A Comparative Test of Work Family Conflict Models and - 2009 - Journal of Vocat PDF

Journal of Vocational Behavior 74 (2009) 199–218
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Journal of Vocational Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvb
A comparative test of work-family conflict models and critical

examination of work-family linkages
Jesse S. Michel a,*, Jacqueline K. Mitchelson b, Lindsey M. Kotrba c,
James M. LeBreton d, Boris B. Baltes e
a
Florida International University, Department of Psychology, 11200 S.W. 8th Street, Miami, FL 33199, USA
b
Auburn University, Department of Psychology, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
c
Denison Consulting, Ann Arbor, MI 48104, USA
d
Purdue University, Department of Psychological Sciences, West Lafayette, ID 47907, USA
e
Wayne State University, Department of Psychology, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This paper is a comprehensive meta-analysis of over 20 years of work-family conflict
Received 14 November 2008 research. A series of path analyses were conducted to compare and contrast existing
Available online 25 December 2008 work-family conflict models, as well as a new model we developed which integrates and
synthesizes current work-family theory and research. This new model accounted for 40%
of the variance in job satisfaction, 38% of the variance in family satisfaction, and 35% of
Keywords: the variance in life satisfaction. In a critical examination of work-family linkages, a series
Linking mechanisms
of analyses excluding work-family conflict constructs and pathways resulted in a well-fit-
Meta-analysis
Segmentation
ting and more parsimonious model that still accounted for 39% of the variance in job sat-
Work and family isfaction, 37% of the variance in family satisfaction, and 33% of the variance in life
Work-family conflict satisfaction. Results indicate that direct effects drive work-family conflict models while
Work-family linkages indirect effects provide little incremental explanation in regards to satisfaction outcomes.
Work-family integration Published by Elsevier Inc.
1. Introduction
Of the numerous life domains individuals participate in, few, if any, are as comprehensive and prevalent as the work and
family domains. For example, recent US Census figures indicate that 75.9 percent of US adults aged 20–64 are in the labor
force (81.9 percent of men, 70.0 percent of women; Clark & Weismantle, 2003), and 68.1 percent of US households are family
households (Simmons & O’Neill, 2001). Further, work and family roles have recently been confounded by the increase of
dual-earner households, single-parent households, and other nontraditional gender roles; which, as a whole, have greatly
increased work and family demands for many individuals (Bond, Galinsky, & Swanberg, 1998; Duxbury & Higgins, 1991;
Greenhaus, Callanan, & Godshalk, 2000). As a result, scholars have produced a considerable body of theoretical (e.g., Edwards
& Rothbard, 2000; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006), empirical (e.g., Ilies, Schwind, Wagner, Johnson, DeRue, & Ilgen, 2007), and
review literature (e.g., Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, & Brinely, 2005; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998) on the intersection of work
and family life.
One of the most influential papers in the area of work and family introduced a work-family conflict model wherein work-
family conflict mediates the effect of work (family) role conflict and involvement on family (work) satisfaction (Frone, Rus-
sell, & Cooper 1992). While this model has received empirical support in a few primary studies (e.g., Aryee, Fields, &
* Corresponding author. Fax: +1 305 348 3879.

E-mail address: jmichel@fiu.edu (J.S. Michel).
0001-8791/$ - see front matter Published by Elsevier Inc.

doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2008.12.005
200 J.S. Michel et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 74 (2009) 199–218
Luk, 1999), it has not been examined in a comprehensive way at a meta-analytic level. For example, Ford, Heinen, and Langk-
amer (2007) conducted a quantitative review of work-family conflict, but they only examined components of the Frone et al.
(1992) model. Specifically, the effects of work and family were examined as disparate models by separating the effect of
work on family satisfaction and the effect of family on job satisfaction, thus providing (1) the extent to which factors in
the work domain were related to satisfaction with family life—mediated by work interference with family conflict (WIF),
and (2) the extent to which factors in the family domain were related to satisfaction with work life—mediated by family
interference with work conflict (FIW).
One purpose of the current paper is to offer a comprehensive examination of the Frone et al. (1992) model in its entirety.
In doing so, we may better understand the complexity between work and family beyond the review of Ford and colleagues in
several ways. First, we examine work-family relationships previously unexamined. These include relationships between (a)
work and family antecedents, (b) WIF and FIW, and (c) satisfaction outcomes (cf. Frone et al., 1992). Second, we examine the
direct effects of (a) work antecedents to job satisfaction, and (b) family antecedents to family satisfaction (cf. Frone et al.,
1992). Third, we include the final outcome of life satisfaction (cf. Frone et al., 1992). And forth, we provide a concurrent
examination of the Frone et al. model, versus multiple examinations of portions of the model, thus controlling for variable
interrelationships. As such, this quantitative review will extend the work of primary studies by examining the stability in our
results via meta-analytic path analysis (Viswesvaran & Ones, 1995), along with extending the work of Ford and colleagues in
several important ways.
An additional goal of this paper is to provide a series of path analyses on alternative work-family conflict models to more
thoroughly explore the intersection of work and family life. We include several related models of work-family conflict which,
similar to Frone et al. (1992), hypothesize that work-family conflict plays an intermediary role linking various antecedents
(e.g., work social support) to various consequences (e.g., life satisfaction). The first alternative model was proposed by Carl-
son and Kacmar (2000) which extends Frone and colleagues work through the inclusion of additional work and family stress-
ors, specifically role ambiguity and time demands. The second model, proposed by Carlson and Perrewé (1999), views work
and family stressors as a partial mediator between work and family social support and involvement and work-family con-
flict. Finally, we offer a new model which integrates and synthesizes existing work-family conflict findings. As such, this
study will test and evaluate a series of work-family conflict models thus answering the call of Eby et al. (2005) for additional
testing of theoretical work-family models—both current models and the development of new models.
A final goal of this paper is to critically examine and evaluate the state of the literature by dissecting the most saturated or
integrative model presented in this review in regards to the explanatory power of specific work-family linkages. Extending
the work of Michel and Hargis (2008), which found that direct effect or segmentation based linkages (e.g., work antecedents
to work outcomes) accounted for far more variance in outcome variables than indirect effect or conflict based linkages (e.g.,
work antecedents to family outcomes via WIF), we seek to more completely examine the linkage mechanisms within our
model by examining nested work-family linkages within a complete integrative model (i.e., a single work-family model
of indirect and direct effects) versus separate quasi competing models (i.e., separate models of indirect effects and direct ef-
fects). Accordingly, in this paper we propose to (1) review and update primary structural models within the work-family
conflict literature, (2) provide the first meta-analytic test of each of these models, and (3) critically examine and evaluate
the explanatory power of model linkages (cf. Edwards & Rothbard, 2000).
In the following sections we provide a brief background of the work-family conflict construct, review three primary work-
family conflict models, propose a new model which integrates the core features from previous models and empirical liter-
ature, and describe the results of a meta-analytic and path analytic comparative test of extant models, our new integrative
theoretical model, and critical examination of work-family linkages.
2. The work-family conflict construct
Research on work and family has sought to explain work-family conflict from multiple theoretical approaches such as
boundary theory, compensation theory, ecological systems theory, social identity theory, and spillover theory, to name a
few. However, researchers generally state that role theory (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964; Katz & Kahn,
1978) has provided the broad theoretical umbrella for much of the work-family conflict literature. Role theory implies that
work and family roles result from the expectations of others, and what is believed to be appropriate behavior for a particular
position (e.g., subordinate, coworker, spouse, father; Kahn et al., 1964). Role theory indicates that both work and family do-
mains entail multiple roles where numerous demands are placed on the individual, often resulting in conflict (e.g., interrole
conflict; Kahn et al., 1964). Rooted in role theory, and derived from a scarcity hypothesis (fixed amount of resources, such as
time and energy), conflict theory posits that the work and family domains can be incompatible resulting from different
norms and requirements (Burke, 1986; Evans & Bartolome, 1984; Zedeck & Mosier, 1990); thus, increased role performance
in one domain (such as work) results in decreased role performance in the other domain (such as family). Consequently,
work-family conflict is popularly defined as ‘‘a form of interrole conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family
domains are mutually incompatible in some respect” (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985, p. 77).
Recent research has conceptualized work-family conflict as a multidimensional construct with aspects of WIF (also
termed work-to-family) and FIW (also termed family-to-work; e.g., Gutek, Searle, & Klepa, 1991; Kelloway, Gottlieb, &
Barham, 1999; O’Driscoll, Ilgen, & Hildreth, 1992; Williams & Alliger, 1994). Research has also shown that WIF and FIW have
J.S. Michel et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 74 (2009) 199–218 201
unique relationships with work and family antecedents and outcomes (e.g., Anderson, Coffey, & Byerly, 2002; Byron, 2005;
Carlson & Kacmar, 2000; Frone et al., 1992; Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999; Kelloway et al., 1999; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998;
O’Driscoll et al., 1992; Parasuraman, Purohit, Godshalk, & Beutell, 1996), and provide incremental variance over one another
(see Mesmer-Magnus & Viswesvaran, 2005).
3. Work-family conflict as a mediator
As work-family conflict has been a dominant construct within the work-family literature, a number of structural models
have been advanced. However, most theoretical models contain three core components: (1) a set of work and family domain
antecedents; (2) a combination of work domain, family domain, and life outcomes; and (3) a mediating work-family conflict
construct. It is this configuration that we refer to as ‘‘full-range” models. We should note that we are using the terms ‘‘medi-
ation” and ‘‘partial mediation” in reference to the original authors’ conceptions. However, these terms imply causal relation-
ships and the conditions for causal inference are quite strong (James, Muliak, & Brett, 1982). While we would prefer phrases
like ‘‘exerts a direct effect” or ‘‘exerts an indirect effect,” and we use these terms in our integrative model, we use the original
authors’ terminology in reference to their models.
Before reviewing the work-family conflict models, a brief review of the variables contained in these models is appropriate.
Pertaining to the selection of model variables, we use the previous work of full-range work-family conflict models to guide
our study (Carlson & Kacmar, 2000; Carlson & Perrewé, 1999; Frone et al., 1992). Due to space considerations, we do not
elaborate on the theoretical underpinnings of each variable, as these specifications were articulated in the articles that orig-
inally introduced the models being tested in this study. For a review, readers are directed to Carlson and Kacmar (2000), Carl-
son and Perrewé (1999), and Frone et al. (1992).
3.1. Conceptual definitions of model variables
In addition to the mediating WIF and FIW variables, each of the models incorporate some or all of the following anteced-
ent variables: work social support (family social support) refers to instrumental aid, emotional concern, informational, and
appraisal functions of others in the work (family) domain that serve to heighten one’s feelings of self-importance (Carlson &
Perrewé, 1999; House, 1981; Matsui, Ohsawa, & Onglatco, 1995); work involvement (family involvement) refers to the level
of psychological and cognitive preoccupation with, engagement in, and immersion in one’s work (family) role (Diefendorff,
Brown, Kamin, & Lord, 2002; Frone, 2003; Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1999; Kanungo, 1982; Yogev & Brett, 1985); work role
conflict (family role conflict) refers to the extent to which an individual experiences incompatible role pressures within the
work (family) domain (Bacharach, Bamberger, & Conley, 1990; Beehr, 1995; Kahn et al., 1964; Katz & Kahn, 1978; Kopelman,
Greenhaus, & Connolly, 1983); work time demands (family time demands) refers to time devoted to the work (family) role
(e.g., Carlson & Frone, 2003; Frone, Yardley, & Markel, 1997; Judge, Boudreau, & Bretz, 1994; Kirchmeyer, 1992; Major, Klein,
& Ehrhart, 2002), often confused with work role overload (family role overload; e.g., Carlson & Kacmar, 2000; Carlson & Per-
rewé, 1999), which is the perception of having too many work role (family role) tasks and not enough time to do them (Bach-
arach et al., 1990; Caplan, Cobb, & French, 1975; French & Caplan, 1973; Kahn, 1980); and work role ambiguity (family role
ambiguity) refers to the lack of necessary information (specificity and predictability) about duties, objectives, and responsi-
bilities needed for a particular work role (family role) or the lack of work role (family role) clarity (Beehr & Glazer, 2005;
Cooper, Cooper, & Eaker, 1988; Elloy & Smith, 2003; Gupta & Jenkins, 1985; Kahn et al., 1964; Peterson et al., 1995; Schuler,
1980; Usita, Hall, & Davis, 2004).
In addition to these antecedents, each of the identified models incorporate some or all of the following outcome variables:
job satisfaction (family satisfaction) refers to the degree to which an individual is satisfied (positive feelings, emotional expe-
rience) with the work (family) aspects of their life (Cranny, Smith, & Stone, 1992; Hopkins, 1983; Locke, 1976; Smith, Ken-
dall, & Hulin, 1969); and life satisfaction refers to the degree to which an individual is satisfied (positive feelings, emotional
experience) with their general quality of life (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985; Rice, McFarlin, Hunt, & Near, 1985).
3.2. Model 1: A parsimonious stressor and involvement model (Frone et al., 1992)
The Frone et al. (1992) model was the first highly cited structural model theorizing separate WIF and FIW constructs as a
mediating component between work and family domain antecedents, and work domain, family domain, and life outcomes.
More specifically, this model conceptualizes WIF and FIW as mediating components between job stressors (measured as
work pressure, lack of autonomy, and work role ambiguity), job involvement, family stressors (measured as parental work-
load and child misbehavior), and family involvement, and the outcomes of job distress, family distress, and depression (mea-
sured as reverse scored job satisfaction, family satisfaction, and life satisfaction). In a study to test the cross-cultural
generalizability of this model, Aryee et al. (1999) utilized a slightly adapted version which replaced the antecedents of
job and family stressors (work pressure, lack of autonomy, and work-role ambiguity; parental workload and child misbehav-
ior) with job and family conflicts (work role conflict and family role conflict).
While Frone et al. (1997) provide and test a version of this model, the Frone et al. (1997) model was not included in the
following review because it does not meet our criteria for a full-range model. For example, in this 1997 model, outcomes
have a recursive effect on work-family conflict (e.g., WIF to Family Dissatisfaction to FIW). Further, we chose to examine the
slightly modified Aryee et al. (1999) version of the Frone et al. (1992) model as it provides greater variable overlap with re-
cent conflict models at the operational level, thus allowing for greater confidence in our inferences of model adequacy across
the structural models being compared in this multi model test.
3.3. Model 2: An expanded stressor model (Carlson & Kacmar, 2000)
The Carlson and Kacmar (2000) model conceptualizes WIF and FIW as mediating components between work role ambiguity,
work role conflict, work time demands (measured as work role overload), job involvement, family involvement, family time
demands (measured as family role overload), family role conflict, and family role ambiguity, and the outcomes of job satisfac-
tion, family satisfaction, and life satisfaction. Unique to this model is the inclusion of domain role ambiguity and time demands.
3.4. Model 3: A partial mediating stressor model (Carlson & Perrewé, 1999)
In the original Carlson and Perrewé (1999) model, WIF and FIW were combined to make a unidimensional work-family
conflict construct. In our adapted version, and consistent with previous research (e.g., Carlson, Kacmar, & Williams, 2000),
work-family conflict is conceptualized as two separate WIF (leading to family outcomes) and FIW (leading to work out-
comes) constructs. Thus, in our adapted model, WIF and FIW are mediating components between work social support, work
involvement, work role conflict, work time demands (measured as work role overload), work role ambiguity, family social
support, family involvement, family role conflict, family time demands (measured as family role overload), and family role
ambiguity, and the outcomes of job satisfaction and family satisfaction. Further, this model posits the partial mediation of
work role conflict, work time demands, and work role ambiguity between work social support and work involvement, and
WIF and job satisfaction on the work domain side; along with the partial mediation of family role conflict, family time de-
mands, and family role ambiguity between family social support and family involvement, and FIW and family satisfaction on
the family domain side. Unique to this model is the inclusion of domain social support, the partial mediation of domain role
conflict, time demands, and role ambiguity, along with the exclusion of life satisfaction.
3.5. Model 4: Development of an integrative work-family conflict model
Based on current work-family research, we provide a model in Fig. 1 that integrates the literature. This integrative model
is founded on what we refer to as three forms or types of quasi linking mechanisms (cf. Edwards & Rothbard, 2000). We refer
to these as quasi linking mechanisms and classify them by effect (e.g., indirect effect, direct effect) as each revolves around
the interplay of work and family, yet could be explained or partially explained by a number of theoretical approaches, such
as work-family conflict or segmentation (see Ashforth, Kreiner, & Fugate, 2000; Edwards & Rothbard, 2000).
3.5.1. Indirect effect linkages

Work-family conflict posits that work and family antecedents lead to WIF and FIW, which then leads to family and work
consequences. These linkages are represented by pathways 1–2 for WIF (work antecedents to WIF to family outcomes) and
3–4 for FIW (family antecedents to FIW to work outcomes). These indirect effects are the core feature of work-family conflict
Work Antecedents
Work Outcomes
-Work Social Support 11
-Work Involvement -Job Satisfaction
-Work Role Conflict
-Work Time Demands
-Work Role Ambiguity
1
7 4 16
5
WIF
Life Outcomes
9
-Life Satisfaction
13 14 15
10
FIW
6
2
8 17
3
Family Antecedents
-Family Social Support Family Outcomes
-Family Involvement -Family Satisfaction
-Family Role Conflict
-Family Time Demands 12
-Family Role Ambiguity
Fig. 1. Integrative work-family conflict model (Model 4).

models (e.g., Carlson & Kacmar, 2000; Carlson & Perrewé, 1999; Frone et al., 1992), and are the sole linkages tested by the
Ford et al. (2007) meta-analytic path analysis. Empirical support for these relationships has been modest. For example, in a
series of meta-analytic multiple regressions, Ford et al. found that work antecedents and WIF accounted for approximately
7% of the variance in family satisfaction, while family antecedents and FIW accounted for approximately 7% of the variance in
job satisfaction.
A second series of work-family conflict linkages revolve around empirical findings that have yet to be included in models
of work-family conflict. These linkages are represented by pathways 5 (work antecedents to FIW), 6 (family antecedents to
WIF), 7 (WIF to job satisfaction), and 8 (FIW to family satisfaction). Empirical support for these relationships has been con-
sistent. For example, based on meta-analytic data, job stress is an antecedent of FIW (rc = .29, k = 19; Byron, 2005) and job
satisfaction is an outcome of WIF (r = .24, k = 8; Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton, 2000).
A final set of work-family conflict linkages involve the prediction of life satisfaction by WIF and FIW. These linkages are
represented by pathways 9 (from WIF) and 10 (from FIW). These pathways are based on the previous work of Frone et al. and
have received modest support.
3.5.2. Direct effect linkages

In addition to indirect effect linkages (e.g., work antecedents to family outcomes via WIF), our integrative model also in-
cludes direct effect linkages (e.g., work antecedents to work outcomes), which are typically included in conflict models (e.g.,
Carlson & Kacmar, 2000; Carlson & Perrewé, 1999; Frone et al., 1992). These are represented by pathways 11 (work anteced-
ents to work outcomes) and 12 (family antecedents to family outcomes). As much of the literature on organizational behav-
ior focuses on direct effect linkages (e.g., Hackman & Oldham, 1976), they have receive extensive support (e.g., Michel &
Hargis, 2008).
3.5.3. Construct level cross-domain effects

The final set of linkages in our integrative model represents the relationships between work and family that fall outside of
indirect and direct effect linkages. These consist of relationships between (1) work and family antecedents—linkage 13, (2)
WIF and FIW—linkage 14, and (3) satisfaction outcomes—linkages 15–17. In essence, these linkages account for a similarity
between the work and family roles and are based on the previous work-family models previously reviewed (e.g., Carlson &
Kacmar, 2000; Frone et al., 1992).
4. Study purpose
The purpose of this study is to provide a series of meta-analytic path analyses on the previously reviewed work-family
conflict models to better understand the complex interplay between work and family life. Specifically, we propose to test
and evaluate the parsimonious stressor and involvement model presented by Frone et al. (1992; Model 1), the expanded
stressor model presented by Carlson and Kacmar (2000; Model 2), and the partial mediating stressor model presented by
Carlson and Perrewé (1999; Model 3), in addition to a new integrative model developed for this study (Model 4). Though
Models 1–3 each found support in primary studies, meta-analytic path analysis enables us to examine how well these struc-
tural models actually generalize across a comprehensive meta-analytic data set of observed validities. Likewise, this study
will provide the first examination of our new integrative model. Though each of these models shares the characteristics
of a full-range model, they have subtle yet significant differences. As such, we hope to better understand these similarities
and differences with this research, as model adequacy will be evaluated on model fit, parameter estimates, and variance ex-
plained in the outcome variables.
In addition, we propose to critically examine and evaluate the state of the literature by scrutinizing our integrative model
as it is (1) based on current work-family theory and empirical findings, and (2) incorporates all of the linkages held by the
previous models reviewed. This examination extends previous literature on work-family linking mechanisms (see Michel &
Hargis, 2008), where direct effect models (e.g., work antecedents to work outcomes) accounted for far more variance in out-
come variables than indirect effect models (e.g., work antecedents to family outcomes via WIF), by examining linkages with-
in a single theoretical model, therefore allowing us to determine the explanatory power of model linkages by determining
where the variance explained in outcomes occurs. In doing so, we hope to better determine the theoretical and empirical
forces underlying models of work and family.
5. Methods
5.1. Literature search
The search for studies was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, computer-based literature searches were conducted
on the databases of ABI/INFORM and PsychINFO (including Dissertation Abstracts). Keyword searches were conducted on the
following terms: work family conflict in conjunction with job satisfaction, family satisfaction, life satisfaction, work social sup-
port/organizational support, family social support/social support, work involvement/job involvement, family involvement, work
role conflict, family role conflict, work time demands, family time demands, work role ambiguity, and family role ambiguity. All
electronic searches were limited to post-1985 material since directional WIF and FIW were first introduced by Greenhaus
and Beutell (1985). Manual cross-referencing was also used to ensure relevant studies missed in the electronic searches were
considered for inclusion. This second stage consisted of a manual cross-referencing of studies included in relevant qualitative
and quantitative reviews (e.g., Allen et al., 2000; Byron, 2005; Eby et al., 2005; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998), and related journal
special issues (e.g., Journal of Vocational Behavior: Special Issue on Work and Family Balance, 1997; Journal of Occupational
Health Psychology: Special Issue on Relationship Between Work and Family Life, 1999; International Journal of Stress Management:
Special Issue on Work and Personal Life Integration, 2004).
5.2. Inclusion criteria
Studies were included if they included a measure of WIF and/or FIW and included two or more variables theorized in the
structural models of interest. When relevant articles published within the past seven years (the required duration to retain
data per APA guidelines) were located, and data were not provided, the corresponding author was contacted to obtain miss-
ing data. When identical datasets were reported in multiple studies, the most recent study was included. When portions of
data from the same sample were reported in more than one publication or study, unique bivariate relationships and bivariate
relationships with the larger sample size were included. This process yielded a total of 211 studies with 263 samples and
2060 effect sizes that were included in the current meta-analysis.
5.3. Coding of studies
Of the studies that met the inclusion criteria, 60 articles were randomly chosen for three subject matter experts (SME) to
code. The average percent agreement between all three SME was 93.30%. After coding procedures, the SME resolved all issues
and discrepancies until absolute agreement was reached for the 15 constructs included in the identified structural models.
As outlined in Table 1, a final coding scheme was developed and the remaining samples were coded based on these criteria.
Whenever additional judgment calls were required (i.e., any issue outside the information provided in Table 1), the studies in
question were placed aside and discussed by the three SME until absolute agreement was reached and all coding issues were
resolved.
5.4. Computation of effect sizes
Since one of our research goals were to critically examine work-family linkages and determine the utility of the work-
family conflict construct, we chose to use observed versus psychometrically corrected validity coefficients in our analyses.
Accordingly, sample size weighted correlation estimates were conducted via the meta-analytic techniques of Hedges and
Table 1
Summary of Included Measures.
Construct Measures included

WIF All forms of WIF (e.g., self developed; Frone et al., 1992; Gutek et al., 1991; Kopelman et al., 1983)
FIW All forms of FIW (e.g., self developed; Burley, 1990; Frone et al., 1992; Gutek et al., 1991)
Work social support Coworker social support, emotional/informational/instrumental support from work, group cohesiveness, lack of personal support
at work/nonsupport (rev.), leader/managerial support, level of work group support, mentor supportiveness, perceived
organizational support, psychosocial support, supervisor support (e.g., self developed; Beehr, King, & King, 1990; Eisenberger,
Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986; Shinn, Wong, Simko, & Ortiz-Torres, 1989)
Work involvement Job involvement, work identity, work involvement (e.g., self developed; Kanungo, 1982; Lodahl & Kejnar, 1965; Quinn & Staines,
1979)
Work role conflict Work role conflict (e.g., self developed; Caplan, Cobb, French, Harrison, & Pinneau, 1980; Kahn et al., 1964; Kopelman et al., 1983;
Rizzo, House, & Lirtzman, 1970)
Work time demands Number of hours spent on paid work activities, time commitment to work (e.g., self developed)
Work role ambiguity Work role ambiguity (e.g., self developed; Caplan et al., 1980; Kahn et al., 1964; Rizzo et al., 1970)
Family social Domestic support, emotional/informational/instrumental support from family, family cohesion, family and friends support, lack of
support spousal support (rev.), spousal support (e.g., self developed; Caplan, Cobb, French, Harrison, & Pinneau, 1975; King, Mattimore,
King, & Adams, 1995; Procidano & Heller, 1983)
Family involvement Family identity, family involvement (e.g., self developed; adapted job involvement measures; Amatea, Cross, Clark, & Bobby, 1986;
Yogev & Brett, 1985)
Family role conflict Family role conflict (e.g., self developed; adapted work-role conflict measures; Kopelman et al., 1983; Nye & MacDougall, 1959)
Family time Age of youngest child, number of children living at home, number of hours spend on family activities, parental (time) demands,
demands time commitment to family (e.g., self developed; Bedeian, Burke, & Moffett, 1988)
Family role Family role ambiguity (e.g., adapted work role ambiguity measures)
ambiguity
Job satisfaction Business dissatisfaction (rev.), job satisfaction, quality of work life, work satisfaction (e.g., self developed;Hackman & Oldham,
1975; Quinn & Staines, 1979; Smith et al., 1969)
Family satisfaction Family satisfaction, home satisfaction, marital satisfaction/adjustment, parenting satisfaction, quality of family life, relationship
satisfaction/agreement (e.g., self developed; Spanier, 1976; Staines & Pleck, 1984)
Life satisfaction Life satisfaction, quality of life (e.g., self developed; Diener et al., 1985; Quinn & Shepard, 1974; Quinn & Staines, 1979)
Olkin (1985). Johnson’s (1993) DSTAT was used to convert the study statistics into effect sizes adjusted for sample size. Since
the product-moment correlation (r) possesses some undesirable statistical properties (Alexander, Scozzaro, & Borodkin,
1989; Rosenthal, 1994), and the unbiased estimator of effect size (d) possesses many desirable properties (Hedges, 1982;
Hedges & Olkin, 1985), the unbiased estimator of effect size (d) was used to provide meta-analytic mean weighted effect
sizes. Though each sample correlation was converted to an unbiased estimator of effect size (d) for meta-analytic analysis,
final estimates were converted back to the product-moment correlations (r) for path analyses.
5.5. Outlier analysis
Outliers can significantly distort meta-analytic results (Hedges & Olkin, 1985), and this problem can be compounded with
meta-analytic path analysis. Accordingly, two approaches to identify and address potential outliers were employed. First,
within each cell of the meta-analytic correlation matrix, effect sizes were converted to z-scores and extreme values
(±2.58) were deemed outliers. This procedure yielded 26 of the 2060 effect sizes as statistical outliers at the p = .01 level.
Second, we employed a visual inspection of the data (Hedges & Olkin, 1985). This process yielded three effect sizes that were
deemed outliers. Based on these two approaches, 29 of the 2060 effect sizes or 1.41% of the data were deemed potential out-
liers. All analyses were conducted with and without the identified outliers. Results were near identical for model fit indices
and parameter estimates. Accordingly, due to space considerations, only analyses with outliers excluded are reported. The
full correlation matrix with the outliers included may be obtained from the corresponding author.
5.6. Path analyses and model evaluation
Path analysis of the meta-analytic correlation matrix was conducted in LISREL 8.80 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993). All latent
constructs were treated as single item indicators. As with previous meta-analytic path analyses (e.g., Brown & Peterson,
1993; Chen, Casper, & Cortina, 2001; Ford et al. 2007; Hom, Caranikas-Walker, Prussia, & Griffeth, 1992; Michel & Hargis,
2008), all models were tested utilizing the maximum likelihood estimation method and the harmonic mean. To provide a
comprehensive examination of model fit, a variety of fit indices were chosen based on type of fit index (e.g., absolute versus
incremental) and recommendations within the structural equation modeling literature (e.g., Bentler & Bonett, 1980; Hoelter,
1983; Hu & Bentler, 1995; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993; Marsh, Hau, & Wen, 2004). Specifically, the Good-
ness-of-fit Index (GFI), Normed Fit Index (NFI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
(RMSEA) were used to assess model fit or model misfit. In addition to these indices, the Normal Theory Weighted Least
Squares Chi-Square (v2) statistic and the Critical N (CN) were evaluated. Finally, to compare the series of non-nested models
in the current study, the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) was also evaluated.
6. Results
Our meta-analytic correlation matrix is presented in Table 2. Ninety-five percent confidence intervals indicate that
85.44% of the meta-analytic correlations were significantly significant. However, given the study purpose, we focus on model
fit, parameter estimates, and variance explained in outcomes versus bivariate relationships.
6.1. Model fit and parameter estimates of work-family conflict models
Model 1 (parsimonious stressor and involvement model) was supported with overall fit statistics suggesting very good
model fit: v2(13) = 179.57, CN = 323.94, GFI = .98, NFI = .96, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .08, and AIC = 243.57 (see Table 3). In addition
to model fit, it is appropriate to examine pathway magnitudes to better interpret a model, thus we provide parameter esti-
mates in Fig. 2. Work role conflict was a significant predictor of WIF (pathway = .33) and job satisfaction (pathway = .40),
and family role conflict was a significant predictor of FIW (pathway = .21) and family satisfaction (pathway = .41). Work
involvement and family involvement had small effects on WIF (pathway = .08) and FIW (pathway = .00), but moderate ef-
fects on job satisfaction (pathway = .30) and family satisfaction (pathway = .21). These results suggest that work and family
may be best conceptualized as predictors of same domain satisfaction versus work-family conflict. WIF and FIW seem to
have a small to moderate reciprocal relationship (pathways of .20 and .17), but have relatively low prediction on satisfaction
outcomes (ranging from .01 to .13). Finally, job satisfaction (pathway = .34) and family satisfaction (pathway = .37) each
had a moderately high relationship with life satisfaction.
Model 2 (expanded stressor model) was supported with overall fit statistics suggesting very good model fit:
v2(28) = 383.08, CN = 266.03, GFI = .97, NFI = .95, CFI = .95, RMSEA = .08, and AIC = 509.08 (see Table 3). Parameter estimates
are displayed in Fig. 3. As more variables and pathways were added to this model, work role conflict remained a significant
predictor of WIF (pathway = .26) and job satisfaction (pathway = .26), and family role conflict remained a significant pre-
dictor of FIW (pathway = .16) and family satisfaction (pathway = .38). Similarly, work involvement and family involvement
continued to have small effects on WIF (pathway = .03) and FIW (pathway = .02), but moderate effects on job satisfaction
(pathway = .27) and family satisfaction (pathway = .20). WIF and FIW continued to have a small to moderate reciprocal rela-
tionship, yet magnitudes changed significantly (.17–.26 for FIW to WIF, .20–.09 for WIF to FIW). Likewise, relationships from
Table 2
Meta-analytic correlation matrix of model variables.
Variable WIF FIW WSS WI WRC WTD WRA FSS FI FRC FTD FRA JS FS LS
WIF —
k —
n —
FIW .39* —
k 121 —
n 47,305 —
WSS .23* .09* —
k 55 37 —
n 21,255 13,424 —
WI .08* .01 .15* —
k 40 28 22 —
n 10,944 8434 5621 —
WRC .36* .20* .36* .00 —
k 24 11 6 11 —
n 5933 3628 1413 2703 —
WTD .26* .02* .04* .24* .15* —
k 64 51 25 21 5 —
n 28,507 18,549 11,098 5953 1572 —
WRA .24* .19* .24* .07* .49* .11* —
k 19 13 9 10 18 8 —
n 5585 4731 3183 3257 4613 2915 —
FSS .13* .17* .17* .02* .05* .03* .06* —
k 38 29 39 21 5 20 6 —
n 14,171 7732 12,314 5611 1550 9871 1999 —
FI .01 .01 .05* .12* .04* .02 .00 .14* —
k 24 22 12 34 7 12 5 16 —
N 7708 6970 3573 9876 2220 3839 2325 3905 —
FRC .24* .26* .03 .07* .29* .01 .11* .35* .04* —
k 9 4 2 5 12 2 4 2 5 —
n 2817 2056 575 1502 2771 1248 1294 575 1502 —
FTD .03* .08* .01 .06* .05* .01* .01 .02 .05* .25* —
k 68 56 16 19 4 48 7 21 13 2 —
n 26,196 20,607 5891 5238 1411 17,034 2763 4386 3581 1248 —
FRA .17* .25* .06* .07* .16* .18 .33* .29* .13* .28* .21 —
k 3 3 2 2 4 1 4 2 2 4 1 —
n 1069 1069 575 808 1294 261 1294 575 808 1294 261 —
JS .25* .15* .43* .30* .41* .03* .45* .18* .02 .14* .02* .05* —
k 85 60 39 33 24 30 14 28 18 11 29 3 —
n 29,587 21,523 15,397 8592 5766 12,186 4089 10,648 5417 2524 9453 1069 —
FS .21* .23* .13* .07* .12* .03* .13* .48* .24* .45* .00 .35* .19* —
k 45 30 13 15 14 13 5 16 17 11 16 3 44 —
n 14,504 10,808 3854 4465 3429 5050 1616 4102 4765 2524 5851 1069 13,741 —
LS .30* .20* .32* .02 .31* .04* .26* .19* .07* .29* .00 .24* .44* .46* —
k 35 24 4 10 11 9 4 7 11 9 11 2 37 26 —
n 9162 6657 963 2320 2375 2696 1392 1472 2700 1809 3240 808 9476 6832 —
Note: WIF, work interference with family conflict; FIW, family interference with work conflict; WSS, work social support; WI, work involvement; WRC, work
role conflict; WTD, work time demands; WRA, work role ambiguity; FSS, family social support; FI, family involvement; FRC, family role conflict; FTD, family
time demands; FRA, family role ambiguity; JS, job satisfaction; FS, family satisfaction; LS, life satisfaction; k, number of samples; n, number of participants.
*
p < .05
work-family conflict and satisfaction outcomes remained constant (ranging from .05 to .09), as did job satisfaction (path-
way = .37) and family satisfaction (pathway = .39) to life satisfaction. Unique to this model was the inclusion of ambiguity
and time demands variables. Work role ambiguity had a moderate relationship to job satisfaction (pathway = .30) but
low relationship to WIF (pathway = .05). Inverse to this was the role of work time demands, which was moderately related
to WIF (pathway = .20) but not job satisfaction (pathway = .04). On the family side, much different results were found as fam-
ily role ambiguity was moderately related to both FIW (pathway = .21) and family satisfaction (pathway = .19), while fam-
ily time demands had small effects on FIW (pathway = .08) and family satisfaction (pathway = .05).
Model 3 (partial mediating stressor model) was not supported with overall fit statistics suggesting inadequate model fit:
v2(49) = 920.03, CN = 160.26, GFI = .94, NFI = .87, CFI = .88, RMSEA = .09, and AIC = 1,032.03 (see Table 3). Accordingly, exam-
ination of parameter estimates could provide misleading results and are not included.
Table 3
Model fit indices from primary path analyses.
Model df v2 CN GFI NFI CFI RMSEA AIC

Model 1
Parsimonious stressor and involvement model 13 179.57 323.94 .98 .96 .96 .08 243.57
Model 2
Expanded stressor model 28 383.08 266.03 .97 .95 .95 .08 509.08
Model 3
Partial mediating stressor model 49 920.03 160.26 .94 .87 .88 .09 1032.03
Model 4a
Integrative work-family conflict model 20 272.42 287.81 .98 .97 .97 .08 472.42
Model 4b
Direct effects only model 20 312.83 250.39 .98 .96 .96 .08 454.83
2
Note: df, degrees of freedom; v , normal theory weighted least squares chi-square; CN, critical N; GFI, goodness-of-fit index; NFI, normed fit index; CFI,
comparative fit index; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation; AIC, Akaike’s information criterion. N = 2119.
.30 (.02)
Work Role -.40 (.02) Job

Conflict Satisfaction
.33 (.02)
.34 (.02)
WIF -.06 (.02)
Work
.08 (.02) -.13 (.02)
Involvement
Life
.17 (.05) .20 (.05) .11 (.02)
Satisfaction
Family
-.00 (.02) -.01 (.02)
Involvement
FIW
-.10 (.02) .37 (.02)
.21 (.02)
Family Role -.41 (.02)
Family
Conflict Satisfaction
.21 (.02)
Intercorrelations Among Exogenous Variables

WRC WI FI FRC
WRC -
WI .00 (.02) -
FI .04 (.02) -.12 (.02) -
FRC .29 (.02) .07 (.02) -.04 (.02) -
Note: WRC = Work role conflict, WI = Work involveme nt, FI = Family involvement, FRC = Family role conflict.
Fig. 2. Parsimonious stressor and involvement model with path coefficients (Model 1). Note: values in parentheses are standard errors for the path
coefficient. Variance explained in outcome variables: job satisfaction = 26%, family satisfaction = 25%, life satisfaction = 34%. N = 2119.
Model 4 (integrative work-family conflict model) was supported with overall fit statistics suggesting excellent model fit:
v2(20) = 272.42, CN = 287.81, GFI = .98, NFI = .97, CFI = .97, RMSEA = .08, and AIC = 472.42 (see Table 3). Due to the complex-
ity of this model, parameter estimates are provided in Table 4 versus a figure. As more variables and pathways were added to
this model, work role conflict remained a significant predictor of WIF (pathway = .20) and job satisfaction (pathway = .16),
and family role conflict remained a significant predictor of FIW (pathway = .13) and family satisfaction (pathway = .28).
Work involvement and family involvement continue to have small effects on WIF (pathway = .05) and FIW (pathway = .02),
but moderate effects on job satisfaction (pathway = .24) and family satisfaction (pathway = .16). Work role ambiguity con-
tinued to have a moderate relationship to job satisfaction (pathway = .28) but low relationship to WIF (pathway = .06),
while work time demands was moderately related to WIF (pathway = .20) but not job satisfaction (pathway = .06). On the
family side, family role ambiguity was moderately related to both FIW (pathway = .19) and family satisfaction (path-
Work Role -.30 (.02) Job

Ambiguity Satisfaction
.05 (.02)
-.26 (.02)
Work Role
Conflict .04 (.02)
.27 (.02)
.26 (.02)
-.05 (.02)
.37 (.02)
Work Time
Demands .20 (.02)
WIF
.03 (.02)
Work
Involvement
.26 (.04) .09 (.05) Life
Satisfaction
Family
Involvement
.02 (.02)
FIW
Family Time .08 (.02)

Demands
.39 (.02)
-.09 (.02)
.16 (.02)
.20 (.02)
Family Role .05 (.02)
Conflict
-.38 (.02)
.21 (.02)
Family Role -.19 (.02) Family
Ambiguity Satisfaction
Intercorrelations Among Exogenous Variables

WRA WRC WTD WI FI FTD FRC FRA
WRA -
WRC .49 (.02) -
WTD .11 (.02) .15 (.02) -
WI -.07 (.02) .00 (.02) .24 (.02) -
FI .00 (.02) .04 (.02) -.02 (.02) -.12 (.02) -
FTD -.01 (.02) -.05 (.02) -.01 (.02) -.06 (.02) .05 (.02) -
FRC .11 (.02) .29 (.02) .01 (.02) .07 (.02) -.04 (.02) .25 (.02) -
FRA .33 (.02) .16 (.02) .18 (.02) .07 (.02) -.13 (.02) -.21 (.02) .28 (.02) -
Note: WRA = Work role ambiguity, WRC = Work role conflict, WTD = Work time demands, WI = Work involvement, FI = Family
involvement, FTD = Family time demands, FRC = Family role conflict, FRA = Family role ambiguity.
Fig. 3. Expanded stressor model with path coefficients (Model 2). Note: values in parentheses are standard errors for the path coefficient. Variance
explained in outcome variables: job satisfaction = 33%, family satisfaction = 30%, life satisfaction = 32%. N = 2119.
way = .14), while family time demands had small effects on FIW (pathway = .09) and family satisfaction (pathway = .04).
The linage between WIF and FIW was high (.27), but again the pathways to satisfaction were low (ranging from .01 to
.13). Finally, relationships from job satisfaction (pathway = .37) and family satisfaction (pathway = .39) to life satisfaction
remained constant. Unique to this model was the inclusion of social support as a predictor of work-family conflict and sat-
isfaction. Work social support had a small relationship to WIF (pathway = .13) and a moderate relationship to job satisfac-
tion (pathway = .25); similarly, family social support had a small relationship to FIW (pathway = .06) and a moderate
relationship to family satisfaction (pathway = .29). Most of the additional indirect effect pathways in this model were signif-
icant yet small. The greatest support for these linkages, besides model fit, were the results for work and family role conflict;
specifically, the added pathways from work role conflict to FIW (pathway = .10) and family role conflict to WIF (path-
way = .14). Finally, there was moderate evidence for construct level cross-domain effects as many of the work domain
and family domain constructs covaried (e.g., .33 for role ambiguity).
6.2. Variance explained in satisfaction outcomes by work-family conflict models
Each of the well fitting models accounted for a large portion of variance in outcome variables. Model 1 (parsimonious
stressor and involvement model) explained 26% of the variance in job satisfaction, 25% of the variance in family satisfaction,
and 34% of the variance in life satisfaction. As more predictor variables were added to Model 2 (expanded stressor model),
variance explained in job satisfaction increased to 33%, variance explained in family satisfaction increased to 30%, but var-
iance explained in life satisfaction decreased to 32% due to the elimination of WIF and FIW direct effects. Model 4 (integra-
Table 4
Parameter estimates for the integrative work-family conflict model (Model 4).
Parameter estimates
Intercorrelations among exogenous variables Work-family spillover
WSS WI WRC WTD WRA FSS FI FRC FTD FRA Satisfaction spillover (correlation
relationship)
WSS — JS FS
WI .15 — JS —
(.02)
WRC .36 .00 — FS .06 —
(.02) (.02) (.01)
WTD .04 .24 .15 — Conflict spillover (correlation
(.02) (.02) (.02) relationship)
WRA .24 .07 .49 .11 — WIF FIW
(.02) (.02) (.02) (.02)
FSS .17 .02 .05 .03 .06 — WIF —
(.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02)
FI .05 .12 .04 .02 .00 .14 — FIW .27 —
(.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02)
FRC .03 .07 .29 .01 .11 .35 .04 —
(.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02)
FTD .01 .06 .05 .01 .01 .02 .05 .25 —
(.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02)
FRA .06 .07 .16 .18 .33 .29 .13 .28 .21 —
(.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02)
Path estimates (direction of pathway is represented by column to row)
WSS WI WRC WTD WRA FSS FI FRC FTD FRA WIF FIW JS FS
WIF .13 .05 .20 .20 .06 .04 .03 .14 .01 .03
(.02) (.02) (.03) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02)
FIW .02 .01 .10 .04 .06 .06 .02 .13 .09 .19
(.02) (.02) (.03) (.02) (.03) (.02) (.02) (.03) (.02) (.02)
JS .25 .24 .16 .06 .28 .10 .01
(.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02)
FS .29 .16 .28 .04 .14 .07 .05
(.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02)
LS .13 .01 .34 .37
(.02) (.02) (.02) (.02)
Note: WIF, work interference with family conflict; FIW, family interference with work conflict; WSS, work social support; WI, work involvement; WRC, work
role conflict; WTD, work time demands; WRA, work role ambiguity; FSS, family social support; FI, family involvement; FRC, family role conflict; FTD, family
time demands; FRA, family role ambiguity; JS, job satisfaction; FS, family satisfaction; LS, life satisfaction. Values in parentheses are standard errors for the
path coefficient. Variance explained in outcome variables: job satisfaction = 40%, family satisfaction = 38%, life satisfaction = 35%. N = 2119.
tive work-family conflict model) explained 40% of the variance in job satisfaction, 38% of the variance in family satisfaction,
and 35% of the variance in life satisfaction. Collectively, these results suggest that Models 1, 2, and 4, provide incremental
explanation in the prediction of satisfaction outcomes.
6.3. Explanatory power of model linkages
To provide a more critical examination of work-family conflict models, we systematically analyzed nested models or link-
ages within our integrative framework. In isolation, the indirect effects of linkage 2 (WIF) explained 4% of the variance in
family satisfaction while linkage 4 (FIW) explained 2% of the variance in job satisfaction. Though not traditionally modeled
in work-family conflict models, our additional linkage 7 (WIF) explained 6% of the variance in job satisfaction while linkage 8
(FIW) explained 5% of the variance in family satisfaction. The final WIF and FIW linkages 9 and 10 were both modest pre-
dictors of life satisfaction accounting for 9% and 4%. Turning to direct effect linkages, we found that linkage 11 (work ante-
cedents) explained 39% of the variance in job satisfaction while linkage 12 (family antecedents) explained 38% of the
variance in family satisfaction.
To determine the utility of the work-family conflict construct, in regards to structural models predicting satisfaction out-
comes, we examined our integrative model with and without WIF, FIW, and pathways 1–10, and 14, thus removing all work-
family conflict variables and pathways. Model fit without these variables and pathways was nearly identical to the full work-
family conflict model: v2(20) = 312.83, CN = 250.39, GFI = .98, NFI = .96, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .08, and AIC = 454.83. In addition,
the remaining pathway estimates remained highly stable with no more than .02 differences in magnitudes between models
with and without work-family conflict constructs and pathways. Further, variance explained in job satisfaction reduced from
40% to 39%, variance explained in family satisfaction reduced from 38% to 37%, and variance explained in life satisfaction
reduced from 35% to 33%. Collectively, these results suggest that work-family conflict and corresponding indirect effect link-
ages (see Edwards & Rothbard, 2000; Michel & Hargis, 2008) possess small incremental explication in the prediction of sat-
isfaction outcomes.
7. Discussion
This study examined the complex interplay between work and family through a conflict theory perspective. Our results
suggest that Model 1 (the parsimonious stressor and involvement model), Model 2 (the expanded stressor model), and Mod-
el 4 (the integrative work-family conflict model) are generalizable to our meta-analytic correlation matrix, while Model 3
(the partial mediating stressor model) was not generalizable. Consistent path analytic findings across models suggest the
following: (1) work role conflict and work time demands are primary predictors of WIF, while work social support, work
involvement, work role conflict, and work role ambiguity are primary predictors of job satisfaction; (2) family role conflict
and family role ambiguity are primary predictors of FIW, while family social support, family involvement, family role con-
flict, and family role ambiguity are primary predictors of family satisfaction; (3) work antecedents are related to FIW and
family antecedents are related to WIF, but these relations are small; (4) there tends to be cross-domain spillover among con-
structs (e.g., role ambiguity, work-family conflict); (5) WIF and FIW have low relationships with satisfaction outcomes; and
(6) job satisfaction and family satisfaction are strong predictors of life satisfaction.
We also critically examined our integrative work-family conflict model (Model 4) in regards to explanatory power of spe-
cific work-family linkages (cf. Edwards & Rothbard, 2000; Michel & Hargis, 2008). At the core of work-family conflict models
are what we have referred to as indirect effects. In isolation, work and family antecedents had small indirect effects on family
and work satisfaction outcomes via WIF and FIW (2–4% explained variance). This is surprising considering the significant,
though modest, bivariate results supporting these linkages (e.g., Kossek & Ozeki, 1998). In addition, we found that WIF
and FIW were actually better predictors of same domain satisfaction than cross-domain satisfaction (5–6% explained vari-
ance). This was highly unexpected as WIF and FIW explain greater variance in the satisfaction outcomes that they should
not explain, theoretically, then the satisfaction outcomes that they should explain (e.g., WIF is a better predictor of job sat-
isfaction at 6% explained variance than family satisfaction at 2% explained variance). In regards to direct effects, results indi-
cate that work and family domain antecedents are strong predictors of same domain satisfaction (38–39% explained
variance). Further, when examined as a complete interface, indirect effects had an incremental predictive explanation of a
mere 1–2% explained variance in satisfaction outcomes. These findings suggest that when taking into account direct effect
linkages, indirect effect linkages of work-family conflict possess little incremental explanatory power in regards to satisfac-
tion outcomes.
7.1. Contributions to theory and practice
There are several implications from this study based on specific parameter estimates. For example, family time demands
(hours worked, number of children, and age of youngest child) had a low impact on FIW (pathways of .08 for the stressor/
involvement based Model 2 and .04 for integrative Model 4). This is an important implication as employees with family de-
mands, particularly working mothers, often experience inequality within organizations (e.g., Bagilhole, 2006; Bo, 2006). Fur-
ther, researchers have suggested that these family demands are directly responsible for feelings of FIW and gender
differences in the workforce (e.g., Keene & Reynolds, 2005). Our results, however, indicate that family time demands have
very little impact on work roles—as indicated by FIW. This finding has potential impact on the quest for equality in the work
place in regards to family and gender roles, as traditional perceptions of family time demands being a ‘‘job cost” may be in
question. Another interesting finding is the relationship between social support and role conflict; specifically, work social
support and work role conflict ( .36 in integrative Model 4), and family social support and family role conflict (-.35 in inte-
grative Model 4). Should the causal mechanisms of these relationships be determined, organizations may benefit by poten-
tially increasing work social support in an effort to decrease work role conflict. This logic may extend to the family domain as
well. According to the pathways presented here, from work role conflict to job satisfaction (pathway of .16 in integrative
Model 4) and from family role conflict to family satisfaction (pathway of .28 in integrative Model 4), role conflict has
important implications to the outcomes of satisfaction considered in this study.
Though the results of do not strongly support the work-family conflict construct in regards to satisfaction outcomes, this
study does provided clarification on the relationships between work and family, particularly in regards to the additive value
of different work-family variables and model linkages. In doing so, this study answered the call of Eby et al. (2005) for addi-
tional model testing and development by documenting nontrivial differences between existing models and through the inte-
gration of current theory and empirical findings in the culmination and examination of our integrative work-family conflict
model (Model 4). In particular, we found that the model structure and variable inclusion of Model 1 (parsimonious stressor
and involvement model) and Model 2 (expanded stressor model) fit the data well and were predictive, and each model pro-
vided incremental explanation. Likewise, our integrative work-family conflict model (Model 4) sheds further light on the
complex interrelationships between work and family. Our findings also extend the work of Ford et al. (2007), where indirect
effects accounted for 7% of the variance in job satisfaction and 7% of the variance in family satisfaction independently, by
accounting for 40% of the variance in job satisfaction, 38% of the variance in family satisfaction, and 35% of the variance
in life satisfaction concurrently (see integrative work-family conflict model). It is important to note that this variance ac-
counted for is not necessarily due to an increase in the number of predictors, but instead the modeling of direct effects tra-
ditionally found in work-family conflict models.
However, an unexpected implication involves our results regarding the indirect effects of WIF and FIW on satisfaction
outcomes. Across the well-fitting models, WIF and FIW had low magnitudes to satisfaction outcomes; in fact, these findings
never exceed pathways of .13. Though these findings differ from bivariate meta-analyses, i.e., our magnitudes are much
smaller, these models still possess significant though small relationships from WIF and FIW to satisfaction outcomes while
controlling for various work and family domain antecedents, accounting for 1–2% of unique variance. As our results indicate
the presence of potential moderators, and this question is beyond the scope of the current study, it seems appropriate for
future research to better determine under what conditions that these linkages are strong (e.g., contextual factors; social cog-
nitions). In addition, research could determine why WIF and FIW were more related to same domain satisfaction (e.g., WIF
and job satisfaction) than cross-domain satisfaction (e.g., WIF and family satisfaction) as WIF and FIW measures were explic-
itly developed to tap into cross-domain effects. This finding suggests that when expectations of interference from one do-
main are higher than expected, the satisfaction levels in that same domain are negatively impacted. Further research may
also consider that affect at home and affect at work (cf. Ilies, Schwind, & Wagner, in press; Ilies et al., 2007) may be an under-
lying and relatively unassessed component of these and other work-family linkages.
7.2. Potential limitations
Like most meta-analytic studies, methodological limitations are inevitable. For the current meta-analytic path analysis,
two potential limitations need mentioning. The stability of the meta-analytic bivariate relationships is variable. Since this
review investigated the interrelationships of 15 variables, a meta-analytic correlation matrix of 105 cells was generated.
These cells contain discrepancies in the stability of their estimation of the population parameters. For example, the WIF
and FIW relationship (k = 121, n = 47,305) should be a much more robust population approximation than the family role
ambiguity and work time demands (k = 1, n = 261) relationship. Though variability in parameter estimate stability is always
a weakness, this limitation should not be a major problem for the current study. For example, a recent meta-analytic path
analysis described as ‘‘truly exemplary” (see Bobko & Roth, 2003, p. 82) contained empty cells in 21% of the meta-analytic
matrix, while another 21% of the cells contained only one study. Considering the current work contains estimates for all 105
cells, while only two cells (2%) had one sample, the variability in population parameter estimate stability in the current
meta-analytic matrix is not inconsistent with that found in other, similar studies.
In addition, we used structural equation modeling with cross-sectional data to fit a series of structural models. Several of
the models showed good fit, however, this just means that these models are plausible explanations for the observed patterns
of covariance (James, Muliak, & Brett, 1982). Accordingly, other equally plausible models may exist that provide similar or
better fit. Accordingly, future research should seek to establish if the general structure implied by these models are consis-
tent with a truly causal model (this would entail collecting and structuring studies so as to best satisfy the requisite condi-
tions for causal inference; cf. James et al., 1982).
8. Conclusions
We have reviewed, developed, tested, and critiqued multiple full-range work-family conflict models and model linkages.
Each model was evaluated and compared on model fit, parameter estimates, and variance explained in outcomes. The
embedded linkages within our integrative model were then critically examined through a series of path analyses. Results
indicated that direct effects drive these models and indirect effects provide only small amounts of incremental explanation
in satisfaction outcomes. Research should further explore the potential mechanisms linking work and family domains, both
indirect and direct, concurrently and in isolation.
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Journal of Vocational Behavior 74 (2009) 199–218

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Vocational Behavior

A comparative test of work-family conﬂict models and critical

* Corresponding author. Fax: +1 305 348 3879.

0001-8791/$ - see front matter Published by Elsevier Inc.

2. The work-family conﬂict construct

3. Work-family conﬂict as a mediator

3.1. Conceptual deﬁnitions of model variables

3.3. Model 2: An expanded stressor model (Carlson & Kacmar, 2000)

3.5. Model 4: Development of an integrative work-family conﬂict model

3.5.1. Indirect effect linkages

Fig. 1. Integrative work-family conﬂict model (Model 4).

3.5.2. Direct effect linkages

3.5.3. Construct level cross-domain effects

5.1. Literature search

5.2. Inclusion criteria

5.3. Coding of studies

5.4. Computation of effect sizes

Construct Measures included

5.5. Outlier analysis

5.6. Path analyses and model evaluation

6.1. Model ﬁt and parameter estimates of work-family conﬂict models

Model df v2 CN GFI NFI CFI RMSEA AIC

Work Role -.40 (.02) Job

Intercorrelations Among Exogenous Variables

Work Role -.30 (.02) Job

Family Time .08 (.02)

Intercorrelations Among Exogenous Variables

6.2. Variance explained in satisfaction outcomes by work-family conﬂict models

6.3. Explanatory power of model linkages

7.1. Contributions to theory and practice

7.2. Potential limitations

References marked with an asterisk indicate studies include in the meta-analysis.

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