Thin-Film Reactors 1

Thin-Film Reactors
For other industrial reactors and their applications, see → Stirred-Tanc and Loop Reactors, → Tubular
Reactors, → Fixed-Bed Reactors, → Fluidized-Bed Reactors, → Bubble Columns, → Three-Phase Trickle-Bed
Reactors, → Reaction Columns, → Metallurgical Furnaces, and → Biochemical Engineering.
Bernhard Gutsche, Henkel KGaA, Düsseldorf, Federal Republic of Germany
Christoph Breucker, Henkel KGaA, Düsseldorf, Federal Republic of Germany
Günter Panthel, Henkel KGaA, Düsseldorf, Federal Republic of Germany

1. Design of Thin-Film Reactors . . . . . 2 2. Applications of Thin-Film Reactors . 6

1.1. Gas – Liquid Interface . . . . . . . . . . 2 3. Designs and Operating Modes of Thin-
1.2. Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Film Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3. Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4. Thin-Film Reactors for Industrial Sul-
1.4. Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 fonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5. Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Symbols (see also → Principles of Chemical ω angular velocity

Design Engineering and → Model Reactors and
Their Design Equations)
Subscripts
A transfer area
c coolant
a interfacial area per unit reaction volume
G gas
b constant
h hydraulic (diameter, see Eq. 17)
cp isobaric heat capacity
i internal (diameter of the inner cylinder of
d diameter
the reactor, see Eq. 17)
E (τ ) distribution function of residence time
if interface
L length
l laminar
ṁ mass flow
L liquid
n number of tubes
t tube, turbulent
q heat
W wall
T temperature
t time A thin-film apparatus, with or without rotat-
v volume ing internals, is typically used for mild, nonde-
V̇ throughput structive distillation, absorption, or desorption
Ha Hatta number (stripping) in process engineering. Starting from
Nu Nusselt number this field of application, it has also acquired an
Pr Prandtl number important role in gas – liquid reactions.
Re Reynolds number
Sc Schmidt number
Sh Sherwood number 1. Design of Thin-Film Reactors
Ta Taylor number
α heat-transfer coefficient Thin-film reactors ( falling-film reactors and film
β mass-transfer coefficient reactors with mechanical wiping) are contact-
δ film thickness ing devices for gas – liquid systems. The liquid
θ dimensionless residence time phase is in the form of a thin film that runs down
λ coefficient of thermal conduction a vertical wall while gas flows over the liquid
ν kinematic viscosity surface cocurrently or countercurrently. In the
τ residence time rising-film reactor, gas flowing upward at a high

c 2005 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

10.1002/14356007.b04 329
2 Thin-Film Reactors
rate causes a thin liquid film to ascend (gas and
liquid cocurrent).
Thin-film reactors are used chiefly when
strongly endothermic or exothermic reactions
require a very high rate of heat transfer. These
reactors are operated continuously. Thin-film re-
actors consist of one tube, or a number of tubes
bundled as in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger,
cooled or heated from the outside (Fig. 1). In
another design [2], two large concentric pipes
form an annular clearance. The liquid is dis-
tributed over both surfaces of the annular space
and reacts with the gas flowing in the free vol-
ume between the pipes.
Figure 1. Schematic of a thin-film reactor [1]
a) Tube wall (heat transfer); b) Liquid film; c) Gas – liquid
interface (reaction)
1.1. Gas – Liquid Interface
The thin-film reactor is the only type of gas – liq-
uid contact apparatus in which both gas and liq-
uid are present as continuous phases and, in fact,
the dispersion of either phase must be prevented.
Entrainment or breakup of the film cannot be
permitted since heat transfer would be impaired
and local overheating might degrade the product
in the case of exothermic reactions. Options for
calculating entrainment are summarized in [3].
To prevent entrainment, tubes must be installed
precisely vertically, and the tube surface must be
adequately finished. For highly viscous liquids,
a rotating wiper system can be used to maintain a
uniform film, afford better mixing of the liquid,
and promote heat transfer (wiped-film reactor).
Thin-film reactors have a very small spe-
cific surface area for mass transfer between gas
and liquid compared to other reactors. The mass
transfer area A is governed only by reactor ge-
ometry (e.g., reactor length L, tube diameter d t ,
number of tubes n). For a laminar film of thick-
ness δ
A =n π L (dt −δ) (1)
The increase in film surface area due to wave
formation in the turbulent-flow regime is neg-
ligibly small. Since δ << d t in most cases, the
geometric area of the tube can be used for prac-
tical calculations:
A =nπL dt (2)
Hence the interfacial area per unit reaction vol-
ume is
n πLdt 4
a= = (3)
n π4 Ld 2t dt
If the geometric interfacial area is divided by the
volume of liquid in the film, the ratio is
nπLdt 1
aL = = (4)
nπLdt δ δ
1.2. Fluid Dynamics
With regard to back mixing, the thin-film reactor
is similar to the tubular reactor. Neither the gas
nor the liquid phase shows much back mixing,
and both can be treated as plug flows. Thin-film
reactors are therefore also used when a narrow
residence-time distribution enhances selectivity
and yield. Figure 2 shows typical residence-time
distributions for a number of reactors [1].
 Thin-Film Reactors 3

satisfactory agreement with experimental data

[5].
The following equation generalizes the re-
sults:

1/3
3νL2
δ =b1 Reb2 (7)
g

Table 1 gives the parameters for different flow

regimes.

Table 1. Parameters from Equation (7) for different flow regimes

ReL b1 b2 Author Refer-

Figure 2. Residence-time distribution for different reactors ences
[1]
< 80 1 1/3 Nusselt [4]
a) Laminar falling film (ideal); b) Turbulent falling film; 100 – 420 0.93 1/3 Kapitza [6]
c) Turbulent tubular reactor; d) Film reactor with mechani- > 400 0.435 7/12 Zhivaikin [7]
cally produced film > 420 0.369 1/2 Feind [8]

The residence times of the two phases are

very short, and the liquid holdup is very small.
Both quantities can be calculated easily from the
film thickness and the reactor geometry. The ra-
tio of gas and liquid throughputs in this type of
reactor is usually in the range
m3 m3
10 3
<V̇G /V̇L < 2000 3
m m
If constraints, such as residence time or optimal
reaction conditions, make it necessary to alter
this ratio, an inert gas component can be added
to dilute the reactant gas.
Falling films can be analyzed in three char-
acteristic flow regimes. If the Reynolds number
for the film is defined as
V̇L
ReL =
dt πνL
the boundaries of the regimes are as follows:
ReL ≤ 25 laminar, smooth film
25 < ReL < 400 transition regime, laminar
film
with waves
ReL ≥ 400 turbulent film
For the laminar regime, the velocity distribu-
tion in the falling film can be used in calculating
film thickness [4]. The calculated thickness is in
1.3. Heat Transfer
The great advantage of thin-film reactors is their
large heat-transfer area per unit liquid volume.
The heat-transfer area is roughly the same as the
mass-transfer area (see Eqs. 3 and 4). Such re-
(5) actors are employed, accordingly, for strongly
exothermic and endothermic reactions. Because
these reactions are often accompanied by the ab-
sorption of a gaseous reactant, the evolved heat
of an exothermic reaction and heat of absorption
raise the temperature of the liquid, especially at
the gas – liquid interface, thereby decreasing the
solubility of the gas in the liquid. The absorption
and the reaction rate therefore, strongly depend
on the rate of heat removal.
(6) A compilation and comparison of literature
data on heat transfer for liquid films are given
by Yüksel [9], who determined the heat-trans-
fer and mass-transfer coefficients independently
of each other and measured the film surface tem-
perature by a contactless method. He confirmed
that the turbulence in the film at the surface is
damped, resulting in an additional thermal resis-
tance near the film surface besides the resistance
in the boundary layer of liquid next to the wall
(Fig. 3).
4 Thin-Film Reactors

marked viscosity differences in the film, the tem-

perature dependence of the material parameters
is also introduced.
 0.25
 0.25 Pr
N u = N u4l +N u4t (13)
P rW
Computational equations for heat transfer in
mechanically produced films can be found [1].

1.4. Mass Transfer

Figure 3. Temperature profile of a thin-film reactor for an
exothermic reaction
a) Interface; b) Wall
On the basis of heat-transfer measurements
in condensation on a falling film with a variety
of liquids (2.6 ≤ Pr < 52), plus literature data,
Müller [10] reports the following practical for-
mulas for the mean heat transfer over the film
length:
Laminar film:
Because of the limited transfer area and the short
gas and liquid residence times, thin-film reactors
are best employed only for fast (0.3 < Ha < 3)
or instantaneous (Ha > 3) reactions. Most of the
reaction occurs in the boundary layer, while the
contribution of the bulk liquid phase is negli-
gible. The rate-determining step is accordingly
gas-side mass transfer. For the gas-side local
mass-transfer coefficient β G , which is a func-
tion of the Sherwood number, Braun and Hiby
give the following dimensionless formulas [11]:
Cocurrent flow:
Sh =
 −0.75
L
0.18 Re0.4 0.16
G ReL Sc0.44
G 1 + 6.4 (14)
dt
Countercurrent flow:

N ul = 0.606Re−2/9 (8) Sh =
 −0.75
Turbulent film: L
0.015·Re0.75
G Re0.16
L Sc0.44
G 1 + 5.2 (15)
dt
N ut = 0.0105Re0.35 P r0.43 (9) The last term in Equations (14) and (15) takes
care of the fact that the mass-transfer coeffi-
where
cient declines to a constant final value as reactor
 length increases.
α νif /g3
Nu= (10) For the wiped-film reactor with rotating an-
λif
nular clearance that is operated with gas and liq-
uid ascending cocurrently [12], Broström gives
q̇ the following empirical equation for gas-side
α= (11) mass transfer [13]:
Tif −TW

Sh = 0.079Re0.67 T a0.16 Sc0.52 (16)

νif cp 
Pr= (12) where the Taylor number Ta is defined as
λif
 0.5
dh ωπdi dh
The fourth powers of the laminar and turbulent Ta= · ·ν (17)
d 2 2
contributions can be added. Because poorer heat
transfer in higher-viscosity liquids gives rise to d h is the hydraulic diameter of the annulus and
d i is the internal diameter of the inner cylinder.

Calculations for mass transfer in the liquid
phase can be found, e.g., in [1] and [9]. The dis-
cussion above leads to the concentration curve of
the gaseous component shown in Figure 4. The
entire reaction takes place in the film. The con-
centration of dissolved gas in the bulk liquid ap-
proaches zero. Absorption of the gaseous com-
ponents should therefore be enhanced by the
reaction. Jana and coworkers [14] find corre-
spondingly high enhancement factors, up to 12.
Mann [15], on the other hand, measures en-
hancement factors < 1. This disagreement can
be explained by strong thermal effects, leading
to a temperature rise at the gas – liquid interface
(Fig. 3) and a correspondingly low solubility of
the reactant gas in the reacting liquid.
Figure 4. Concentration of gas in a thin-film reactor for a
fast reaction
a) Interface; b) Wall
1.5. Models
Many publications have dealt with models of
absorption and reaction in films, especially for
the thin-film reactor. Villadsen and Nielsen
[16], [17] give a survey of existing models (ex-
amples are the chlorination of decane and the
Thin-Film Reactors 5
sulfonation of alkylbenzenes) [18], [15]. Jana
and coworkers present a general model for the
countercurrent absorption of gas in a laminar
film with first-order reaction [14]. For the ab-
sorption of carbon dioxide in dilute sodium hy-
droxide solution, Haimour and Sandall show
that the chemosorption process can be precalcu-
lated [19].
Gutiérrez-González and coworkers pro-
pose a special model for the reactions of sulfur
trioxide with alkylbenzenes in a cocurrent setup
[20]. The model is compared with the authors’
experiments. A simple model for cocurrent as-
cending sulfonation in a special wiped-film re-
actor is described by Broström [21].
2. Applications of Thin-Film
Reactors
In industry, film reactors are employed for a
variety of processes involving either strongly
exothermic reactions, where quasi-isothermal
operation is achieved by cooling the reaction
tube, or endothermic reactions, where evapora-
tion or desorption can be achieved only by sup-
plying heat. In the second case, thermodynamic
constraints (vapor – liquid or sorptive equilib-
rium) must be accounted for. For both applica-
tions a high selectivity can be attained only with
precise temperature control avoiding side reac-
tions and sequential reactions.
The most important industrial use of the
falling-film reactor without rotating internals is
the sulfonation of organic products with sulfur
trioxide, but other applications are also men-
tioned frequently in publications and patents. Ta-
ble 2 summarizes the fields in which these reac-
tors are used. The reactions in Table 2 are divided
up with respect to the direction of mass transfer:
absorption with reaction (industrially the most
important form), reaction with superimposed ab-
sorption/desorption (where a tower-type reactor
is more often employed [22]), and reaction with
desorption of a byproduct, e.g., water formed in
esterifications. In reaction-with-desorption pro-
cesses used in polymer chemistry, film reactors
with rotating internals (i.e., vertical or horizon-
tal thin-layer evaporators) are frequently used.
A good survey of fast gas – liquid reactions is
found in [23].
6 Thin-Film Reactors

Table 2. Practical applications of gas – liquid reactions in thin films

without sulfonation/sulfation (see Chap. 4 for data on sulfonation
with SO3 )

Absorption Absorption and Desorption

desorption
Chlorination of countercurrent esterification,
hydrocarbons [15] esterification of transesterification
fatty acids with [26]
short-chain
alcohols [26]
Oxidation [23] polycondensation
(polyesters) [1]
Nitration [24]
Neutralization, (e.g., of Vilsmeier reaction
CO2 ) [19] [27]
Alkylation of isobutane polymerization
with butene in solvent (polyamide 66) [28]
containing catalyst [25]

3. Designs and Operating Modes of

Thin-Film Reactors
Many possible designs and modes of operation
are described in the literature. Most of them find
use only in the laboratory.
Figures 5,6,7,8 show examples of designs.
The falling-film reactor illustrated in Figure 5 Figure 5. Ballestra falling-film sulfonation reactor [29]
as a cocurrent multitube apparatus [29], requires
good liquid distribution to form the liquid film.
In addition, the viscosity must not increase much
during the reaction.
The surface area of the single-tube falling-
film apparatus is optimally utilized in the form
of an annulus reactor [30], [31], since both the
inner wall of the outer pipe and the outer wall
of the inner pipe serve as reaction surfaces. In-
ternals that swirl the gas stream give improved
mass transfer, at least in the laboratory [32]. A
corresponding thin-film reactor design, operated
with gas and liquid ascending cocurrently, is the
rising-film reactor [33].
For high-viscosity products, film reactors
with rotating internals are employed. The inter-
nals can be installed either vertically or horizon-
tally. Figure 6 shows an annulus reactor (Votator)
[12] in which the gas and the liquid are fed in
from below cocurrently. To improve mass trans-
fer inside the liquid film, the rotating inner pipe
is fitted with many small pins.
Figure 6. Berol Kemi annulus reactor with rotating inner
pipe (Votator) [12]
 Thin-Film Reactors 7

A wiped-film reactor for countercurrent op-

eration is shown in Figure 7. This device is used
for reactions with superimposed absorption and
possibly desorption, e.g., esterification of vis-
cous fatty acids with short-chain alcohols.
Figure 8 illustrates a wiped-film reactor with
specially designed wiper elements, intended for
use with high-viscosity liquids (up to 80 Pa · s)
[34]. This reactor is employed for reactions with
desorption in polymer production.

4. Thin-Film Reactors for Industrial

Sulfonation
The literature contains many publications on the
preparation of surfactants by sulfonating and
sulfating organic feedstocks with sulfur trioxide.
Along with the chlorination of hydrocarbons, the
sulfonation of alkylbenzenes and the sulfation of
fatty alcohols have served as test systems for the
development of film reactors. Selected publica-
tions on sulfonation of different organic feed- Figure 7. Thin-film reactor for countercurrent operation
stocks with sulfur trioxide in film reactors of (schematic)
a) Heating jacket; b) Rotor
various types are listed below:
Petroleum distillates, crude oils [35]
α-Olefins [30], [36], [37]
Isoolefins [38]
Alkylbenzene [12], [36], [37], [39]
Ethoxylated alkylphenol [36]
Fatty alcohol [32], [33], [36], [37]
Ethoxylated fatty alcohol [30], [33], [36], [37]
Methyl esters [37], [40], [41]

The most important sulfonation feedstocks

today are alkylbenzenes, α-olefins, and fatty al-
cohols and their derivatives:
Alkylbenzenes

α-Olefins

R–CH=CH2 + SO3 → R–CH=CH—

—
( CH2 —
) n SO3 H

Fatty alcohols

R–OH + SO3 → R–OSO3 H

Fatty alcohol ethoxylates

Figure 8. Buss-SMS wiped-film reactor for high-viscosity
( OC2 H4 —
R—
— ) n OH + SO3 → R—
—
( OC2 H4 —
) n OSO3 H liquids (polymer production) [34]
8 Thin-Film Reactors

The sulfonic acids or alkylsulfuric acids ob- reaction. This effect, however, certainly results
tained are then neutralized to the desired alkali from further dilution of the sulfur trioxide gas
salts (mainly sodium salts). by air, and the reduction in concentration could
Organic feedstocks are very sensitive to for- just as well be performed before the gas inlet to
mation of degradation products (oversulfona- the reactor.
tion); these byproducts lead to discoloration or
impurities in the products. The feedstocks are
therefore reacted with gaseous sulfur trioxide
cocurrently, in proportions as close as possible
to equimolar. Sulfonation reactions are strongly
exothermic (∆H ≈ −150 kJ/mol), and the heat
of reaction must be removed quickly from the
liquid phase. Not all products of the reaction
with sulfur trioxide are stable so they must
be neutralized immediately after the sulfona-
tion/sulfation reaction. Examples of such prod-
ucts are alkylsulfuric acids formed from fatty
alcohols and sulfur trioxide.
Thin-film reactors ideally satisfy the two
principal requirements for sulfonation reactions:
short residence time of reactants in the reactor
and good removal of heat of reaction from the
reactor. Both single-tube and multitube reactors
are used for this process.
In single-tube reactors, diluted sulfur triox-
ide gas is led into the annular clearance formed
by two concentric pipes. The liquid film flows
down the respective inner and outer surfaces of
the pipes. Each pipe has intensive cooling on Figure 9. Schematic diagram of one tube in a Mazzoni mul-
titube reactor [43]
the side away from the liquid film. A typical re-
presentative of such single-tube reactors is the
Chemithon reactor [42]. Along with the development of hardware,
Multitube reactors have frequently been more stringent product quality standards have
used since the 1980s and have up to 120 in- also led to changes in reaction conditions. For
dividual reaction tubes, the organic feedstock example, the sulfur trioxide concentration in the
being fed to the inner surface of each. After the process gas has been decreased to allow better
liquid film has formed, diluted sulfur trioxide handling of the heat of reaction. The dewpoint
gas is fed to each reaction tube. The heat of of the process air has also been lowered so that
reaction is removed just as if the reactor were a the formation of oleum from residual moisture
vertical shell-and-tube heat exchanger. Figure 5 can be minimized. Table 3 lists the ranges of the
shows the Ballestra multitube reactor [29]. The most important reaction parameters.
Mazzoni multitube reactor has a special feature
Table 3. Operating parameters of sulfonation reactors
[43]: After the feedstock is admitted, air is blown
into each reaction tube to spread out the liquid, Parameter Single-tube Multitube reactor
thus promoting the formation of a uniform film reactor
of organic liquid. Only when this step is com- Number of tubes 1 4 – 200
plete is sulfur trioxide gas admitted. As shown in Tube diameter, mm 150 – 1000 25.4
Tube length, mm ca. 3000 ca. 6000
Figure 9, each reaction tube has a double wall so
V̇ G , m3 /h (STP) 2000 – 7000 20 – 70 per tube
that it can be cooled separately. It is sometimes ṁL , kg/h 150 – 3500 18 – 36 per tube
argued that the equalizing air would retard the Dewpoint of air, ◦ C − 60 to − 80 − 60 to − 80
transport of sulfur trioxide to the reaction site SO3 , vol % 2–7 2–7
and thus reduce local overheating due to the fast

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