DETAILED REPORT ON HARDNESS TEST

1
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 5
BRIEF INTRODUCTION ABOUT ME -: ............................................................................................................. 5
MY DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES AT RINE ENGINEERING PVT LIMITED,BADDI,INDIA -: .......................... 6
ABOUT UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE ........................................................................................................ 9
COMPONENTS OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE ....................................................................................... 9
STEPS FOR USING UTM ............................................................................................................................... 14
OBJECTIVE ................................................................................................................................................... 17
LITREATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................................... 17
STRESS AND STRAIN RELATIONSHIP ........................................................................................................... 20
YOUNG'S MODULUS, E................................................................................................................................ 22
ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH, ΣTS ............................................................................................................ 25
FRACTURE STRENGTH, ΣF............................................................................................................................ 26
TENSILE DUCTILITY ...................................................................................................................................... 27
WORK HARDENING EXPONENT, N .............................................................................................................. 27
MODULUS OF RESILIENCE, UR .................................................................................................................... 29
TENSILE TOUGHNESS, UT ............................................................................................................................ 29
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT..................................................................................................................... 34
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE ...................................................................................................................... 34
TENSILE TEST EXAMPLE............................................................................................................................... 35
CALCULATION FOR ALUMINUM SPECIMEN ................................................................................................ 36
THEORY ....................................................................................................................................................... 38
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................................... 39
HARDNESS TEST: ......................................................................................................................................... 39
ABOUT BRINELL HARDNESS TEST................................................................................................................ 41
COMPONENT OF BRINELL HARDNESS TESTER ............................................................................................ 41
STEPS FOR CONDUCTING HARDNESS TEST ................................................................................................. 43
OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................................................. 44

2|Page
INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENT ............................................................................................................... 44
PROCEDURE OF THE EXPERIMENT .............................................................................................................. 48
RESULTS, COMPUTATIONS AND GRAPHWORK .......................................................................................... 48
DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS ..................................................................................................................... 49
CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................................... 50
VICKERS HARDNESS TEST ............................................................................................................................ 52
THEORY ....................................................................................................................................................... 52
STEPS FOR CONDUCTING TEST ................................................................................................................... 52
OBJECTIVE ................................................................................................................................................... 53
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 53
MATERIAL & METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................... 55
PROCEDURE ................................................................................................................................................ 56
GENERAL PROCEDURE: ............................................................................................................................... 56
RESULTS & DISCUSSION .............................................................................................................................. 57
RESULTS ...................................................................................................................................................... 57
CALCULATIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 57
DISCUSSION................................................................................................................................................. 59
ANSWERS FOR QUESTIONS: ........................................................................................................................ 59
CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................................... 60
LIMITATION AND ERROR OF THE EXPERIMENT .......................................................................................... 61
LIMITATIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 61
ERRORS........................................................................................................................................................ 61
PRECAUTIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 61

3|Page
ABSTRACT
Hi I am Rajesh Bain. This report by me is for giving a detailed idea of my experiences and knowledge that

I have gained while working in Rine Engineering Pvt Limited,Baddi,India from 1996 to 1997.

These reports include -:

1. Detailed steps required to check Ultimate tensile strength using universal testing machine of

any specimen,

2. Steps to check and record Brinell hardness of specimen,

3. Detailed explanation for Vicker Hardness test

4. Detailed explanation to test Rockwell hardness.

In this report I have tried my best to summarize all the things that I have learnt during my stay at Rine

Engineering Pvt Limited,Baddi,India , in simple and effective manner. After going through this report

we can learn the steps involved in process mentioned above also learn how to extract data from the

report to make it useful practically in any firm.

This report can be used as a guide to perform above mentioned test but before doing this reader should

verify the information in these report with standard practices as mentioned in various codes books of

their respective regions.

4|Page
INTRODUCTION

Brief Introduction about Rine Engineering Pvt Limited,Baddi,India

Rine Engineering Pvt Limited,Baddi,India is Manufacturer and supplier of customized sand and grey

iron. Established in 1991 at Baddi. They are ISO 9001: 2000. JAS –ANZ and RDSO certified company.

Indian railways, Bharat Heavy electrical Limited, BEML are some of their prestigious client, Rigorous

Quality test, and Excellent packing solutions and dimensional accuracy make them unique in the

industry. They offer wide array of steel, Grey Iron and SG Iron casting. Steel Casting Grades offered by

them are well known for their durability and reliability. They also provide steel casting that are highly

efficient. Along with that they offer steel casting for LHB bogie , They are highly instrumental in

presenting a wide spectrum of grey Iron casting to our esteemed client , Our SG Iron Casting are

available at market leading prices.

BRIEF INTRODUCTION ABOUT ME -:

5|Page
MY DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES AT RINE ENGINEERING PVT
LIMITED,BADDI,INDIA -:
At Rine Engineering Pvt Limited,Baddi,India I was appointed as Quality control engineer and my duties

were as follows -:

Analyze process quality performance data for company facilities and provide

guidance/input into performance improvements

To check & record Ultimate tensile strength using Universal testing machine (UTM) of

specimen/sample castings after annealing.

To check & record the Brinell Hardness (BHN) of specimen/sample castings

after annealing. The load is applied manually and the indentation is read with the help of

a Brinell Microscope.

I have used Rockwell & Vickers hardness testing techniques also in some cases to check

the hardness of sample castings

Perform internal audits with the objective to help plant find and correct quality gaps

Investigation and problem solving through root cause analysis for internal and external

quality concerns with focus on permanent corrective actions

Ensure all products are manufactured in compliance with customer specifications, safety

standards and design specifications. Recommend corrective actions necessary to ensure

conformity with specifications and standards.

Ensure Corporate Quality processes are followed.

Drive quality improvements utilizing root cause analysis, process reviews and

improvements, corrective actions, statistical process control, in-process and final

inspections, control gauges and test equipment, quality plans and overall quality

communications.

6|Page
 Evaluate and determine disposition of non-conforming materials and formulate

corrective actions.

Communicate with customer service, supplier quality, production engineering and

manufacturing personnel/management

7|Page
8|Page
 ABOUT UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
A universal testing machine (UTM), also known as a universal tester , materials testing

machine or materials test frame, is used to test the tensile strength and compressive

strength of materials. It is named after the fact that it can perform many standard tensile and

compression tests on materials, components, and structures.

COMPONENTS OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

Load frame - Usually consisting of two strong supports for the machine. Some small

Machines have a single support.

Figure – Load frame of UTM

9|Page
 Load cell - A force transducer or other means of measuring the load is required.

Periodic calibration is usually required by governing regulations or quality system.

Figure – Load cell of UTM

Cross head - A movable cross head (crosshead) is controlled to move up or down. Usually

this is at a constant speed: sometimes called a constant rate of extension (CRE) machine.

Some machines can program the crosshead speed or conduct cyclical testing, testing at

constant force, testing at constant deformation, etc. Electromechanical, servo-hydraulic,

linear drive and resonance drive are used.

Figure – Cross head of UTM

10 | P a g e
 Means of measuring extension or deformation - Many tests require a measure of the

response of the test specimen to the movement of the cross head. Extensometers are

sometimes used.

Figure- Extensometer

11 | P a g e
 Output device - A means of providing the test result is needed. Some older machines

have dial or digital displays and chart recorders. Many newer machines have a computer

interface for analysis and printing.

Figure – Output device

12 | P a g e
 Conditioning - Many tests require controlled conditioning (temperature, humidity,

pressure, etc.). The machine can be in a controlled room or a special environmental

chamber can be placed around the test specimen for the test.

Figure – Room for UTM

Test fixtures, specimen holding jaws, and related sample making equipment are called for

in many test methods.

13 | P a g e
STEPS FOR USING UTM
The set-up and usage are detailed in a test method, often published by a standards

organization. This specifies the sample preparation, fixturing, gauge length (the length

which is under study or observation), analysis, etc. In India Bureau of Indian Standard

publishes IS 1828-1 (2002), IS 1828-2 (2002) and ISO 5893 Rubber and plastics test

equipment - Tensile, flexural and compression types (constant rate of traverse) –

Specification for this purpose.

The specimen is placed in the machine between the grips and an extensometer if

required can automatically record the change in gauge length during the test. If an

extensometer is not fitted, the machine itself can record the displacement between its

cross heads on which the specimen is held. However, this method not only records the

change in length of the specimen but also all other extending / elastic components of the

testing machine and its drive systems including any slipping of the specimen in the grips.

Once the machine is started it begins to apply an increasing load on specimen.

Throughout the tests the control system and its associated software record the load and

extension or compression of the specimen.

Machines range from very small table top systems to ones with over 53 MN (12

million lbf) capacities

14 | P a g e
SOME GENERAL SPECIFICATION OF UTM

MODEL - UTN-10 UTN-20 UTN-40 UTN-60 UTN-100 UTN-200 UTN-

300
Maximum capacity kN 100 200 400 600 1000 2000 3000

1st Measuring Range kN 0-100 0-200 0-400 0-600 0-1000 0-2000 0-3000

Minimum Graduations kN 0.2 0.4 1 1 2 4 5

2nd Measuring Range kN 0.50 0-100 0-200 0-300 0-500 0-1000 0-1500

Minimum Graduations kN 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.5 1 2 2.5

3rd Measuring Range kN 0.25 0-50 0-100 0-120 0-250 0-500 0-600

Minimum Graduations kN 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.2 0.5 1 1

4th Measuring Range kN 0.10 0-20 0-40 0-60 0-100 0-200 0-300

Minimum Graduations kN 0.02 0.04 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5

Clearance for tensile at mm 50-700 50-700 50-700 50-800 50-850 50-900 50-900
fully descended
working piston
Clearance for mm 0-700 0-700 0-700 0-800 0-850 0-900 0-900
compression test at fully
descended working
piston
Clearance between mm 500 500 500 600 750 850 850
columns
Ram stroke mm 150 200 200 250 250 300 300

Straining/piston speeds mm/min 0-300 0-150 0-150 0-100 0-80 0-45 0-50
(at no load)
CONNECTED LOAD - - - - - - - -

HP - 1.3 1.3 2.3 2.5 3.5 6.5 8.5

V - 400-440 400-440 400-440 400-440 400-440 400-440 400-

440
- 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

DIMENSIONS - - - - - - - -

L X W X H (approx.) mm 2032 x 2032 x 2060 x 2065 x 2415 x 3000 x 3500 x

750 x 750 x 750 x 750 x 815 x 1200 x 1900 x
1960 x 1960 x 2180 x 2534 x 2900 x 3600 x 4550 x
Weight approx. kg 1500 1500 2500 3500 5500 12 500 22 000

STANDARD - - - - - - - -
ACCESSORIES
FOR TENSION TEST - - - - - - - -

Clampings jaws for flat mm 10-20 10-20 10-25 10-25 10-25 20-40 25-50
specimens diameter 25-40 25-45 20-60 50-70
20-30 20-30 25-40 40-55 45-70 60-80 70-90

15 | P a g e
 Clampings jaws for flat mm 0-10 0-10 0-15 0-15 0-22 0-20 0-25
specimens 10-20 10-20 15-30 15-30 22-44 20-45 25-50
thickness width 44-65 45-70 50-75
50 50 65 70 70 90 100
FOE COMPRESSION mm - - - - - - -
TEST
Pair of compression mm 120 120 120 120 160 220 220
plates of diameter
FOR TRANSVERSE TEST mm - - - - - - -

Table with adjustable mm 160 160 160 160 160 200 200
rollers width of rollers
Diameter of rollers mm 30 30 30 50 50 70 70

Maximum clearance mm 500 500 500 600 800 900 1000

between supports
Radius of punch tops mm 6,12 6,12 12, 16 16, 22 16, 22 30, 40 50, 75

16 | P a g e
OBJECTIVE
• Although UTM can be used for many purpose but my main objective in firm was to uniaxial testing of

the test specimen to get the ultimate tensile strength of the specimen.

• To get load extension and stress strain graph for the materials to be tested.

• To evaluate the values of ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, % elongation, fracture strain and

Young's Modulus of the selected metals when subjected to uniaxial tensile loading.

• To study the deformation and fracture characteristics of different materials such as aluminum, steels

or brass when subjected to uniaxial tensile loading.

LITREATURE REVIEW
UNIAXIAL TENSILE TESTING

Uniaxial tensile test is known as a basic and universal engineering test to achieve material parameters

such as ultimate strength, yield strength, % elongation, % area of reduction and Young's modulus. These

important parameters obtained from the standard tensile testing are useful for the selection of

engineering materials for any applications required. The tensile testing is carried out by applying

longitudinal or axial load at a specific extension rate to a standard tensile specimen with known

dimensions (gauge length and cross sectional area perpendicular to the load direction) till failure. The

applied tensile load and extension are recorded during the test for the calculation of stress and strain. A

range of universal standards provided by Professional societies such as American Society of Testing and

Materials (ASTM), British standard, JIS standard and DIN standard provides testing are selected based on

preferential uses. Each standard may contain a variety of test standards suitable for different materials,

dimensions and fabrication history. For instance, ASTM E8: is a standard test method for tension testing

of metallic materials and ASTM B557 is standard test methods of tension testing wronght and cast

17 | P a g e
aluminum and magnesium alloy products A standard specimen is prepared in a round or a square

section along the gauge length as shown in figures respectively, depending on the standard used.

Figure – Standard specimen

Both ends of the specimens should have sufficient length and a surface condition such that they are

firmly gripped during testing. The initial gauge length Lo is standardized (in several countries) and varies

with the diameter (Do ) or the cross-sectional area (Ao ) of the specimen as listed in table 1.

Type specimen United State Great Britain Germany India

(ASTM)

4.5 5.65 11.3 4.5

Sheet

4.0 5.0 10.0 4

Rod

Table 1

This is because if the gauge length is too long, the % elongation might be underestimated in this case.

Any heat treatments should be applied on to the specimen prior to machining to produce the final

specimen readily for testing. This has been done to prevent surface oxide scales that might act as stress

18 | P a g e
concentration which might subsequently affect the final tensile properties due to premature failure.

There might be some exceptions, for examples, surface hardening or surface coating on the materials.

These processes should be employed after specimen machining in order to obtain the tensile properties

results which include the actual specimen surface conditions.

Dimensional relationships of tensile specimens used in different countries. The equipment used for

tensile testing ranges from simple devices to complicated controlled systems. The so-called universal

testing machines are commonly used, which are driven by mechanical screw or hydraulic systems.

Figure 2 a) illustrates a relatively simple screw-driven machine using large two screws to apply the load

whereas figure 2 b) shows a hydraulic testing machine using the pressure of oil in a piston for load

supply. These types of machines can be used not only for tension, but also for compression, bending and

torsion tests. A more modernized closed-loop servo-hydraulic machine provides variations of load,

strain, or testing machine motion (stroke) using a combination of actuator rod and piston. Most of the

machines used nowadays are linked to a computer-controlled system in which the load and extension

data can be graphically displayed together with the calculations of stress and strain. General techniques

utilized for measuring loads and displacements employs sensors providing electrical signals. Load cells

are used for measuring the load applied while strain gauges are used for strain measurement. A Change

in a linear dimension is proportional to the change in electrical voltage of the strain gauge attached on

to the specimen.

19 | P a g e
 Figure : Schematics showing a) a screw driven machine and b) a hydraulic testing machine

STRESS AND STRAIN RELATIONSHIP

When a specimen is subjected to an external tensile loading, the metal will undergo elastic and plastic

deformation. Initially, the metal will elastically deform giving a linear relationship of load and extension.

These two parameters are then used for the calculation of the engineering stress and engineering strain

to give a relationship as illustrated in figure below using equations 1 and 2 as follows

20 | P a g e
where σ is the engineering stress ε is the engineering strain

P is the external axial tensile load

Ao is the original cross-sectional area of the specimen

Lo is the original length of the specimen

Lf is the final length of the specimen.

The unit of the engineering stress is Pascal (Pa) or N/m2 according to the SI Metric Unit whereas the unit

of psi (pound per square inch) can also be used.

Figure – Stress-strain relationship under uniaxial tensile loading

21 | P a g e
YOUNG'S MODULUS, E
During elastic deformation, the engineering stress-strain relationship follows the Hook's Law and the

slope of the curve indicates the Young's modulus

Young's modulus is of importance where deflection of materials is critical for the required engineering

applications. This is for examples: deflection in structural beams is considered to be crucial for the

design in engineering components or structures such as bridges, building, ships, etc. The applications of

tennis racket and golf club also require specific values of spring constants or Young's modulus values.

YIELD STRENGTH, ΣY

By considering the stress-strain curve beyond the elastic portion, if the tensile loading continues,

yielding occurs at the beginning of plastic deformation. The yield stress, σy , can be obtained by dividing

the load at yielding (Py ) by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen (Ao ) as shown in equation

22 | P a g e
The yield point can be observed directly from the load-extension curve of the BCC metals such as iron

and steel or in polycrystalline titanium and molybdenum, and especially low carbon steels, see figure 3

a). The yield point elongation phenomenon shows the upper yield point followed by a sudden reduction

in the stress or load till reaching the lower yield point. At the yield point elongation, the specimen

continues to extend without a significant change in the stress level. Load increment is then followed

with increasing strain. This yield point phenomenon is associated with a small amount of interstitial or

substitution atoms. This is for example in the case of low-carbon steels, which have small atoms of

carbon and nitrogen present as impurities. When the dislocations are pinned by these solute atoms, the

stress is raised in order to overcome the breakaway stress required for the pulling of dislocation line

from the solute atoms. This dislocation pinning is related to the upper yield point as indicated in figure 4

a). If the dislocation line is free from the solute atoms, the stress required to move the dislocations then

suddenly drops, which is associated with the lower yield point. Furthermore, it was found that the

degree of the yield point effect is affected by the amounts of the solute atoms and is also influenced by

the interaction energy between the solute atoms and the dislocations.

.Aluminum on the other hand having a FCC crystal structure does not show the definite yield point in

comparison to those of the BCC structure materials, but shows a smooth engineering stress strain curve.

The yield strength therefore has to be calculated from the load at 0.2% strain divided by the original

cross-sectional area as follows

Note: the yield strength values can also be obtained at 0.5 and 1.0% strain.

23 | P a g e
The determination of the yield strength at 0.2% offset or 0.2% strain can be carried out by drawing a

straight line parallel to the slope of the stress-strain curve in the linear section, having an intersection on

the x-axis at a strain equal to 0.002 as illustrated in figure 3 b). An interception between the 0.2% offset

line and the stress-strain curve represents the yield strength at 0.2% offset or 0.2% strain. However

offset at different values can also be made depending on specific uses: for instance; at 0.1 or 0.5%

offset. The yield strength of soft materials exhibiting no linear portion to their stress-strain curve such as

soft copper or gray cast iron can be defined as the stress at the corresponding total strain, for example,

ε = 0005. The yield strength, which indicates the onset of plastic deformation, is considered to be vital

for engineering structural or component designs where safety factors are normally used as shown in

equation 6. For instance, if the allowable working strength σw = 500 MPa to be employed with a safety

factor of 1.8, the material with a yield strength of 900 MPa should be selected. It should be noted that

the yield strength value can also be replaced by the ultimate tensile strength, σTS , for engineering

designs. Safety factors are based on several considerations; the accuracy of the applied loads used in the

structural or components, estimation of deterioration, and the consequences of failed structures (loss of

life, financial, economical loss, etc.) Generally, buildings require a safety factor of 2, which is rather low

since the load calculation has been well understood. Automobiles has safety factor of 2 while pressure

vessels utilize safety factors of 3-4.

24 | P a g e
Figure: Comparative stress-strain relationships of low carbon steel and aluminum alloy and b) the

determination of the yield strength at 0.2% offset.

ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH, ΣTS

Beyond yielding, continuous loading leads to an increase in the stress required to permanently deform

the specimen as shown in the engineering stress-strain curve. At this stage, the specimen is strain

hardened or work hardened. The degree of strain hardening depends on the nature of the deformed

materials, crystal structure and chemical composition, which affects the dislocation motion. FCC

structure materials having a high number of operating slip systems can easily slip and create a high

density of dislocations. Tangling of these dislocations requires higher stress to uniformly and plastically

deform the specimen, therefore resulting in strain hardening.

25 | P a g e
If the load is continuously applied, the stress-strain curve will reach the maximum point, which is the

ultimate tensile strength (UTS, σTS). At this point, the specimen can withstand the highest stress before

necking takes place. This can be observed by a local reduction in the cross sectional area of the

specimen generally observed in the centre of the gauge length as illustrated in figure 5.

Figure: Necking of a tensile specimen occurring prior to fracture

FRACTURE STRENGTH, ΣF
After necking, plastic deformation is not uniform and the stress decreases accordingly until fracture. The

fracture strength (σfracture) can be calculated from the load at fracture divided by the original cross-

sectional area, Ao , as expressed in equation 7.

26 | P a g e
TENSILE DUCTILITY
Tensile ductility of the specimen can be represented as % elongation or % reduction in area as expressed

in the equations given below

The fracture strain of the specimen can be obtained by drawing a straight line starting at the fracture

point of the stress-strain curve parallel to the slope in the linear relation. The interception of the parallel

line at the x axis indicates the fracture strain of the specimen being tested.

WORK HARDENING EXPONENT, N

Furthermore, material behavior beyond the elastic region where stress-strain relationship is no longer

linear (uniform plastic deformation) can be shown as a power law expression as follows

Where σ is the true stress

ε is the true strain n is the strain-hardening exponent

K is the strength coefficient.

27 | P a g e
The strain-hardening exponent values, n, of most metals range between 0.1-0.5, which can be estimated

from a slope of a log true stress-log true strain plot up to the maximum load as shown in figure 5.

Equation 10 can then be written as follows

While n is the slope (m) and the K value indicates the value of the true stress at the true strain equal to

unity as illustrated in figure 6.

Figure: Slope of log true stress- log true strain curve up to the ultimate tensile strength indicating the

work hardening exponent

High value of the strain-hardening exponent indicates an ability of a metal to be readily plastically

deformed under applied stresses. This is also corresponding with a large area under the stress-strain

curve up to the maximum load. This power law expression has been modified variably according to

materials of interest especially for steels and stainless steels

28 | P a g e
MODULUS OF RESILIENCE, UR
Apart from tensile parameters mentioned previously, analysis of the area under the stress strain curve

can give informative material behavior and properties. By considering the area under the stress-strain

curve in the elastic region (triangular area) as illustrated in figure 7,

Figure: Area under the stress-strain curve of high carbon spring steel and structural steel

This area represents the stored elastic energy or resilience. The latter is the ability of the materials to

store elastic energy which is measured as a modulus of resilience, UR , as follows

The significance of this parameter is considered by looking at the application of mechanical springs

which requires high yield stress and low Young's modulus.

For example, high carbon spring steel has the modulus of resilience of 2250 kPa while that of medium

carbon steel is only 232 kPa.

TENSILE TOUGHNESS, UT
Tensile toughness, UT , can be considered as the area under the entire stress-strain curve which

indicates the ability of the material to absorb energy in the plastic region. In other words, tensile

toughness is the ability of the material to withstand the external applied forces without experiencing

29 | P a g e
failure. Engineering applications that requires high tensile toughness is for example gear, chains and

crane hooks, etc. The tensile toughness can be estimated from an expression as follows

Fracture characteristics of the tested specimens Metals with good ductility normally exhibit a so-called

cup and cone fracture characteristic observed on either halves of a broken specimen as illustrated in

figure 8.

Figure: Cup and cone fracture

30 | P a g e
Necking starts when the stress-strain curve has passed the maximum point where plastic deformation is

no longer uniform. Across the necking area within the specimen gauge length (normally located in the

middle), micro voids are formed, enlarged and then merged to each other as the load is increased. This

creates a crack having a plane perpendicular to the applied tensile stress. Just before the specimen

breaks, the shear plane of approximately 45 degree to the tensile axis is formed along the peripheral of

the specimen. This shear plane then joins with the former crack to generate the cup and cone fracture

as demonstrated in figure 8.

Figure: Cup and cone fracture

31 | P a g e
The rough or fibrous fracture surfaces appear in grey by naked eyes. Under SEM, copious amounts of

micro voids are observed as depicted in figure 9.

Figure: Ductile fracture surface (Ductile metals) Figure 10: Brittle fracture surface (Brittle metals)

This type of fracture surface signifies high energy absorption during the fracture process due to large

amount of plastic deformation taking place, also indicating good tensile ductility. Metals such as

aluminum and copper normally exhibit ductile fracture behavior due to a high number of slips systems

available for plastic deformation. For brittle metals or metals that failed at relatively low temperatures,

the fracture surfaces usually appear bright and consist of flat areas of brittle facets when examined

under SEM as illustrated in figure 10.

Figure: Brittle fracture surface (Brittle metals)

32 | P a g e
In some cases, clusters of these brittle facets are visible when the grain size of the metal is sufficiently

large. The energy absorption is quite small in this case which indicates relatively low tensile ductility due

to limited amount of plastic deformation prior to failure.

In summary, tensile properties should be considered as important design parameters for the selection of

engineering materials for their desired application.

Table - Tensile properties of metals

33 | P a g e
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
Tensile specimens

Micrometer or vernia calipers or extensometer

Universal testing machine

Stereoscope

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The specimens provided are made of aluminum, steel and brass. Measure and record specimen

dimensions (diameter and gauge length) in a table provided for the calculation of the

engineering stress and engineering strain. Marking the location of the gauge length along the

parallel length of each specimen for subsequent observation of necking and strain

measurement.

Fit the specimen on to the universal Testing Machine (UTM) and carry on testing. Record load

and extension for the construction of stress-strain curve of each tested specimen.

Calculate Young's modulus, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, fracture strain, %

elongation and % area of reduction of each specimen and record on the provided table.

Analyze the fracture surfaces of broken specimens using stereoscope, sketch and describe the

results. Discuss the experimental results and give conclusions.

34 | P a g e
TENSILE TEST EXAMPLE
Below I am presenting the tensile test result obtained from UTM of a aluminum specimen. The

entire standard mentioned above where taken into consideration to perform this test.

Figure – Tensile test graph obtained from UTM (load vs elongation graph)

35 | P a g e
 Figure – Tensile test graph obtained from UTM (load vs elongation graph)

CALCULATION FOR ALUMINUM SPECIMEN

Initial length of specimen = Lo = 100mm

Yield strength = 85.59 kN

Ultimate tensile strength = 108.8731628

Fracture strength = 137.755N

36 | P a g e
37 | P a g e
THEORY
Hardness is the property of a material (metal) by virtue of its ability to resist abrasion,

indentation (or penetration) and scratching by harder bodies. It is the resistance of a material to

permanent deformation of the surface. In other words, one can define it as the resistance of the

metal to penetration by an indenter. The hardness of a surface of the material is, of course, a

direct result of inter-atomic forces acting on the surface of the Material. We must note that

hardness is not a fundamental property of a material, however, but rather a combined effect of

compressive, elastic and plastic properties relative to the mode of penetration, shape of

penetrator, etc. Hardness seems to bear a fairly constant relationship to the tensile strength of a

given material and thus it can be used as a practical non-destructive test for an approximate

idea of the value of that property and the state of the metal near the surface. All hardness tests

are made on the surface or close to it. We may note that in mechanical tests the bulk of material

is involved. Sometimes, hardness is expressed in terms of macro-hardness and micro-hardness.

The macro hardness of material relates to its resistance to larger volume displacements in

plastic deformation, whereas micro hardness is the hardness of the materials in microscopically

small volumes e.g. in grain boundaries. Hardness of materials is of importance for dies and

punches, limit gauges, cutting tools, bearing surfaces etc. Softness of a material is opposite

extreme of hardness. On heating all materials become soft

38 | P a g e
 ABSTRACT
HARDNESS TEST:
This is essentially the resistance of the surface of a material to deformation. There is no absolute

scale for hardness. The commonly used tests for hardness are:

(a) Brinell hardness test

(b) Vickers hardness test

(c) Rockwell hardness test

(d) Rebound hardness test

(e) Scratch test

In this report I have dealt about Brinell , Vicker and Rockwell hardness test.

39 | P a g e
40 | P a g e
ABOUT BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
Brinell hardness tester is a apparatus to test the hardness of any specimen against abrasion,

scratches etc. In this tester a small metallic ball of specific diameter is pressed against the

specimen with specific load for specific time and the impression made on the specimen by the

small metallic ball is used to determine the hardness of the material.

COMPONENT OF BRINELL HARDNESS TESTER

Pressure Gauge – Pressure gauge is a instrument to measure pressure applied by the

brinell hardness tester.

Figure- Pressure Gauge

Hydraulic actuating unit – This units works together to generate force or pressure that is

used to measure the hardness of the specimen

Figure- Hydraulic actuating unit

41 | P a g e
 Lever for applying pressure – This is just a rotating arm or control which controls how

much pressure is applied on the test specimen.

Figure- Lever

Hardened steel ball – It’s the ball that applies pressure to the test specimen to make

impression on the specimen. It’s made of hardened steel or carbide.

Figure- Hardened steel Ball along with penetrator

Penetrator – As you can see the figure a penetrator is housing for the hardened ball so

in which hardened ball is secured so that it doesn’t get displaced while hardness test is

being conducted.

42 | P a g e
STEPS FOR CONDUCTING HARDNESS TEST
The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter

hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer materials the load can

be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation. The full load is normally applied

for 10 to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other

metals. The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is measured with a low powered

microscope. The Brinell harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface

area of the indentation.

The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right angles and the use of a

Brinell hardness number table can simplify the determination of the Brinell hardness. A well

structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and looks like this, "75 HB

10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a 10mm diameter

hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a period of 30 seconds. On tests of

extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. Compared to the

other hardness test methods, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the

test averages the hardness over a wider amount of material, which will more accurately account

for multiple grain structures and any irregularities in the uniformity of the material. This method

is the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a material, particularly those materials

with heterogeneous structures.

43 | P a g e
 In the experiment, Brinell hardness test was used in attempt to examine the relation of the

deformation of metal specimen to the hardness property of a metal. Using a hardened steel ball

fixed unto a Brinell Hardness Test machine demonstrated in the experimental setup diagram.

The specimen was mounted unto the machine and the machine was loaded with equivalent

loads as indicated by the experimental procedure. The results were measured by help of a

microscope, recorded, and tabulated. The results were used to plot graphical curves using the

Microsoft excel spreadsheet package. The analysis and discussion of the results was done in

relation to the preset theory. Deductions were made, conclusion derived from discussion of the

analyzed results and recommendations put forward in response to errors encountered during

the experiment.

OBJECTIVES
1. To examine deformation of metal specimen when hardened steel specimen is pressed into it

under different normal loads.

2. To use the indentations to determine the properties of a metal.

INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENT
The Brinell hardness test is a simple, quick and non destructive test that can be performed on a

small piece of material that’s too small to machine a tensile/compressive test specimen out of it.

On a piece of metal that’s needed to be preserved for future use. When there is no time to

prepare for tensile/compressive test. Therefore, in this experiment report on INDENTATION OF

A METAL BY A BALL, we use a steel ball, following the standard procedure for performance of

Brinell hardness test to determine some mechanical properties of two metal specimens i.e. steel

and aluminum.

44 | P a g e
 Brinell hardness number is the hardness index, calculated by pressing a hardened steel ball

(indenter) into test specimen under standardized load. Brinell hardness tests are used to

determine hardness of metallic materials, to check quality level of products, for uniformity of

samples of metals, for uniformity of results of heat treatment. The Brinell Hardness Number

(BHN) is obtained by dividing the applied force by the spherical surface area of the indentation,

i.e.

The value of Brinell hardness number is related to tensile strength and for two materials this is

as shown in below:

45 | P a g e
 The diameter (D) of the ball, 1, 2, 5 or 10 mm (generally it is 10 mm) and the applied load (P) are

chosen, such that the same value of P/D 1, 5, 10 or 30 will give the same hardness number. The

thickness of the material being tested should be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation.

Steel ball used in Brinell hardness testing should be polished and free from surface defects.

Tungsten carbide balls should be used, so that there should not be any permanent change in ball

diameter.

46 | P a g e
 Figure- Brinell hardness testing machine

47 | P a g e
PROCEDURE OF THE EXPERIMENT
(i) We placed the test sample on the top of the test table and raised it with the elevating

screw, till the test sample just touched the ball.

(ii) We applied the desired load, starting with 250 kg equivalent load.

(iii) The steel ball during this period moved to the position of the sample and made an

indentation.

(iv) We measured the indentation diameter at two places, by coinciding the two points of a

reading microscope (Fig. (c)).

(v) We changed the load by 250 kg equivalent increment and repositioned the specimen

according to the specifications in the theory. We repeated this until we reached a load

equivalent to 3000kg. This procedure was repeated by group A1, in testing the hardness

of an aluminum specimen. The two groups then discussed and shared the results

RESULTS, COMPUTATIONS AND GRAPHWORK

The tabulation of the results, computation was done by use of Microsoft excel spreadsheet

package of The Microsoft Office 7.

48 | P a g e
 From the graphs, the gradients were calculated as follows:

DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

We deduce from these results that the Brinell hardness number for both steel and aluminum is

approximately double the gradient of the respective curves. When load is equivalent to 3000 kg

and using the steel ball of diameter 10mm. However, the results are inconsistent over the other

values of the loads. This is contrary to expectations as it was expected that the results between

the gradient and the Brinell hardness number be constant in accordance with the theory which

49 | P a g e
 is proven by the fact that hardness of a homogeneous material is uniform. The possible reasons

behind the deviations are:

i. We did not vary the diameter of the indenting ball with respect to the variation in load

magnitude.

ii. Reading error of the diameter of indentation using the microscope.

iii. Use of a rough steel ball surface.

iv. Use of the steel ball on a steel specimen which is of the same hardness. This could have

caused indentation of the steel ball.

v. Use of rough specimen surface.

CONCLUSION
We have examined the deformation of steel and aluminum when a hardened steel

ball was pressed into the metal specimens. From the examinations we have determined that to

get the correct indentations that should give us the specific properties of the metal specimen

we must vary the load with the diameter of the indenting ball as demonstrated below:

Steel and cast iron (P/D2 ) = 30.

Copper and Aluminum alloys (P/D2 ) = 10

Copper and aluminum (P/D2 ) = 5

Lead, Tin and alloys (P/D2 ) = 1

50 | P a g e
51 | P a g e
VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
THEORY
The Vickers hardness test was developed in 1924 by Smith and Sandland. The test evaluates hardness in

a manner similar to Brinell taking the ratio between the load applied and the surface area of the

resulting impression.

It was decided that the indenter shape should be one based on the following

To be capable of producing geometrically similar impressions, irrespective of size.

The resulting impression should have well defined points of measurement.

The indenter should have high resistance to self-deformation.

STEPS FOR CONDUCTING TEST

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond indenter, in the

form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite faces

subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The two

diagonals of the indentation left in the surface of the material after removal of the load are measured

using a microscope and their average calculated. The area of the sloping surface of the indentation is

calculated. The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by dividing the kgf load by the square mm area

of indentation. The corresponding units of HV are then kilograms-force per square millimeter (kgf/mm²).

To calculate Vickers hardness number using SI units one needs to convert the force applied from

kilogram-force to Newton’s by multiplying by 9.806 65 (standard gravity) and convert mm to m. To do

the calculation directly, the following equation can be used HV = 1.8544 2

Where F = applied load in kgf

D = average of dia in mm

52 | P a g e
In micro Vickers hardness test a load of 1gf – 1000gf is applied. Indenter In this test diamond cone is

used as indenter. As diamond has sharp edge so the dia of indenter is easy to find due to sharp edge.

Angle between the opposite faces of the indenter is 136 degree , and use full angle is 120 degree . Micro

Vickers hardness test pg. 2 Figure 1 indenter and impression Micro Vickers Test Method All Vickers

ranges use a 136° pyramidal diamond indenter that forms a square indent. The indenter is pressed into

the sample by an accurately controlled test force. The force is maintained for a specific dwell time,

normally 10 – 15 seconds. After the dwell time is complete, the indenter is removed leaving an indent in

the sample that appears square shaped on the surface. The size of the indent is determined optically by

measuring the two diagonals of the square indent. The Vickers hardness number is a function of the

test force divided by the surface area of the indent. The average of the two diagonals is used in the

following formula to calculate the Vickers hardness

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to determine the hardness of a material by using a hardness tester.

INTRODUCTION
One of the mechanical properties that may be important to consider is hardness, which is a measure of

a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g., a small dent or a scratch) or in other words,

it is a measure of the resistance of a metal to permanent (plastic) deformation. Early hardness tests

were based on natural minerals with a scale constructed solely on the ability of one material to scratch

another that was softer. A qualitative and somewhat arbitrary hardness indexing scheme was devised,

termed the Mohs scale, which ranged from 1 on the soft end for talc to 10 for diamond.

Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed over the years in which a small indenter is

forced into the surface of a material to be tested, under controlled conditions of load and rate of

application. The depth or size of the resulting indentation is measured, which in turn is related to a

53 | P a g e
hardness number; the softer the material, the larger and deeper the indentation, and the lower the

hardness index number. The indenter, which is usually a ball, pyramid, or cone, is usually made of

hardened steel, tungsten carbide, or diamond, a much harder material than the material being tested.

Measured hardness are only relative (rather than absolute), and care should be exercised when

comparing values determined by different techniques. Hardness tests are performed more frequently

than any other mechanical test for several reasons:

1. They are simple and inexpensive—ordinarily no special specimen need be prepared, and the testing

apparatus is relatively inexpensive.

2. The test is nondestructive—the specimen is neither fractured nor excessively deformed; a small

indentation is the only deformation.

3. Other mechanical properties often may be estimated from hardness data, such as tensile strength.

For most standard hardness tests, a known load is applied

slowly by pressing the indenter at 90o into the metal surface being tested. The

indenter is withdrawn from the surface after the indentation is made. An empirical

hardness number is then calculated or read off a dial, which is based on the cross-

sectional area or depth of the impression. The four common hardness tests are

Brinnell, Vickers, Knoop and Rockwell. In this experiment, Vickers micro hardness test (sometimes also

called diamond pyramid) will be used. The basic principles of operation of the Vickers hardness test are

illustrated in Figure 3.1 where it can be seen that the load is applied to the indenter by a simple

weighted lever. In older machines, an oil filled dash pot is used as a timing mechanism - on more

modern equipment this is done electronically.

54 | P a g e
 Figure : Schematic principles of operation of Vickers hardness machine.

MATERIAL & METHODOLOGY

Material and Apparatus

Hardness testers: Vickers microhardness.

Test Specimens: Metal specimen from Experiment 5.

Figure: Vickers hardness test.

55 | P a g e
PROCEDURE
The hardness tests are carried out under the supervision of the lab instructor.

GENERAL PROCEDURE:
1. The specimen was placed on the vice.

2. The indenter was lowered until it just touches the specimen surface.

3. The appropriate load (F = 2kgf) was set for the indenter for 10 seconds.

4. The indenter was allowed to penetrate the specimen surface.

5. Load was removed and indenter was raised from specimen surface.

6. The appropriate parameter (diameter) of the indentation was measured.

7. The hardness value was computed.

8. The above steps were repeated for 3 times at different locations on the specimen and the average

value was computed.

56 | P a g e
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
RESULTS
Parameter First Second Third

s Readin Readin Readin

g g g

D1 (µm) 153.1 151.7 153.5

D2 (µm) 159.0 151.7 153.5

Hardness 152.3 161.1 157.4

(HV)

Average 156.9

Hardness

(HV)

CALCULATIONS
Vickers hardness number is designated by HV,

Where P= Load in kg and d1 = Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, D1 and D2 in mm.

A) For first reading,

d1 = 153.1x 10-3 + 159.0x10-3 = 0.15605mm

HV = 1.854(2kg) / (0.15605mm)2

57 | P a g e
 = 152.3 HV

B) For second reading,

d1 = 151.7x 10-3 + 151.7x10-3 = 0.1517mm

HV = 1.854(2kg) / (0.1517mm)2

= 161.1 HV

C) For third reading,

d1 = 153.5x 10-3 + 153.5x10-3 = 0.1535mm

HV = 1.854(2kg) / (0.1535mm)2

= 157.4 HV

Average Vickers hardness number = (152.3 + 161.1 + 157.4) / 3

= 156.9HV

58 | P a g e
DISCUSSION
ANSWERS FOR QUESTIONS:

1. The Vickers hardness test utilizes a diamond pyramid shaped indenter that is ground in the form

of a squared pyramid with an angle of 136o between faces, and the depth of indentation is about 1/7 of

the resulting impressions diagonal length.

Knoop hardness testing utilizes a diamond indenter that is ground to an elongated pyramidal form

that produces a diamond shaped indentation having an approximate ratio between long and short

diagonals of 7:1, and the depth of indentation is about 1/30 of the indentations length.

The differences in indenter geometries between Vickers and Knoop results in different depths of

penetration into the material and therefore pose benefits for testing materials of various

thicknesses. Knoop testing is commonly used for testing layers or coatings where the material of

interest is very thin. Vickers testing allows users to group indentations very close in proximity to each

other allowing for a tighter grouping of measurements to plot a case hardness depth traverse or to

obtain an average hardness value. Additionally, the orientation of a traverse (series of indentations) is

not of much concern with Vickers testing where with Knoop testing, the traverse direction could pose an

issue when traversing in the direction of the elongated indentations. Vickers testing is also the most

common form of micro hardness testing and is the more conventional unit of measurement when

conducting a micro hardness test.

2. The hardness values obtained each time for the same specimen are slightly differences. Their

differences may due to the grains, grain boundaries, defects and impurities of surface of the specimen.

3. The hardness values obtained using Vickers and Knoop are different. For the Vickers test, both the

diagonals are measured and the average value is used to compute the Vickers pyramid number. In the

59 | P a g e
Knoop test, only the longer diagonal is measured, and the Knoop hardness is calculated based on the

projected area of the indent divided by the applied force, also giving test units in kgf/mm².

4. The Knoop diamond produces an elongated rhombic based diamond shaped indent with a ratio

between long and short diagonals of about 7 to 1. Knoop tests are typically performed at test forces

from 10 - 1000g, are best used in small test areas or on brittle materials as minimal material

deformation occurs on the short diagonal area.

CONCLUSION
In this experiment, the hardness of the specimen is determined by using a Vickers hardness tester. For

each reading, the hardness values gained are slightly different, which are 152.3HV, 161.1HV and

157.4HV respectively. Thus, an average hardness value of 156.9HV is computed. By comparing Vickers

and Knoop hardness, we can conclude that:

Vickers indenter penetrates about twice as deep as Knoop indenter.

Vickers indentation diagonal about 1/3 of the length of Knoop major diagonal.

Vickers test is less sensitive to surface conditions than Knoop test.

Vickers test is more sensitive to measurement errors than knoop test.

Vickers test best for small rounded areas.

Knoop test best for small elongated areas.

Knoop test good for very hard brittle materials and very thin sections.

60 | P a g e
LIMITATION AND ERROR OF THE EXPERIMENT
LIMITATIONS
The specimen is too thin, if an indentation is made too near a specimen edge, or if two indentations are

made too close to one another. Specimen thickness should be at least ten times the indentation depth;

allowance should be made for at least three indentation diameters between the center of one

indentation and the specimen edge, or to the center of a second indentation.

Quality of the specimen preparation. The specimen is partially covered by the mould. Specimen

preparation quality becomes more important as the load decreases, and it must be at an acceptable

level. Specimen thickness must be at least 2.5 times the Vickers diagonal length.

ERRORS
The impression is too close to the specimen edge then low hardness values will be recorded. The

impression should be some 4 to 5 times the impression diameter from any free edge.

PRECAUTIONS
When doing the hardness tests the minimum distance between indentations and the distance from the

indentation to the edge of the specimen must be taken into account to avoid interaction between the

work-hardened regions and effects of the edge. This minimum distances are different for ISO 6507-1 and

ASTM E384 standards.

61 | P a g e
62 | P a g e
63 | P a g e
64 | P a g e