all
instances, erosion control blankets, which are biodegradable open-weave blankets, are used in
conjunction with check dams. These blankets help enforce vegetation growth on the slopes,
shorelines and ditch bottoms
Check dams are constructed across small streams having gentle slope and are feasible both in
hard rock as well as alluvial formations. The site selected for check dam should have
sufficient thickness of permeable bed or weathered formation to facilitate recharge of stored
water within short span of time. The water stored in these structures is mostly confined to
stream course and the height is normally less than 2 m. These are designed based on stream
width and excess water is allowed to flow over the wall. In order to avoid scouring from
excess run off, water cushions are provided at downstream side. To harness the maximum run
off in the stream, series of such check dams can be constructed to have recharge on regional
scale.
A series of small bunds or weirs are made across selected nala sections such that the flow of
surface water in the stream channel is impeded and water is retained on pervious soil/ rock
surface for longer body. These type of check dams are called as Nala Bunds. Nala bunds are
constructed across bigger streams of second order in areas having gentler slopes. A nala bund
acts like a mini percolation tank.
The total catchment of the nala should normally be between 40 to 100 Hectares
though the local situations can be guiding factor in this.
Size of a pond is usually dictated by the availability of adequate land in the vicinity of the
village. In rare cases do we have the option to design and build a pond of a desired size to
meet the water requirements of the community. Where we have such an option, the first step
is to work out the water requirement for various needs. The next step is to determine the
catchment area, above the pond site, from where the monsoon run off would be available to
fill the pond. Thereafter the location, alignment and height of the earthen bund are decided, as
also the location and size of the spillway to evacuate the surplus monsoon discharge.
Nadis are small excavated or embanked village ponds. Water from these is available for
periods starting two months to a year after rain, depending on the catchment characteristics,
the amount of rainfall received and its intensity. This is an ancient practice and the Nadis are
the most important water sources of the region. Location and size of a village pond depends
on the catchment area it commands. It should be located in areas with lowest elevation to
have the benefit of natural drainage and need for minimum excavation of earth. Surface of
catchment area should preferably be impermeable. If necessary, the catchment area may be
prepared artificially by soil condition wherever
possible.
Silt Trap should be provided at the inlet point to prevent sediment load form entering the
pond. The size of the silt trap should be designed keeping in view the site conditions, duration
and intensity of rainfall. Silt Trap should be cleaned regularly. The inlet should be stone
pitched to prevent soil erosion. A mesh should be provided at the inlet to prevent floating
material from entering the pond. The slope of the sides shall depend on the soil condition. In
order to prevent seepage losses through sides and bottom, these are lined with LDPE
sheeting. This should be embedded properly. The outlet should be stone-pitched to prevent
soil erosion. An exploitation well should be constructed at a suitable point of pond to
facilitate withdrawal of water. The well has to be constructed by raising two masonry wing
walls and one front wall. A suitable platform fitted with iron fixtures for Pulley and Hand
Pumps is necessary.
a. Irrigation : Provide about 0.67 hectare metre of capacity for a hectare of irrigation.
b. Animal Needs : Provide at the following rates:
Buffalo Cattle : 54-68 litres/day
Dairy Cows : 68 litres/day (drinking)
Dairy Cows (drinking + barn needs) : 158 litres/day
Pigs : 18 litres/day
Sheep : 9 litres/day
c. Domestic Water Needs : 40 litres per head per day
d. Fish Culture : Ensure about 1.85 m depth to provide proper temperature environments.
The storage capacity should be at least double the total water requirement to take care of
evaporation and seepage losses. As a rough guide, 10 per extra storage may be provided for
sediment deposition. For example if the total annual water requirement is 10,000 cum and
pond will have only one filling, its gross capacity should be 22000 cum (2 x 10,000 + 10%).
B
Bed slope S-horizontal to 1 vertical
Where,
Channel width B (meters) at bund site
Bank slopes of the channel – n : 1 (Fall of 1 metre in a length of n metres)
Bed slope of the channel – S : 1 (Fall of 1 metre in a length of S metres along the channel
bed)
Depth of water above the channel bed at the bund site – D (metres)
V =SD^2/2*(B+nD
It should be a narrow gorge with a fan shaped valley above: so that a small amount of
earthwork gives a large capacity.
The capacity catchment area ratio should be such that the pond can fill up in about 2-3
months of rainfall. The capacity should not be too small to be choked up with
sediments very soon.
The pond should be located where it could serve a major purpose e.g. if for irrigation,
it should be above the irrigated fields.
Junction of two tributary, depressions and other sites of easily available fill material
and favourable geology should be preferred.
The site should not have excessive seepage losses.
In low rainfall areas peak discharges during rainy season are too meagre to required
evacuation through a concrete or masonry spillway. Instead a pipe spillway may be provided.
Normally the pipe should be large enough to pass the peak monsoon discharge without
considering any moderation due to the reservoirs. Storage effect of small ponds of capacity of
0.123 to 0.246 is usually neglected. However, where the reservoir is large with considerable
storage capacity the moderation effect may be considered using the following formula:
Where,
Structural Design
The following general guidelines are kept in view for the structural design and construction
of the pond:
Angle of repose is less for wet soil than for dry soils: so provide for flatter gradient on the
waterside of the earthfill. For very small ponds uniform slopes on both upstream and
downstream sides can be provided (2½:1). For other provide a minimum slope of 3:1 on
the waterside.
Remove all vegetation, roots, and organic matter from the fill area: scrape the upper 30
cm of the sol to get rid of the excessive roots: remove all tree stumps at the construction
site (to come under the fill).
Provide a 1.5 m wide bottom key trench with 2:1 side slopes, to give a good bondage with
the original earth.
Lay the earthwork in horizontal layers of not more than 8 centimetres at a time: water
them to have a 14% moisture content: use sheep-foot roller for maximum compaction.
Bulldozers fill earth in heaps, which cannot be easily completed. Use them for site
clearance but not for earth fill.
Place the conduit pipe of the mechanical spillway before starting the earthfill.
Use topsoil and fertilisers to establish a quick grass cover on the earthfill. Do not let trees
or bushes come up on the embankment.
At the inlet of the inflow runoff provide a measuring structure (triangular weir), drop
structure, or a sod chute so that when the pond is low, the inflow does not cause gullying.
Cut all excavation on 2:1 or at least 1:1 side slopes.
Selection of Site
From an economic view point, the bund should be located where maximum storage volume isobtained
for minimum volume of earthfill, since the major share of the cost goes into the earthfill. This
condition, generally, can be met at a site where the stream/ or drainage channel is narrow, steep, side
slopes are steep and stable, and the stream bed is of consolidated and nearly impervious formation.
Such sites also minimise the pond area.
It is possible to construct a stable and economical earthen bund on any foundation. Sites with
foundation conditions requiring relatively expansive construction measures should be
avoided. The most satisfactory foundation is one that consists of, or is underlain at a shallow
depth by a thick layer of relatively impervious consolidated material. Such foundations cause
no stability problems. Where a suitable layer occurs at the surface no special measures are
required. It is sufficient to remove the top soil (with vegetation and roots) and plough the area
to provide a good bond with the new fill material of the bund.
Where the impervious layer is overlain by pervious material (sand), a compacted clay cut-off
extending from the surface of the ground into the impervious is required to prevent excessive
seepage and to prevent possible failure by piping.
Foundation Cutoffs
Usually a cut-off joining the impervious stratum in the foundation with the base of the dam is
needed. The most common type of cutoff is one constructed of compacted or puddled clay
material. A trench, also called key-trench, is cut parallel to the central line of the bund to a
depth that extends well into the impervious layer. The trench should have a bottom width of
not less than 1.5 meters but adequate to allow the use of mechanical equipment if necessary,
to obtain proper compaction. The sides of the trench should be filled with puddled clay or
with successive thin layers of relatively impervious material each layer being properly
compacted.
Height of Bund
The height of bund will depend upon the volume of runoff to be stored and topography of the
reservoir area. The high of the bund should also be selected in such a way that its cost per
unit of storage (cum volume) is minimum. While calculating the cost corresponding to any
Free Board
It is the added height of the bund provided as a safety factor to prevent waves and flood
runoff from over-topping the embankment.
(i) Minimum free board (F.B.) for length of pond upto 400 m 50 cm
(ii) F.B. for length of pond upto 800 m 75 cm
(iii) F.B. for length of pond more than 800 m 100 cm
Settlement Allowance
This includes the consolidation of the fill materials and the foundation materials due to the
weight of the bund and increased moisture caused by the storage of water. Hand compacted
(manually constructed) fill 10% of design height. Machine compacted 5% of design height
Adequate top width is provided to the bund so that it can be used as road way and
communication routes adjoining villages or watersheds. Simple formulae for top width
(T.W.) as a function of height (H) may be used.
Upto 10 m height, T.W. = H/5+2
10 to 15 m height, T.W. = H/5+3
Where,
H = Maximum height in m
T.W. = Top width in m
Adequate upstream and downstream side slopes of the embankment must be provided to
satisfy the stability requirements of reservoir filled with water, sudden drawdown to minimise
the erosion, and to facilitate establishment of good sod forming grass. The maximum side
slopes recommended in case of small earth dams are given below in Table 1.
When fill material consists of more clay and silt, flatter slope of 3 : 1 on the upstream is
always recommended.
Maintenance
A properly designed and constructed bund is well protected by sod and requires, least
maintenance. Particular attention should be given to surface erosion, the development of
seepage areas on the downstream face of below the top of the dam, evidence of piping, wave
action and damage by cattle and human beings and corrective steps should be taken in time.
GABION STRUCTURE
This is a kind of check dam being commonly constructed across small stream to conserve
stream flows with practically no submergence beyond stream course. The boulders locally
available are stored in a steel wire mesh and are tied up in the form of rectangular blocks
(Figure 6.6). This is put up across the stream to make it as a small dam by anchoring it to the
stream banks (Figure 6.6). The height of such structures is around 0.5 m and is normally used
in the streams with width of about 10 to 15 m. The excess water overflows this structure
storing some water to serve as source of recharge. The silt content of stream water in due
course is deposited in the interstices of the boulders to make it more impermeable.
These are basically ground water conservation structures and are effective in providing
sustainability to ground water structures by arresting sub-surface flow. A ground water dam
is a sub-surface barrier across stream, which retards the natural ground water flow of the
system, and stores water below ground surface to meet the demands during the period of
need. The main purpose of ground water dam is to arrest the flow of ground water out of the
sub-basin and increase the storage within the aquifer. By doing so the water levels in
upstream part of ground water dam rises saturating the otherwise dry part of aquifer.
• Since the water is stored within the aquifer, submergence of land can be avoided and land
above reservoir can be utilized even after the construction of the dam.
• No evaporation loss from the reservoir takes place.
• No siltation in the reservoir takes place
• The potential disaster like collapse of dams can be avoided.
Such dykes are also useful across the perennial streams. Dykes of 30 cm thick brick-cement
or stone cement, extending down to the compact bedrock, with mud or clay fillings in
excavated portions on both sides of the wall provide a perfect impermeable barrier.
• Ensure there is no open defecation in/ near the river bed upstream
• No tethering of donkeys at the well
• Check bathing/ laundry upstream of the dam
• There must be no pit-latrines on the bank upstream
• There must be no unprotected wells in the river bed near the protected well
• Regular maintenance of the protected well-site and the hand pump must be assured
• Ensure use and maintenance of a downstream gravity out-take
• Avoid use of pesticides/ chemicals upstream of the dam site
1 A water harvesting technique should function well from a technical point of view.
2 It should ’fit’ within the production system of the users.
The water shortage in the cultivated area is supplemented by water from the catchment area.
When designing a water harvesting system the size of the catchment area is calculated or
estimated, in order to ensure that enough runoff water is harvested for the crops in the
cultivated area. The relation between the two areas is expressed as the C:CA ratio, the ratio
between the catchment area (C) and the cultivated area (CA). For seasonal crops a C:CA ratio
of 3:1 is often used as a rule of thumb: the catchment area C is three times the size of the
cultivated area CA. Although calculation of the C:CA ratio results in accurate water
harvesting systems, it is often difficult to calculate the C:CA ratio. The data required (rainfall,
runoff and crop water requirements) are often not available and if they are, variability is often
high. They may differ from one location to an other, or from year to year. Calculations may
give an impression of accuracy but this is misleading if they are based on data with a high
variability. For this reason water harvesting systems are often designed using an educated
guess for the C:CA ratio. Many successful water harvesting systems have been established by
starting on a small experimental scale with an estimated C:CA ratio. The initial design can
then be modified in the light of experience. In order to be able to estimate the C:CA ratio and
to assess critically the results of the first experimental water harvesting system, it is necessary
to have a thorough understanding of how water harvesting works. Which aspects influence
the functioning of a water harvesting system?
Crop water requirements are the amount of water that a certain crop needs in a full growing
season.Each type of crop has its own water requirements. For example a fully developed
maize crop will need more water per day than a fully developed crop of onions. Within one
crop type however, there can be a considerable variation in water requirements. The crop
water requirements consist of transpiration and evaporation usually referred to as
evapotranspiration. The crop water requirements are influenced by the climate in which the
crop is grown. For example a certain maize variety grown in 20 Water harvesting and soil
moisture retention a cool and cloudy climate will need less water per day than the same maize
variety grown in a hot and sunny climate. The length of the total growing season of each crop
is different and hence the total water requirements for the growing season depends on the
crop type. For example, while the daily water need of melons may be less than the daily
water need of beans, the seasonal water need of melons will be higher than that of beans
Efficiency
The runoff water from the catchment area is collected on the cultivated area and infiltrates the
soil. Not all ponded runoff water can be used by the crop because some of the water is lost by
evaporation and deep percolation .The utilization of the harvested water by the crop is called
the efficiency of the water harvesting system and is expressed as an efficiency factor. E.g. an
efficiency factor of 0.75 means that 75% of the harvested water is actually used by the crop.
The remaining 25% is lost. The consequence for the design of a water harvesting system is
that more water has to be harvested to meet the crop water requirements: the catchment area
hasto be made larger.
ETcrop = Kc × ETo
ETcrop = the crop evapotranspiration in mm/day
Kc = the crop factor
ETo = the reference evapotranspiration in mm/day.
The crop water requirements vary with the growth stages of the crop. With water harvesting,
the farmer has little control over the quantity of water supplied, let alone the timing.
Therefore, it makes little sense to calculate how much water is required by the crop at each of
its growth stages. For the design of a water harvesting system it is sufficient to calculate the
total amount of water which the crop requires over the entire growing season.
For the design of a water harvesting system we need to know the quantity of rainfall during
the growing season of the crop. The quantity of rainfall according to which a water harvesting
systemis designed, is called the design rainfall. The difficulty with selecting the right design
rainfall is the high variability of rainfall in (semi-)arid regions. While the average annual
rainfall might be 400 mm there may be years without any rain at all, and ’wet’ years with 500
- 600 mm of rain or even more. If the actual rainfall is less than the design rainfall, the
catchment area will not produce enough runoff to satisfy the crop water requirements; if the
actual rainfall exceeds the design rainfall there will be too much runoff which may cause
damage to the water harvesting structure. When starting with water harvesting techniques, it
is recommended that we design our systems on the ’safe side’ to test if your design can
withstand flooding. Use crops which are resistant to drought to minimize the risk of crop
failure in years when our design rainfall does not fall. It is recommended to try drought
resistant varieties which are cultivated already in the area in order to compare their
performance in the new water harvesting scheme.
1 Water needed in the Cultivated Area (CA) = Water harvested in the Catchment area (C)
2 Water needed in the Cultivated Area (CA) = [Crop Water Requirements- Design rainfall] ×
CA (m²) And
Water harvested in Catchment area (C) = R × Design rainfall × Efficiency factor × C (m²)
3 Therefore:[Crop Water Requirements - Design rainfall ] × CA = R × Design rainfall ×
Efficiency factor × C Or
C:CA=(Crop water requirements- Design rainfall)/( R x Design rainfall x Efficiency factor)
Calculation of the C:CA ratio with this formula is useful primarily for systems where crops
are to be grown. For trees the C:CA ratio is difficult to determine and a rough calculation is
sufficient. Trees are usually grown in micro catchments. As a rule of thumb the size of a
micro catchment area for each tree should range between 10 m² and 100 m², depending on the
climate and the species grown. For rangeland and fodder in water harvesting systems the
objective is to improve performance rather than fully satisfying the water requirements of the
plants. Hence a general guideline for the estimation of the C:CA ratio is sufficient.
Climate: Semi-arid
Water harvesting technique: Small scale, e.g. contour ridges
Crop:Soyabean
Crop water requirement: 550 mm
Design rainfall: 320 mm
Runoff coefficient (R): 0.50
Efficiency factor: 0.70
C:CA = (550 - 320) / (320 × 0.50 × 0.70) = 2.05
Conclusion: the catchment area must be approximately 2 times larger than the cultivated area.
In the beginning of this chapter it was mentioned that the C:CA ratio of 3:1 is often used as a
rule of thumb. In small scale systems the ratio is often lower however. This is due to the
higher runoff coefficient because of the shorter catchment slope, and the higher efficiency
factor because the runoff water is less deeply ponded in the cultivated area.
A C:CA ratio of 2:1 to 3:1 is, generally speaking, appropriate for the design of micro-
catchment systems, which are usually used for rangeland and fodder.
Linear programming (LP) is a mathematical method for determining a way to achieve the
best outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a given mathematical model for
some list of requirements represented as linear equations. More formally, linear programming
is a technique for the optimization of a linear objective function, subject to linear
equality and linear inequality constraints. Given a polytope and a real-valued affine
function defined on this polytope, a linear programming method will find a point on the
polytope where this function has the smallest (or largest) value if such point exists, by
searching through the polytope vertices.
where x represents the vector of variables (to be determined), c and b are vectors of (known)
coefficients and A is a (known) matrix of coefficients. The expression to be maximized or
minimized is called the objective function (cTx in this case). The equations Ax ≤ b are the
constraints which specify a convex polytope over which the objective function is to be
optimized. (In this context, two vectors are comparable when every entry in one is less-than
or equal-to the corresponding entry in the other. Otherwise, they are incomparable.) Linear
programming can be applied to various fields of study. It is used most extensively in business
and economics, but can also be utilized for some engineering problems. Industries that use
linear programming models include transportation, energy, telecommunications, and
manufacturing. It has proved useful in modeling diverse types of problems in planning,
routing, scheduling, assignment, and design.
Standard form is the usual and most intuitive form of describing a linear programming
problem. It consists of the following four parts:
Maximize: cTx
Other forms, such as minimization problems, problems with constraints on alternative forms,
as well as problems involving negative variables can always be rewritten into an equivalent
problem in standard form. Sometimes, one may find it more intuitive to obtain the dual
program without looking at program matrix. Consider the following linear program:
minimize
subject to ,
,
We have m + n conditions and all variables are non-negative. We shall define m + n dual
variables: yj and si. We get:
minimize
subject to ,
,
Since this is a minimization problem, we would like to obtain a dual program that is a lower
bound of the primal. In other words, we would like the sum of all right hand side of the
constraints to be the maximal under the condition that for each primal variable the sum of
its coefficients do not exceed its coefficient in the linear function. For example, x1 appears
in n + 1 constraints. If we sum its constraints' coefficients we
get a1,1y1 + a1,2y2 + ... + a1,nyn + f1s1. This sum must be at most c1. As a result we get:
maximize
subject to ,
,
Note that we assume in our calculations steps that the program is in standard form. However,
any linear program may be transformed to standard form and it is therefore not a limiting
factor.
In the present study, objective functions are formulated for maximizing the
net return, Crop production and optimizing crop pattern under various socio-
economic constraints.
Where
Ai : area allocated for ith crop, ha or mm2
Yi : area from ith crop, kg/ha
NC : number of crops (NC = 1, 2, 3,…,9)
Where
NR = Net Return
Ai : area allocated for ith crop, ha or mm2
Cs : cost of unit volume of surface water, in INR
Ni : net return per unit area from i th crop, in INR
Swj : gross water released for irrigation purposes, if there is any control over the
storage water either by the community or by the government.
In the casae of Madhya Pradesh, it is government run scheme, therefore Swj=0, since there is
no control or have no cost for surface water, therefore maximization of net return only
includes the first term.
(iii)Model for Optimal crop water requirements and Optimal Crop Pattern
Where:
Zj = The gross benefit of the scenario during the
The constraint functions of the model can be divided into different categories which is
described as follows including water constraint and land area constraint. The water constraint
considered the irrigation efficiency of the crops or cultivated area. The overall water
efficiency of the project, can be described as:
Where:
Ep = Overall efficiency of the watershed irrigation area
Vm = Volume of irrigation water needed and made available, for
evapotranspiration
by the crop to avoid undesirable water stress in the plants throughout the
growing
cycle (m3)
V1 = Inflow from other sources to the conveyance system, tehse are water
which is
travelled through other watershed area. (m3)
V2 = Non-irrigation deliveries from conveyance system (m3)
V3 = Non-irrigation deliveries from the distributary’s system (m3)
Vc = Volume diverted or pumped to other location or from the river (m3)
Also
Vm = SWR – ER
Where:
SWR = Total scheme water requirement (m3)
ER = Effective rainfall or Design Rainfall as described earlier(m3)
Where
TA= Total available land
Minimum area constraint is imposed to avoid excessive transportation and land use
Optimum use of water can be exercised by improving control over water delivery and other
system apart from the mathematical model discussed above. The model provide us a picture
on crop production and its return. However water utilization can be maximized by reducing
wastages ,leakages and over utilization. Sometimes wastages are half of the water resource. If
people and farmers are able to manage the resources effectively, there won’t be any shortage
of water in the area.
Micro irrigation systems, can help achieve two things: a] improves control over applied
water; and b] reduces the non-beneficial depletion of the applied water and maximizing the
consumptive use fraction of the applied water. The potential impact of the second
intervention would be in improving control over applied water, by limiting the dosage each
time. This, in a way, also may help reduce non-beneficial depletion but its impact may be less
significant as compared to micro irrigation.
Losses due to storage of water are a nasty nuisance as it leads to wastage of water and
damage of the structure. The commonest cause of water loss is seepage and can sometimes be
so serious that it may completely drain the reservoir or stored water. In hot arid and semi arid
regions the water loss from evaporation is substantial. Therefore two type of losses in
Madhya Pradesh has to be taken care of while designing and constructing the structure.
Seepage Loss
Evaporation loss
Other common problem occurring in these structures is piping. Earthen dams suffer through
piping and seepages most.
Watershed survey and planning is the preparatory work which, if properly conceptualized and
carried out, permits the successful implementation of actual watershed management. The
technology needs to be infused further. For surveying at site if possible Total station should
be an obvious choice. Now when world is moving fast on technology, The watershed mission
must quickly adopt to its changes. Its looks very fascinating to think of a structure being built
in a very remote area of Madhya Pradesh and is being monitored here at Vindhyachal
Bhawan. This can be made possible with the help of technology. GIS and remote sensing is
the latest buzz for making it real. GIS is a powerful tool that demands consistency and an
understanding of spatial scales, as well as the connection between data tables and the pictures
on the screen. A geographic information system (GIS), or geographical information system,
is any system that captures, stores, analyzes, manages, and presents data that are linked to
location. In the simplest terms, GIS is the merging of cartography and database technology.
GIS systems are used in cartography, remote sensing, land surveying, utility management,
photogrammetry, geography, urban planning, emergency management, navigation,
and localized search engines. In a general sense, the term describes any information
system that integrates, stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information. In
a more generic sense, GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries,
analyze spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations.
Geographic information science is the science underlying the geographic concepts,
applications and systems, taught in degree and certificate programs at many universities.
Developing a Digital Topographic Data Base for a GIS the topographical maps are the main
source of data. Aerial photography and satellite images are extra sources for collecting data.
The scale of a map is a very important aspect since the information content depends mainly
on the scale of the map. In order to digitize the map, the map has to be checked with the
theoretical dimensions, than scanned into a raster format, than the raster data has to be given
the theoretical dimension by rubber sheeting/warping.
Uncertainty is a significant problem in GIS because spatial data tend to be used for purposes
for which they were never intended. Some of the maps were made many decades ago and at
that time the computer industry was not even in the perspective. Map accuracy is relatively an
issue of minor importance in cartography. Maps use a very constrained technology of pen and
paper to communicate a view of the world to their users. Cartographers feel little need to
communicate information on accuracy, but when the same map is digitized and input into a
GIS, the mode of use changes. The new uses extend well beyond the domain for which the
original map was intended and designed.
A quantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus. The equipment used to
make measurements in GIS is far more precise than the machines of conventional map
analysis. The truth is that all geographical data are inherently inaccurate, and these
inaccuracies will propagate through GIS operations in ways that are difficult to predict.
Accuracy Standards for 1:24000 Scales Map: 1:24,000 ± 40.00 feet.This means that when we
see a point on a map, its "probable" location is within a +/- 40 area. A GIS can also convert
existing digital information, which may not yet be in map form, into forms it can recognize
and use. For example, digital satellite images generated through remote sensing can be
analyzed to produce a map-like layer of digital information about vegetative covers.
Census or hydrological tabular data can be displayed in map-like form, serving as layers of
thematic information in a GIS map.
Constraints we faced:
Where ever I have visited I have seen all type of structures existing in the area. Let us assume
a dam is made 2x1.5x1 m and designed for a water storage of 1000 m3 ,taking into account of
a free board of 0.5 m. Now if the actual storage is up to a height of 1 m and the storage is
1000 m3, still the dam needs to be corrected and height can be reduced. In contrary if HFL is
1.5 m and the storage is only 500 m3, the dam still needs modification either by modified
catchment or constructing it on a correct location.
We have seen structures. We have not observed it in a running condition. Any modification
or suggestion to the particular structure can be made only after watching it in actual running
conditions. That is a reason why I am able to put recommendation in general and not for a
particular structure. A stop dam in Bhopal is built in 4 lacs, the same structure in Ujjain is
built within 2 lacs. The structure in Bhopal has serious cracks in abutment and is expected to
expire in 2-3 years, on contrary Ujjain structure is in nice condition for past five years and is
expected to last for another 10 years. Two type of conclusion can be drawn from this,
A comment on existing structures can be made only after processing these data and getting
the actual usage result. For incoming structures these basic flaws can be avoided and a
positive outcome can be achieved.