M-Theory

– A General Overview

M-theory is a theory created by Edward Witten, which tries to unify all
the five different types of superstring theories. It elegantly shows the
relationship between quantum mechanics and Einstein’s theory of relativity.
This theory was conjectured in 1995, until which physicists could not see the
relevant connections between the different superstring theories. M-theory
unifies all the superstring theories by stating that there are eleven dimensions
present: three spatial dimensions, which we are all familiar with, one time
dimension, six additional spatial dimensions and one supergravity dimension. To
understand the concepts of M-theory one must first understand what string
theory is.

String theory is a theory by which physicists try and model the four forces
of nature together: gravitation, strong nuclear forces, weak nuclear forces, and
electromagnetism. As implied by the name, string theory suggests that one-
dimensional objects called ‘strings’ replace all the dimensionless point-like
particles when it comes to explaining the relationship of these subatomic
particles. Each of these ‘strings’ vibrates in different modes and each of these
modes represents a fundamental particle. It strives to describe the interactions
between these ‘strings’ and give an acceptable explanation for some of these
unexplainable phenomena in the universe. The string theories strive to connect
Einstein’s general theory of relativity and

There are two different types of string theories: bosonic string theory and
supersymmetric string theory (superstring theory for short). Bosonic string
theory was the original theory, created in the late 1960’s, which only accounted
for bosons. A boson is a particle that has a certain amount of spin associated; it’s
a particle, which has an integer value spin. A proton has a spin of one thus it is
classified as a boson while an electron has a spin of one-half meaning it is not a
boson but a fermion.

However, in the 1980s, a relationship between the bosons and fermions
was found, which was called supersymmetry. It predicts that there is a
superpartner particle for every particle ever observed. This superpartner would
differ by half spin and should have the same mass as the particle. This was the
basis for the creation of the superstring theories. So ultimately the bosonic string
theory was replaced by the new superstring theories. Nevertheless, the bosonic
string theory is still useful many of the limitations of the superstring theories are
similar to that of the bosonic theory.

There are currently five different superstring theories each of which
require ten dimensions to explain. These theories state that the fundamental
particles are strings of Planck’s length: 10-33cm. Due to this miniscule size,
scientists are unable to experience the particles using the technology available
today. The five types of superstring theories are type I, type IIA, type IIB, type
HO, and type HE. Each of them are briefly described below.


 The type I string theory is unique as it uses open and closed strings while
the other four use closed strings only. It has a form of symmetry, which is
mathematically shown using the O(32) symmetry group. Type IIA imagines the
strings to be symmetrical in their vibration patterns, irrespective of what
direction the vibrations are moving on the string. Type IIB string theory is
slightly different to type IIA as now the vibrations are asymmetrical and depend
on the direction of movement along the string. Type IIA and IIB are related by T-
duality. This means that type IIA can be transformed in some way to represent
type IIB. Type HO string theory is a heterotic string theory where the counter-
clockwise vibrations represent the bosonic string theory while the clockwise
vibrations represent the type II string theories. Type HO is also a heterotic string
theory but the only difference is that the gauge groups is an E8 × E8 instead of the
O(32). Both these heterotic theories are connected by T-duality.

All of the five-superstring theories are in 10 dimensions, however we are
only able to see three of them. The fourth dimension is assumed to be time and
we, for one of two reasons, do not visualize the other six dimensions. Scientists
theorize that either the extra dimensions are compacted on a very small scale or
we live on a submanifold of a brane. If they are compactified, the additional six
dimensions are shown by using a Calabi-Yau manifold. This can be interpreted
by the simple image of a pole. If you look at a pole from very far away it will look
like a single dimensional line. However as you look closer the thickness is visible
and on even closer viewing the width of the pole can be seen. This, in simple
terms is how the other six dimensions are compactified. We must look on a scale,
which isn’t possible at the moment to view these extra dimensions.

After all these five superstring theories were invented, in 1995 Edward
Witten conjectured that they all were part of a greater theory known as M-
theory. All of these five theories can be transformed into each other by either T-
duality or S-duality. This means that a result on one of the theories can be
mapped out in some way onto another theory. This started the second
superstring theory revolution by the introduction of M-theory. An additional
dimension known as supergravity was shown to further links all the theories.

Yet, the superstring theories and the overall conjecture of M-theory do
have some limitations. Firstly, there is no experimental proof of these theories.
This is one of the main reasons many scientists remain skeptical about such
theories as they view science to be based on proof and experimental results. So
far there have been no successful experiments to prove that the particles are
strings.

Also, the string theories utilize the concept of extra dimensions but no
such dimensions have ever been observed. There have been constant tests at the
large hadron collider (LHC) at CERN to try and observe these extra dimensions
but so far no breakthrough has been found. If there is no proof of these extra
dimensions then the underlying concepts of string theory could collapse on itself.
Furthermore, the M-theory is a conjecture. Nobody has been able to prove
or disprove the math of M-theory and how it links all the superstring theories
together. Although, its underlying mathematical structure is in accordance with
the five-superstring theories and it has passed many tests of internal
mathematical consistency, until it is not proven we cannot be sure of its
reliability. The complete formation of the M-theory has not even been found!

Overall, M-theory has many limitations such as the fact that there is no
experimental proof; it is based off a theory of the extra dimensions, and that it is
still just a partially completed conjecture, there are many promising signs for the
future of this theory. Stephen Hawking, arguably one of the most renowned
theoretical physicists, stated in his book The Grand Design; "M-theory is
the only candidate for a complete theory of the universe."[7] Furthermore, due to
the advances in technology the next years could be instrumental in proving or
disproving this theory and coming closer to a universal ‘theory of everything’.


Bibliography:

1. “Limitations | Why String Theory.” Why String Theory | a Layman's Journey to the
Frontiers of Physics, whystringtheory.com/prospects/limitations/.
2. Physics WorldTV, director. What Is M-Theory? YouTube, YouTube, 30 Jan. 2014,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=KQwhR-L2w9M.
3. Greene, Brian, director. Making Sense of String Theory. TED: Ideas Worth Spreading, Feb.
2005, www.ted.com/talks/brian_greene_on_string_theory.
4. “M-Theory.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 31 July 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-
theory.
5. Jones, Andrew Zimmerman, and Daniel Robbins. “String Theory: Five Theories.”
Dummies, www.dummies.com/education/science/physics/string-theory-five-theories/.
6. “Why String Theory | a Layman's Journey to the Frontiers of Physics.” Why String Theory
| a Layman's Journey to the Frontiers of Physics, whystringtheory.com/.
7. Silk, Joseph. “One Theory to Rule Them All.” Science, American Association for the
Advancement of Science, 8 Oct. 2010,
science.sciencemag.org/content/330/6001/179.full?sid=a54cb031-266d-4ad0-a458-
9febf387a351.