Foundation in Arts/Science

UCS1713 ENGLISH I

CHAPTER 2: UNDERSTANDING THE TEXTUAL ORGANIZATION OF LINEAR AND NON-

LINEAR TEXTS

Before we begin this chapter, let us differentiate between linear and non-linear texts.

LINEAR TEXT
* Traditional text that has a topic sentence
(main idea) at the beginning of a
paragraph, is followed by several
supporting sentences (supporting ideas)
which serves as further elaboration.
* For example: Academic text
NON-LINEAR TEXT
* Text that allows readers to control their own
movement, in which they do not necessarily use
the front-to-back movement.
* Normally accompanied by graphic-visual
representation.
* For example: Magazine

Source: http://www.fp.utm.my/ePusatSumber

1. Identifying text organization.

 Writers structure or organise their writing in many different ways. Recognising the
way in which a text has been organised will help you understand the meaning of
the text more fully.
 A writer may want, for example, to outline a situation, discuss a problem and
propose a solution. This will usually result in a particular pattern of organisation.
 Recognizing the patterns of text organization is a crucial part of reading texts,
since writers, too, use patterns to present their ideas in a way that makes sense.
 Once you recognize the patterns, you will understand and follow their ideas more
efficiently.
 In this section, you will learn to identify six common patterns of text organization
that are often found in paragraphs in English:

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1. Listing

6. Extended
2. Sequence
Definition

SIX PATTERNS
OF TEXT
ORGANIZATION

5. Problem/ 3.
Comparison/
Solution Contrast

4.
Cause/Effect

A. Listing
 The writer states the main idea in form of a generalization and gives a list
of details or examples to support the general statement.
 Key words/phrases in the main idea: Many, several, a number of, a variety
of, a few, kinds of.
 Signal words/phrases: for example, for instance, first, second, another,
also, besides, in addition, include, final, last, most important.

B. Sequence
 The writer explains the main idea with a series of events or steps in a
process that follow one after the other in time order.
 Key word/phrases in the main idea: began, account, story, process, history,
sequence.
 Signal words/phrases: first, second, then, next, after, while, when, since,
then, soon, finally, at last, in 1965, last June, later, over time, the next step,
the following week.

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C. Comparison/Contrast
 The writer’s main idea is a general statement about two things and how
they are similar and/or different. A comparison can include both
similarities and differences, or only the similarities. A contrast states only
differences.
 Key words/phrases in the main idea: similarities, differences, both, in
common, same, different, compare, comparison.
 Signal words/phrases for similarities: similarly, also, in the same way, as,
like, both, in common.
 Signal words/phrases for differences: however, but, on the other hand,
although, while, in contrast, than, conversely, yet, unlike.

D. Cause/Effect
 The writer’s main idea is that one event or action caused another event or
action.
 Key words/phrases in the main idea and the signal words for details are
the same and often include: causes, leads to, is the cause of, results in,
creates, brings, about, makes, provokes, produces, gives rise to,
contributes to, is due to, is the result of, comes from, results from, is
produced by, is a consequence of, follows, is caused by, why, factors.

E. Problem/Solution
 The main idea names a problem and indicates that one or more solutions.
The paragraph always consists of two parts: 1) a statement and 2) a
description and explanation of how it was solved. There are often no signal
words for the details.
 Key words/phrases in the main idea: situation, trouble, crisis, dilemma or
issue.
 In the body of the paragraph, key words include: solve, solution, resolved.

F. Extended Definition
 The writer names a concept or complicated process that the paragraph will
define and explain. Usually, the main idea or first sentence of the
paragraph states a dictionary definition of the concept or process,
followed by a description and/or an explanation. There are usually no
signal words for the details.
 Key words/phrases in the main idea: consists of, its, seems to be, is, are.

Source: Mikulecky B. S. & Jeffries L., Advanced Reading Power.

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2. Identifying cohesion
Consider this:
“Mary likes Peter. Peter likes to eat apple.”
OR
“Mary likes Peter. They are getting married soon.”

Coherence
 Coherence is the unity created between the ideas, sentences, paragraphs and
sections of a piece of writing/text.
 Coherence in writing/text gives the reader a sense of what to expect and makes
the reading easier to follow as the ideas appear to be presented in a natural way.
 When sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, readers can follow along
easily.
 When a piece of writing/text lacks coherence, the reader is forced to stop and
reread. Occasionally, the reader may just give up reading the whole text.

Cohesion devices
 Coherence is created in a number of ways. One of the ways is by using cohesion
devices. Speakers use a variety of cohesion devices to link the relationships among
ideas.
 Examples of several types of cohesive devices are as follow:

A. Reference

TYPES OF
D.
Substitution
COHESION B. Lexical
DEVICES

C.
Conjunction

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A. Reference
 Cohesion is formed by a word (or words) that refers to information,
found elsewhere in the text.
 For example: Hansel took some breadcrumbs. He put them in his
pocket.
The pronoun “he” is used to refer back to the name “Hansel”.

B. Lexical
 Textual cohesion between one word and another is created by
repetition of the word or use of a synonym, a super ordinate word,
a more general word, or an associated word.

SAME WORD: The darkness of night came swiftly. The children

were afraid of the darkness.

SYNONYM: Hansel and Gretel huddled together to wait for

daybreak. Oh, when would dawn come?

SUPERORDINATE WORD: Mice and raccoons snuffled closer to

investigate the intruders. The animals were curious.

GENERAL WORD: Finally, the tired children snuggled down in the

leaves and pine needles of the forest bed and went to sleep.

ASSOCIATED WORD: As the dawn broke, sunlight filled the forest.

C. Conjunction
 A conjunction represents semantic relation that expresses how a
clause or statement is related in meaning to a previous clause or
statement; it is signaled by a specific connecting word or phrase.

 Following is a variety of types of semantic relations with examples

of words that typically signal each.

ADDITIVE: and, also, in addition

AMPLIFICATION: furthermore, moreover

ADVERSATIVE: but, however, in contrast, nevertheless

CAUSAL: if/then, because, due to, as a result

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CONCLUSION: therefore, accordingly, consequently

TEMPORAL: after, meanwhile, whenever, previously

SEQUENCE: first, second, then, lastly, finally

SPATIAL: next to, between, in front of, adjacent to

CONTINUATIVE: after all, again, finally, another

LIKENESS: likewise, similarly

EXAMPLE: for example, as an illustration

RESTATEMENT: in other words, that is, in summary

EXCEPTION: except, barring, beside, excluding

D. Substitution
 A word is substituted for the referent that is not identical in
meaning or carries some differentiation, but performs the same
structural function.

NOMINAL: The witch wanted a bigger pot. She ordered Gretel to

go and get one.

CLAUSAL: Could Gretel save Hansel? She thought so.

ELLIPSIS: A word, phrase, or clause that is left unsaid, but is

understood.
Verbal: “Are you coming?” called the witch. “I am (coming),”
answered Gretel.

Nominal: Gretel looked for a sharp tool, but she knew she would
take whatever (tool) she could find.

Clausal: I know I can kill the witch. I’m sure I can (kill the witch).

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3. Identifying the main idea

A. What is a main idea?
 Main idea is a statement that tells the author’s point about the topic.
 The main idea provides the message of a given paragraph or the argument
that is being made about the topic.
 Identifying the main idea is one of the most important reading skills. When
you are reading a text, always ask yourself, “What is the writer trying to
tell me?”

B. Finding/Identifying the main idea

 A main idea consists of topic and author’s point about the topic.

MAIN IDEA = Topic + Author’s Point about the topic

 How to find the topic?

Ask yourself this question: What/who is the paragraph about?

 How to find the main idea?

Ask yourself this question: What is the overall message or argument being
made by the author about the topic of this paragraph?

 How to find supporting details?

Turn the main idea into a question by asking who, what, when, where, why,
or how? The answer will give a set of details.

 For example:

Anita is celebrating her birthday. Peter gives Anita a

present. It is an Ipad. Anita is excited.

What is the topic?

Anita’s birthday.

What is the main idea?

Anita gets an Ipad as present from Peter for her birthday.

What is the supporting details?

Anita is excited/happy.

 Topics, main ideas, and supporting details work together. The main idea
tells the author’s point about the topic, and the details offer support for
the main idea.

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 The diagram below shows the relationship between topic, main idea and
supporting details.

The main idea is the overall idea of the paragraph. It is

supported by details throughout the paragraph much like
the frame of a house supports the roof.

TOPIC

MAIN IDEA

SUPPORTING SUPPORTING SUPPORTING

DETAIL DETAIL DETAIL

Sources: 1. http://www.wisc-online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=RDG808
2. http://www.irsc.edu/uploadedFiles/Students/.../Finding-the-Main-Idea.pdf

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4. Separating fact and opinion

A. The differences between fact and opinion.

OPINION
FACT *Is what someone believes or thinks.
*Is a statement that can be proven true *Words that give you clues that a
or false. statement is an opinion are believe, like
*For example: A is the first letter of the and should.
alphabet. *For example: I believe burger is
everyone's favorite food.

REMEMBER:
*A FACT can be proved true or false.
*An OPINION is what someone believes or thinks.

Source: http://www.studyzone.org/testprep/ela4/a/factopinionl.cfm

B. How do you separate fact from opinion?

 A fact is something that can be proven by a reliable authority such as: A
history book, a proven scientific law, an observation, statistics and
governmental law.
 The information provided by these reliable authorities is considered to be
fact.
 Below are some examples of facts with reliable authority:
1. Malaysia achieved its independence in 1957. (History Book)
2. Sound travels about four times faster in water than in air. (Science
Book)
3. In the year 2003, according to World Health Organization (WHO),
194 million adults had diabetes. (Statistic)
4. 17 is the legal driving age in Malaysia. (Governmental Law)
 Observations are also considered as facts because they can be proven by
the senses.

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FACT HOW IT IS PROVABLE?

The shirt is pink. You can bring in the shirt so that the
color can be seen.
Some books are larger than You can bring in books of various sizes.
others.

 Some facts change over time. For example: The world was flat was once
considered to be a fact. Because new things are being discovered every day,
so reliable authorities are sometimes forced to alter/change what we all
once considered to be facts.
 There are five types of opinions:

1.
Hypothesis
Statements

5.
2. Theory
Exaggerated
Statements
Statements
TYPES OF
OPINIONS

3.
4. Value
Assumptive
Statements
Statements

1. Hypothesis Statements
 A hypothesis is an assumption made in an attempt to
explain an observation.
 As mentioned above, an observation is a fact but a
hypothesis is an opinion.
 For example:

OBSERVATION HYPOTHESIS
Some flowers are larger Because they are in more
than others fertile soil.

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 This hypothesis would have to be further investigated and

scientifically proven to be considered a fact.
2. Theory Statements
 A theory is an opinion that is a widely believed explanation
for a group of observations.
 Two well-known examples of theories:
I. The theory of Relativity.
II. The Evolutionary Theory.
 Though many scientists believe that these theories are
true, we still consider them to be opinions rather than
facts because they have not been proven.
3. Assumptive Statements
 An assumptive statement is an opinion that is an
improvable prediction.
 Three examples of assumptive statement:
I. If you do not practice communicate in English, you
would definitely fail your MUET speaking test.
II. When the new Fast and Furious movie comes out,
it will definitely be at the top of the charts!
III. The mega concert in Kuala Lumpur will eventually
attract a lot of people.
 Though some of these statements are true, they are still
consider as assumptive opinions.
4. Value Statements
 A value statement is any claim that is based on someone’s
beliefs.
 Two examples of value statement:
I. Peter Wong is an excellent candidate for student
council president.
II. The Bahamas is the most beautiful place on Earth.
 Value statements are often opinions attempting to sway
the reader to a certain belief.
5. Exaggerated Statements
 An exaggerated statement is one that embellishes the
facts, often to sway the reader.
 Two examples of exaggerated statement:

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I. There were millions of people watching the live

concert.
II. The CEO has not made one good decision since he
has been in office!
 Writers often use exaggeration to make their point more
clear. These statements are still consider as opinions.
 There are certain words that will warn you that you are being given an
opinion and not a fact. Examples of the words are: maybe, perhaps,
best/worst, successful, necessary, apparently and probably.
 An opinion is not necessarily wrong, it is merely not a provable fact.
 Consider this:

Esther is a very beautiful young lady.

 Even if everyone agreed with this statement, it is still an opinion because

it is not provable. Beauty is something relative and we cannot measure
beauty.

Source: http://www.slideshare.net/cubreporters/separating-fact-from-opinion

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