Ale Crop Science Lecture Topics - Ustp Claveria. Final

Crop Science
LECTURE TOPICS
Eric Randy R. Politud, Ph.D
Associate Professor II
(Licensed Agriculturist)
Crop Science Department
University of Science and Technology of Southern
Philippines - Claveria , Poblacion, Claveria, Misamis
Oriental 9004
Agriculturist
Licensure Exam
(ALE) Review
PEAK REVIEW CENTER
USTP-Claveria,
Poblacion, Claveria,
Misamis Oriental 9004
May 26-27, 2018

Crop Science LECTURE TOPICS 2018
TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS (TOS)

for the Actual National Agriculturist Licensure
Examination (ALE)
NO. OF WEIGHT
NO. TOPICS
ITEMS (%)
1 Nature and Importance of Agriculture 9 9.00
2 Classification of Agricultural Crops 9 9.00
3 Nature and Composition of Plants 9 9.00
4 Plant Growth, Development and Reproduction 9 9.00
5 Factors Affecting Crop Production 15 15.00
6 Crop Improvement and Selection 16 16.00
7 Sustainable Crop Production 9 9.00
8 Site Characterization and Selection 9 9.00
9 Production Practices (Annuals/Perennials) 15 15.00
TOTAL 100 100.00
Crop Science Reviewer for Agriculturist Licensure Examination (ALE) Page 1

‘ NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE

INTRODUCTION management of man.
Agriculture is a purposeful work The broad industry engaged in the
through which the elements of nature are production of plants and animals for food
harnessed to produced plants and animals and fiber, the provision for agricultural
to meet human needs. Although it does not supplies and services, and the processing,
by itself crate civilization, civilization cannot marketing and distribution of agricultural
develop without agriculture. products (Herren and Donahus, 1991. The
The word agriculture is a late Agricultural Dictionary, Delmar Pub., Inc.).
Middle English adaptation of Latin The development of agriculture
agricultūra, from ager, "field", which in its arose from man’s realization of the
turn came from Greek αγρός, and cultūra, difference between him and other forms of
"cultivation" or "growing". life. It relates to purposeful work through
Agriculture is an art and science of which the elements of nature are harnessed
raising plants and animals. It is an art to produce plants and animals to meet
because raising plants and animals require human needs.
skills and practice to produce beauty and Hunting or collectional economy is
pleasant arrangements of plants and animal using randomly acquired weapons, man
combination to satisfy man’s aspiration for lived on the gift of nature, gathering wild
perfection of his environment. plants for their medicinal, cosmetic,
It is also a science because aphrodisiac properties, as well as for their
knowledge and skills are learned through food value.
systematic discovery of facts and principles. Middle Stone Age (from 8,000 B.C.)
It is through the formulation of hypothesis, a. use of bow and arrow
testing of hypothesis, designing of b. catching, drying and storage of fish
experiments, gathering of facts, analysis c. stored seeds, nuts and fruits
and interpretation of facts until a general New Stone Age or Neolithic Age (started
conclusion and recommendation are between 6,000 to 7,000 B.C.)
arrived which ultimately become a general a. discovered the relation of seed plant
practice and a law. b. domestication of plants and animals
The history of agriculture is difficult Domestication was the intervention
to trace back. Two theories could be used that made possible the development of
to explain the beginning of agriculture, pastoral and agricultural economies and
namely: theory of evolution and the theory therefore, made populous and complex
of creation. human societies possible. It has proven to
The first civilization flourished near be the single most important intervention
the Nile River, Indus and Tigris Euphrates man has ever made in his environment.
(Fertile Crescent) as primitive men began to c. villages began to grow and man made the
settle and had division of labor. Evidences transition from food collection to the
of progress and civilization could be seen by deliberate raising of crops. They practice
the ‘seven’ wonders of the world such as both “seed” agriculture and vegeculture.”
the Hanging Garden of Babylon, Pyramid of (The latter refers to the vegetatively
Egypt, Leaning Tower of Pizza, Taj Majal of propagated plants like taro, sweet potato,
India, Great Wall of China, Rice Terraces yam, banana, arrowroot, etc. while the
and Underground River in the Philippines. former includes most of the cereals and
At present, it is believed that grain legumes whose culture requires the
ancient centers of agriculture probably clearing of vast areas and seeds are sown
developed independently in many parts of en masse and harvested at the same time.
the world, and even in the Philippines. The They consist mostly of annuals or plants
onset of advanced technologies in the with a life cycle of less than a year or one
agriculture has posted problems and issues season.
in the developed as well as in the B. Origin, Domestication and History of
developing countries where agriculture has Some Important Crops
still been a subsistent economy. Earlier the diet of man consisted
A. The Development of Agriculture mostly of the animals that he hunted with
Agriculture is the systematic raising occasion supplements from plant sources.
of useful plants and livestocks under useful Subsequently his diet began to change.

Apparently, at a number of different sites, from these basic plant sources. For
e.g. Near East, the far East Asia, Mexico and example:
Peru, quite independently, man began to The Americans - maize and peanuts
turn towards plants as a food source. The Africa- sorghum and beans
reason for this change are obscure, but are The Middle East -wheat, barley and beans
probably associated with population Asia - rice and soybeans
pressures in environment which were In areas where this combination of
initially favorable for man and for the game cereal and legumes was less adapted,
he hunted. As the availability of game community development has tended to be
decreased alternative food sources became slower and remained more scattered, with
imperative; so man looked towards the dependence for food being on a wide range
vegetation which had been a feedstuff for of diverse plant families for example,
many of the animals and birds he hunted. bananas, sweet potatoes, taro, yam and
Credit for earliest domestication, coconuts.
which seems to have occurred in the Middle The word "cereal" comes from
East is generally given to a remarkable race 'Ceres', the name of the Roman goddess of
of people called Cushites, who not only harvest and agriculture.
experimented with plants as food source,
but also attempted their culture; in effect 1. The Origin and domestication of
these people may be regarded as the first Soybeans
agriculturists. The Cushites are believed to The soybean Glycine max is a
have been semi-nomadic, establishing a member of the Leguminoceae family and
community on burned land, planting their subfamilty Papilionoideae. Beginning its
gardens with stored seeds, and then history as a human food, later developing as
experimenting with domestication of ant a hay and forage crop and finally as a
suitable local vegetation. After a period of vegetable oil; protein source, it now
cultivation fertility declined in the gardens, occupies a position of pre-eminence as the
and the community, having collected world’s largest source of vegetable oil.
suitable quantities of seeds, then travelled The plant is widely distributed on a
from distance to a new predetermined site, global basis from the tropics to latitude
and again established a new community. At 52oN, but only as a cultivated plant and
each settlement, local people learned by there appears to be little doubt that its
demonstration and so their primitive center of origin was Asia where its close
agriculture spread from the Middle and relative and likely progenitor, Glycine
Near East to India. Africa and over much of ussuriensis (wild soybean) is abundant.
Europe. As these people were great Hymowitz (1970) suggests that historical
seafarers as well as land travellers, it has and geographical evidence points to the
been suggested that they may have even esteem of soybean commenced around the
journeyed as far as the Americas and to 11th century B.C. Nagata (1960) postulated
South East Asia, during a period some 5,000 that cultivated soybean reached Korea
B.C. before their dispersal, and in this time directly from China between 200 B.C. and
the Cushites must have a valuable 300 AD and from Korea it was introduced to
contribution towards general plant Japan from where it was widely distributed
domestication and to early agriculture. throughout Asia. Europians knew of the
Early man intuitively realized that in crop in the 17th century as an exotic
a vegetative diet he needed three major Oriental crop but have succeeded in
components, i.e. carbohydrate for energy, establishing a commercial crop.
protein for muscle development, and According to Morse and Carter
supplementaries to augment different types (1973), the first mention of soybeans in the
of proteins and minerals. It is of interest U.S. was in 1804 when a clipper ship captain
that from a multitude of plants from which carrying soybean from China, sold the
the early domesticators had to choose, two beans in San Francisco. Systematic
plant families achieved absolute dominance introduction of soybean germplasm was
in regard to carbohydrate and protein continued by the USDA so that by 1923
sources, namely the Graminae and the more than 700 additional lines were
Leguminoceae, respectively. In fact all introduced from China, Manchuria, Korea,
subsequent civilizations have since been Japan and India. By 1929-31 about 6,000
established around a diet originating largely new accessories were added to the

American germplasm collection. By 1968, distributed in all continents. However, its

the US produced 76% of the world’s origin, domestication and subsequent
soybean crop, whereas China produced evolution as a crop has remained
17%. Other countries with large areas are contentious over a long period and the
Brazil, Indonesia, South Korea and the following hypothesis by Brandolene (1970)
USSR. is herein utilized.
2. The Origin and Domestication of The wild forms of Zea mays were
Sorghum widespread over the highlands of Mexico
In order of importance of world and possibly over Central and South
cereal grains, Sorghum vulgare ranks 4th America well before man’s first appearance
behind whet, rice and maize. Doggett on the American continent, and may or may
(1970) concluded that the cultivated have originated from an earlier progenitor
sorghums originated from Abyssinia of the Teosinite type. Between 5,200-3.400
(Northeast Africa) and were probably first B.C., the wild maize was gathered as food in
domesticated about 3-4, 000 BC in Africa the Tehuacan valley, perhaps the first site
around Ethiopia by the Cushites, who for plant domestication in the New World.
subsequently spread the culture to both Slightly later round 2,300 BC, the Tripsacum
West and East Africa. The latter country source was introduced into the initial
became an important center for distribution germplasm, possibly from Peru with which
via the Bentu and other tribes to Central there appears to have been some form of
and South Africa, and via Arab traders communication with people of the
Arabia which, because of extensive Arab sea Tehuacan area, The progeny of this infused
and land trade network, became the most germplasm, which occurred over many
significant distribution center of modern forms at both sites, then the beginning of
times. The earliest establishment from this the Christian era wild maize had been
center appears to have been in India slightly eliminated by man and birds from the
before the beginning of the Christian era. American continent, but as a domesticated
From India, it spread down the trade routes crop plant it was widely distributed by semi-
of S.E. Asia through Malaya and Indonesia nomadic Indians with two principal sites of
between the 4th and 8th centuries AD and to distribution in North America, i.e.The great
the Middle East and the Mediterranean Lakes and New England, and many sites in
areas a little later. The slave traffic to North central and south America. By the 15th
America appears to have been the means of century AD, the crop was a primary food
sorghum’s earliest entry to the American source for many people of the American
continent. The discovery of natural dwarf continent. Spain and to a lesser extent
mutants among the earlier populations Portugal became a major center for
introduced, established the sorghum in the distribution in Europe, in Africa, in India and
Americas as a grain crop. The final to japan and S.E Asia. Later the Dutch
evolutionary development has occurred in Colonial Empire distributed a wide range of
Texas area during the past 40 years in the maize germplasm to South Africa, South
development of temperate-type hybrids East Asia and the Pacific Region.
which are those now grown extensively in Today, maize occupies a position of
America. South Africa, Australia, the USSR pre—eminence among the World’s cereal
and much of the Middle Eastern countries. food grains. It is adapted to a wide range of
These are now commonly referred to as the environments and has a high yield potential
Texas type hybrids and behave in some higher than any other cereal. As a crop and
characters quite differently from true as a plant, it has been extensively studied in
tropical sorghums. America, in Europe and in many other
3. The Origin and Domestication of Maize countries and as a result it has contributed
While Asia served as a center or greatly to the present knowledge of the
origin for soybeans and Africa for sorgum, genetics for maize is CIMMYT (Centro
maize has the Central and Southern portion International de Meyoramiente de Maize y
of the Americas (Mexico through Andean Trigo) in Mexico.
regions of Latin America) as its center of
origin (Purseglove, 1972). Zea mays ia a 4. The Origin and Domestication of Rice
graminaceous grass of the tribe Maydeae. The cultivated rice Oryza sativa is a
The species has been divided by Shmaraer semi-aquatic annual grass that grows erect.
et al (1973) into 7 sub-species. It is It has been cultivated for several thousand

years as the principal cereal of Southeast 3. Muskmelon (reticulata group)- is

Asia. In terms of hectarage, the major believed to have originated in Asia,
products are China, India, Indonesia, particularly in Iran and India.
Bangladesh, japan and Thailand. 4. Okra – also called as gumbo,
gombo, gobo or lady’s finger is either Asia
Oryza sativa is thought to have or African in Origin.
been domesticated in India more than 5. Tomatoes – native to tropic
4,000 years ago from the wild species of O. Central and South America where it was
peennis. The only other cultivated species n cultivated in pre Columbian times. Its
the genus is O. glaberrima, African rice, wild progenitor is thought to have been the
which probably originated around the cherry tomato which now grows in the
swampy headwaters of Niger River in West wild in Peru-Ecuador area though tomatoes
Africa. Three sub-species are recognized in were probably domesticated from weedy
O. sativa, and they correspond to the forms which had spread as far as Mexico.
geographical races of the crop; sub-species 6. Asparagus – thought to be native
indica, japonica and javanica. Basmati is a to Southern Russia, has been found growing
variety of long, slender-grained wild in Europe, England, Poland, and around
aromatic rice which is traditionally from the the Mediterranean Sea.
Indian subcontinent. Based on the chemical 7. Onion – an ancient crop thought
characteristics of the starch and grain to have been domesticated in Central Asia,
aroma, rice may be classified as either(a) thought its wild ancestor is unknown, nor
waxy or glutinous (endosperm contains no do onions occur as wild plants.
amylose, (b) common type (endosperm #CULTIVATED TROPICAL FRUITS
contains 14 amylose and ¾ amylopectin, 1. Bananas – appear to have
and (c) aromatic or scented types.They may originated in Southeast Asia, spreading to
also be classified as either lowland rice India, Africa and finally to tropical
(grown in continuously irrigated or pond Americas.
flooded condition) and up-land rice is based 2. Citrus – original home of the
on maturity (the number of days required genus Citrus is not known with certainty,
to reach 50% heading). Very early maturing but the history of the cultivated species
cultivars requires less than 90 days, early suggests that they may have been
maturing require 90-105 days and late domesticated in the dries tropics of
maturing cultivars require more than 105 South-east Asia. Though the crop is of
days. tropical origin, it is now cultivated
5. The Origin and Domestication of Other more extensively in the sub-tropics with
Crops of Importance to the Philippines Mediterranean climate.
#OIL CROPS 3. Mango – originated in the India-
1. Peanut – native of South America Bangladesh-Burma region, and had spread
2. Coconut – center of bio-diversity into cultivation and common use in the
in North-West South America, but was Indian sub-continent by 2,000 BC.
widely spread and dispersed; and 4. Pineapple – native to tropical
domesticated in Papua New Guinea. regions of South America, and was grown in
#VEGETABLE CROPS the New world for food, for its medicinal
1. Beans, snap or green and Lima properties and for the production of wine
beans – probably native to tropical America. long before the discovery of the New
Phaseolus vulgaris is the World.
most widely grown of the 4 cultivated 5. Papaya – probably originated in
species of Phaseolus. The most central America, perhaps as a natural hybrid
important grain legume for human between other species.
consumption of the world. #ORIGIN OF SOME CUTFLOWERS
2. Eggplant – also known as 1. Chrysanthemums – native to
eggfruit, audergine, or guinea squash is China and was brought to Europe sometime
probably native to South and in 1789 by captain M. Blanchard of
Eastern Asia, but was also grown in China Marseiles.
for many centuries. It is thought to 2. Carnation – indigenous to the
have been domesticated in India where wild Meditteranean area. Cultivated by man for
plants now grow, but it has spread over 2,000 years. Man’s improvement of
throughout the warn topics. the native Dianthus (Greek world which

means Divine Flower) began in the 16th and improved many Greek agricultural
Century. The perpetual flowering race practices such as crop rotation, manure
which gave rise to the American types was fertilization, weed control, grafting and
developed in France in 1840. budding such as crop use for greenhouse
3. Rose – native to the northern (Specularia). The Romans amy be credited
temperate zone. The earliest record of a for developing the practice of
rose is thought to be of a Damascene rose, postharvest storage. It was also during the
a natural hybrid between Rosa gallica and Roman times that ornamental
Rosa phoenicea, found in frescoes at horticulture developed considerably.
Knossos, a ruined city on the island of 4. Africa – south of the coastal strip
Create and at one time capital of of Africa received the earliest crops by
the Minoan civilization, about 3,000 – 1100 diffusion along the Nile River.
BC. Depending on the taxonomic 5. Southern Asia - first crops spread
system followed, the hybrid tea rose of over land from Iran in SA about 3,000 B.C in
today traces its ancestry back to Rosa southern India and Ceylon, irrigation
gigantean and Rose chinesis, which were reservoirs were constructed as early as
interbred in China before 1800 to 1,500-1,300 B.C
produce Tea China or china roses. All 6. Central Asia –Wheat and barley
present hybrids are designated as Rosa farming pattern was established and spread
hybrid. overland through Iran. Other crops include
4. Gladiolus – gladiolus species grapes, peaches, apricots and melon.
were recognized over 2,000 years growing 7. Eastern Asia – diffusion of SW
in the field of Asia Minor and were called Asian wheat complex by mainland diffusion.
“corn lilies”. Modern hybrids designated as Root crops like yams and taro, bananas,
G. grandiflorus, are a complex of at bamboo, sorghum, soybeans and rice are
least 1 species. native to the tropical Far East region.
5. Easter lily – Lilium longiflorum is Agriculture flowed from China and Thailand
a ntive of Japan and its center of origin is to Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines.
apparently Japan’s three small 8. Plowing in China probably stared
southernmost islands. The local counterpart before the Han dynasty (202 B.C to 220
of Easter lily which is endemic to the A.D). Horses were used for plowing
Philippines is Lilium philippinense. around 100 B.C. after the invention of the
Man has domesticated plants and horse collar by Chinese.
transferred them from their centers of 9. Japan adapted rice farming from
origin to other continents. Purseglove China via Korea but Northern Japan
(1968) and Jennings and cock (1977) have remained as a hunting and fishing area. In
shown that the principal production areas the 12th century, Tea was introduced to
for many major economic crops are distant Japan by Chinese.
from the regions in which they originated. 10. Southern Asia – Agriculture
CENTERS of Early Agriculture consisted of growing various root crops.
include: Indigenous plant in each area may have
1. Southwestern Asia – includes from China, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia,
most of what is now called the MIDDLE Ceylon and the Philippines. Many crops may
EAST area where the earliest agricultural have been interchange with other crops
activities were observed, “the cradle of such as spices and dye plants.
civilization” 11. Oceania – Agriculture in New
2. Egypt – basic agricultural ideas Guinea and Pacific Island remained
spread fro SW Asia into Egypt before 4,500 somewhat primitive until modern
BC. Flood from the Nile River made farming times. Crops are taro, yams, coconut,
along its banks productive. Production bananas, sugarcane, mangoes,
practices like land preparation, irrigation breadfruit, bottle gourds and melon.
and pruning were introduced. 12. The Americas – North and South
3. Europe – the basic pattern of Americas agriculture stems the
plant domestication which was imported domestication of indigenous American
from Asia Minor before 6,000 BC further plant.
developed. The Greeks devoted their genius - Southern Mexico – first center of the
to Botany and this aided the transition to New World of Agriculture
scientific agriculture. The Romans adopted

- Southern America – focal area for some (1988) to have reached 17.8 million by
major domestication. The tropical 1988. These include an estimated
forest lowlands of Southern America population of 8.5 million who reside on
develop agricultural based on root public forestlands. This population
crops like sweet potato, cassava, includes about 5.95 million members of
peanut also raises gourds, pineapple, indigenous cultural communities and
tobacco, dyestuff, beans and cotton. 2.55 million migrant from the lowland
1.3 World food situation and centers of groups. One third of the upland forest
production. inhabitants are displaced lowland
World population is increasing at farmers and this group is estimated to
the rate 2%, and 2.68% over the next 45 grow at the rate of about 2.27% to
years from 6.58 today to 9.18 in 2050. 2.92% during the next 25 years. Thus by
Much of the increase will be from the year 2015 the density will be about
developing countries. The population in 371 persons per square kilometer (U.P.
developing countries will increase from population institute).
5.38 to 7.8 B in 2050. The world cab be divided into the
In the Philippines in 1990, the “have” (developed) and the “have not”
population was estimated to be more (developing countries). Table I shows
than 60 million and increasing at an the food and population situation in the
annual rate of 2.6%, the highest of any developing countries.
country in Southeast Asia. The current Table 1. Comparison of developing and
population density is second only to developed areas.
Developing Developed
that of Singapore. As of April 2017, our Population 2/3 of total 1/3of total
population is around 104 M. Population growth
Great pressure is being placed on 2-3% per year 1.5% per year
agricultural lands hence, it is imperative Per capita income
$100 per year $1,000 per year
to increase current levels of food Calories from cereals &
production to provide an adequate Starchy vegetables
supply of food to increasing population. 65-80% of total 25-50% of total
Must is not suitable for agriculture High protein food like
of the world’s total land area of 150 M Meat, fish, etc.
9-23kg/year 40-136kg/year
km2 . Arable land comprises 10% of the Agriculture land per capita
total; permanent crops are 1%; 0.4 hectare 0.8 hectare
meadows and pastures, 24%; forest and Pop. In agriculture
woodland, 31%. The remaining 34% is 60-90% of total 2-25% of total
Capital input for agriculture
land surface that supports little or no low high
vegetation: Antarctica, deserts, mine
sites, urban areas. Table 2. Food producing capacity in relation to
Rapid population growth in most population.
developing countries had greatly
Population Density Arable Land
reduced the arable land per capita. It is Country (Persons/Ha.) Ha/person
estimated that by 2050, the amount of Congo 37.5 3.60
arable land will be just over one-tenth Canada 12.5 2.26
of a hectare per person, from 0.5 ha in Australia 7.5 2.10
Argentina 47.5 1.50
1961. USA 122.5 1.09
The availability of areas with low USSR 60.0 1.09
population densities and available for India 825.0 0.32
agricultural lands has induced Italy 1090.0 0.32
interregional migration since World United Kingdom1375.0 0.12
China 450.0 0.12
War II and the major migration pattern Netherlands 2200.0 0.08
have been towards the frontier, Japan 1625.0 0.08
primarily to Mindanao, and towards Arable land:
urban areas particularly Metro Manila. If greater than 1.0 ha. – Food supply adequate
If greater than 0.40 to 1.0 – 80 % self-efficient
The major out-migration area have If less than 0.4 – vegetable diet, importation of
been the Visayas , Bicol and Ilocos food require for adequate diet.
regions. Presently the increase in the food
The upland population was supply is about 2% per year which is just
estimated by Cruz and Zoza-Feranil

enough to keep up with population Main crops consisted of rice, gabi,

increase. About 20% of this increase is the yams, bananas, corn millet, coconuts, citrus,
result of expansion of new production ginger, clove, cinnamon and nutmeg.
areas. The remaining 80% is due to No agricultural specialization
technological advances in production like existed. Pattern of agriculture chiefly
improve irrigation, crop protection, better subsistence. Farms were small, chiefly
cultivars, postharvest handling. backyard in coastal and riverbank
settlements.
If the population increase is not Most barangays were self-
stabilized so that the rate of food increase sufficient. Land was abundant and
to less than population increase starvation population was estimated to be about
th
result. There is a limit to what an area can 500,000 by the mind-16 century. Private
produce and we cannot convert all areas for land ownership did not exist.
food production. Therefore, other sources In 2009, the Philippine population
of food must be found such as the use of was 92.23 M. The annual population growth
synthetic food, use of low plant forms and rate from 200-2007 is 2.04%. About 32% of
further increase in production efficiency. the country’s total land area constitutes the
agricultural land. At constant prices, the
Population and Food Supply agricultural and fishery sector had 3.23%
Thomas Malthus, 18th century growth in 2008. The average annual rate of
British Economist, made a prediction about increase was 3.98% for the period 2006 to
population growth and world’s supply (or 2008. The share of agriculture in the gross
the world’s population will increase domestic product (GDP) in 2008 is 18%;
logarithmetically, while that of food supply Presently, the increase in food
will only increase arithmetically). Malthus supply is about 2% per year which is just
noted that population growth was much enough to keep up with population
faster than the increase in food production increase. About 20% of this increase is the
and suggested that these factors would result of expansion of new production
soon lead to mass starvation. However, his areas. The remaining 80% is due to
prediction was not entirely correct. Food technological advances in production like
productivity has accelerated as a result of improved irrigation, crop protection, better
scientific discoveries and advance cultivars, improved crop nutrition, pot-
technologies, such as use of high yielding harvest handling, etc.
varieties, massive application of fertilizers, Spanish Regime
water management practices and effective > to recognize all lands in the Philippines
and more efficient crop protection practices as part of public domain regardless of local
for weeds, insects and plant diseases. customs communal ownership of land
Absence of food surpluses were gradually and slowly took the backseat
attributed to: > encomienda system in the Spanish
1. Absence of full-blown ruling class who colonies began as a result of a Royal Order
could exploit producers for surplus. promulgated in December of 1503
2. Limited foreign trade > Hacienda systems, tenants land owners/
3. Foods scarcity in some settlements tenurial systems
1.4 PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE > This period introduced a non-producing
--Stages of Development - class for which Filipinos produced surpluses,
- Pre-colonial period include: mulberry, cacao, wheat, peas and
Indo-Malayan migrants brought other vegetables. The development of
with them wet-rice agriculture and carabao haciendas allowed for the introduction of
was also used as source of animal power for technological innovations in production and
cultivation. This type of agriculture processing. e.g. steam or hydraulic-
predominated ear bodies of water like powered sugar mills.
rivers and lakes. Slash-and-burn kaingin American Regime
culture or non-plow farming predominated  March 6, 1909- the College of
in other areas. This indicated shifting Agriculture founded in Los Banos as
agriculture rather than sedentary type of a unit of the University of the
rice culture and the tribe were mainly Philippines.
nomadic.  Intensified Free Trade
 Export Raw Materials

 New land policy 3 Ways on how 1985, with steady increases in

Americans improved land policy in between, rice yields rose from 1.24
the Philippines. • Friar lands were to 2.48 metric tons of palay per
resold to Filipino farmers. • hectare.
Homestead Act in 1924 allowed any  Along with the GR’s boon, the
Filipino to own up 24 hectares of setbacks account to costly
public land. • All lands had to be investment for the package of
registered, and their owners got technologies (POTs) of high-yielding
Torrens tittles. varieties (HYV’s) due to massive use
 Agricultural increase • After the of agro-chemicals, resulting to the
fought in the revolution, they loss of traditional varieties.
cooperated with the Americans -Post Dictatorship Rule (Cory Aquino
revive agriculture. • Bureau of Administration)
agriculture (1902) • The first > This led to the drafting of CARP, which
government agency ain the new took the Congress a year to make.
American colony. • In 1903, the On June 10, 1988, Republic Act No.
American congress sent a $3 million 6657, also known as the
emergency fund to import rice and Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
carabaos from other Asian Law (CARL), was passed to promote
countries. Modern farm tools from social justice and industrialization.
the United States were introduced. This was due to the fact
-Post-War Period that Aquino assigned 4 different
> Introduction of technological DAR secretaries.
improvements: -Ramos Administration
50’s-campaign for use of modern > the era of globalization: GATT, Trade
farm inputs and farm Liberalization, AFMA (RA 8435) with
mechanization DA Secretary Edgardo Angara.
60’s-building up of market for > embarked a development plan ‘The
tractors and power tillers Philippines 2000’ (Philippines 2000
 Development Programs Five-Point Program:
 Import Raw Materials & Processed
 Peace and Stability
Products
 Economic Growth and Sustainable
 Land Registration Act
Land Reform Act Development
 Agricultural Land Reform Code  Energy and Power Generation
 Establishment of International Rice  Environmental Protection
Research Institute(IRRI) in 1960  Streamlined Bureaucracy
-Green Revolution >The Ramos administration speeded the
 Introduction of high yielding
implementation of the CARP) of
varieties
 Further development and former President in order to meet
expansion of international the ten-year time frame. However,
agricultural trading especially for there were constraints such as the
coconut and its by-products, need to firm up the database and
tobacco, sugar, pineapple, etc. geographic focus, generate funding
 Pres. Marcos introduced the support, strengthen inter-agency
MASAGA 99 for rice intensification
cooperation, and mobilize
to yield 99 cavans per hectare, in
line with the ultimate goal of implementation partners, like the
GREEN REVOLUTION to combat non-government
malnutrition and increase rice organizations, LGU, and
yields tremendously. [7]
the business community. In 1992,
 Rice variety IR-18 was developed by the government acquired and
scientists in IRRI which required
distributed 382 hectares of land
intensive irrigation, plenty of
fertilizer, and chemical pesticides, with nearly a quarter of a
to flourish. Output doubled. million farmer-beneficiaries. This
Between 1962 to 1964 and 1983 to constituted 41% of all land titles

distributed by the Department of joint ventures with private investors

Agrarian Reform (DAR) during the into agrarian sector to make FBs
last thirty years. But by the end of competitive.[15] In 1999 a huge fund
was allocated to agricultural
1996, the DAR had distributed only
programs.[16] One of which is the
58.25% of the total area it was "Agrikulturang Maka Masa",
supposed to cover. From January to through which it achieved an
December 1997, the DAR output growth of 6 percent, a
distributed 206,612 hectares. That record high at the time,[11] thereby
year, since 1987, the DAR had lowering the inflation rate from 11
distributed a total of 2.66 million percent in January 1999 to just a
little over 3 percent by November
hectares which benefited almost
of the same year.[11]
1.8 million tenant-farmers.[7] GMA Administration
One major problem that the Ramos  Secretary Leonardo Q.
administration faced was the lack of Montemayor implemented the
funds to support and implement AFMA with special emphasis on its
the program.[7] The Php50 million, social equity aspect. He launched
allotted by R.A. No. 6657 to finance the Ginintuang Masaganang Ani
Countrywide Assistance for Rural
the CARP from 1988 to 1998, was
Employment and Services (GMA-
no longer sufficient to support the CARES).
program. To address this problem,  Secretary Luis P. Lorenzo Jr., took
Ramos signed R.A. No. 8532 to the helm of the Department in
amend the Comprehensive Agrarian December 2002 and spearheaded
Reform Law (CARL) which further the launching of the Roll-On, Roll-
Off or RORO transport program.
strengthened the CARP by
The hybridization programs of the
extending the program to another Department were intensified and
ten years.[7] Ramos signed this law interventions were focused on the
on February 23, 1998 - a few Mindanao regions.
months before the end of Ramos'
term.[7] Secretary Arthur C. Yap, appointed
Estrada Administration on August 23, 2004, continued to
 The Estrada administration widened uphold the vision of a modernized
the coverage of the Comprehensive smallholder agriculture and
Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) to fisheries, a diversified rural
the landless peasants in the country economy that is dynamic,
side.[13] The latter's administration technologically advance and
distributed more than internationally competitive. Under
266,000 hectares of land to 175,000 his term, Goal 1 (develop two
landless farmers, including land million hectares of new lands for
owned by the traditional rural elite. agribusiness to contribute two
(Total of 523,000 hectares to million to the 10 million jobs
305,000 farmers during his 2nd year targeted by 2010) and Goal 2 (make
as President).[14] food plentiful while keeping the
 On September 1999, he issued price of "wage goods" at low prices)
Executive Order (EO) 151, also were unveiled.
known as Farmer's Trust Fund,
which allows the voluntary During Panganiban’s 2nd term as
consolidation of small farm Secretary, a total of 203,000
operation into medium and large hectares of idle lands and 313,000
scale integrated enterprise that can jobs were developed under Goal 1
access long-term capital. President and ten Huwarang Palengke
Estrada launched the Magkabalikat (outstanding markets) were
Para sa Kaunlarang Agraryo or identified under Goal 2. Food lanes
MAGKASAKA. The DAR forged into were designated for easier, faster
and kotong-free transport of

agricultural products.  Introduced Good Agricultural

Practices (GAP) in the DA.
When Secretary Yap took the agri  Good agricultural practice (GAP)
seat on October 23, 2006, he has are specific methods which, when
aggressively and consistently applied to agriculture, create food
implemented various projects and for consumers or further processing
policies towards the attainment of that is safe and wholesome.
food security and self-sufficiency.  GAPs - are practices that address
Under FIELDS, the government’s environmental, economic and social
centerpiece program on agriculture, sustainability for on-farm
unveiled during the 2008 Food processes, and result in safe and
Summit, Yap has set achievement quality food and non-food
records for the Philippine agri and agricultural products.
aqua sectors.  DA secretary – Emmanuel Piñol.
Secretary Bernie History of the Department of Agriculture

Fondevilla continued DA’s mandate Eleven days after the proclamation of the
of providing sufficient food and Philippine Independence on June
sustainable livelihood for the 12, 1898, President Emilio
Filipino people through modernized
Aguinaldo formed his government
technologies and facilities when he
took the agri seat on March 2010 with the Department of Agriculture
NoyNoy Aquino Administration and Manufacturing as one of the
 On June 30, 2010, President first agencies.
Benigno S. Aquino III appointed The Department was headed by three
two-term congressman of Quezon directors, Jose Alejandrino (1898-
and civil engineer by 1899), Graciano Gonzaga and
profession Proceso J. Alcala as Leon Ma. Guerrero, both during the
Secretary. One of the principal latter part of 1899.
authors of Republic Act 10068, or
the Organic Agriculture Act of 2010, In 1901 during the American
he is keen on increasing rice regime, the Department was
production and do away with rice renamed Insular Bureau of
imports by 2013 by expanding areas Agriculture under the Department
planted to rice to include uplands, of Interior and was headed by
marshlands and idle farmlands. Americans, Frank Lamson-
 He introduced the concept of Scribner (1902), WC Welborn
Agrikulturang Pilipino or Agr-Pinoy (1904), and Dr. George Nesom
as the Department of Agriculture's (1907).
over-all strategic framework that
serves as a guide in the In 1910, the Bureau, under the
implementation of its various supervision of the Department of
services and programs in 2011-2016 Public Instruction, was headed
and beyond. by Frederick Taylor(1911-1914)
Agri-Pinoy optimizes the and Harry Edwards (1914-1916).
development of Philippine
resources, natural and human, to After Edwards, the helm of the
achieve goals in agriculture and bureau was again given to a
fisheries, and contribute to national Filipino, Adriano Hernandez who
development with its battlecry. "Sa himself was a practicing farmer.
Agri-Pinoy, asenso'y tuloy-tuloy."
In 1917, the Department of
Duterte Administration Agriculture and Natural Resources

(DANR) took over the functions of

the bureau and was led Thereafter, Mariano
by Secretaries Galicano Garchitorena (1946-1948) was
Apacible (1917-1921), Rafael appointed by President Manuel
Corpuz (1921-1923), and Silvestre Roxas.
Apostol (1923-1928).
In 1947, the Department was
During the administration renamed as the Department of
of Secretary Rafael Alunan, Agriculture and Natural Resources
Sr. (1928-1932), the DANR became (DANR).
the Department of Agriculture and
Commerce. The Bureau of In September 1948, President
Agriculture was split into two Elpidio Quirino appointed Placido L.
bureaus, the Plant Industry and the Mapa as Secretary.
Animal Industry.
The following year, the Fish and Two years later, Vice President
Game Administration and the Fiber Fernando Lopez served
Inspection Service were established concurrently as the DANR chief.
under the leadership of Secretary During his term, the Bureau of
Vicente Singson Encarnacion (1933- Agricultural Extension (now
1934). Agricultural Training Institute) was
established, along with the
From 1934-1938, Eulogio organization of the 4-H Clubs and
Rodriguez, Sr. was appointed Rural Improvement Clubs (RICs)
Secretary and was replaced nationwide.
by Secretary Benigno S. Aquino, Sr.
until 1941. During Aquino’s term, In 1953, President Quirino
the Fish and Game Administration reappointed Placido L. Mapa as
was restructured and the Division Secretary. Under his tenure, the
of Soil Survey was created. Rice Economic Board was set up,
making the rice industry the first
Upon the outbreak of the Pacific commodity to have an integrated
War, Pres. Quezon re- national planning.
appointed Secretary Rafael Alunan,
Sr. (1941-1942) as Secretary of Salvador Araneta (1953-55) was
Agriculture and Commerce. later named as Secretary and three
major agencies under the DANR
After the Japanese liberalization on were created, namely: Agricultural
July 4, 1945, the government rebuilt Tenancy Commission, precursor of
the country and reconstituted the the Department of Agrarian
agencies including the Department Reform; Philippine Tobacco
of Agriculture and Commerce Administration, forerunner of the
(DAC). National Tobacco Administration;
and Philippine Coconut
With the resumption of the Administration (now known as
Commonwealth Government, Philippine Coconut Authority).
President Sergio Osmeña
reappointed Vicente Singson During the latter part of his term,
Encarnacion as Secretary of the President Magsaysay
DAC. appointed Juan G. Rodriguez (1955-

60) as DANR chief, whose term was Marcos named Vice Pres. Lopez as
highlighted by several milestones: Secretary, serving for the second
the Philippines became a member time in a concurrent capacity.
of the United Nations Food and Considered as the “rice czar,” he
Agriculture Organization (FAO); successfully implemented a
launch of the National Rice and production program that enabled
Corn Production Program; and the Philippines to export rice for the
creation of the Rice and Corn first time in 1968.
Coordinating Council, forerunner of
the National Agricultural and During the early years of Martial
Fishery Council (NAFC). Law, in May 1974, President Marcos
reorganized and split the DANR into
On September 14, 1959, the DANR two agencies: Department of
offices moved from Manila (at Agriculture (DA); and Department
Agrifina Circle) to Quezon City of Natural Resources (DNR). Arturo
(along Elliptical Road , Diliman). R. Tanco, Jr. was named as DA
Secretary.
When Cesar Fortich became the
DANR chief in 1961, the Abaca Four years later, government
Development Board (forerunner of departments were transformed into
the Fiber Development Authority) ministries.
was created.
With Tanco remaining at the helm
Jose Locsin, then concurrent of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Chairman of the National Economic the Masagana 99 rice production
Council, succeeded Fortich from program was launched which made
September to December 1961. the country self-sufficient and a rice
exporter. A similar program on corn
In 1962, President Diosdado also made the country self-
Macapagal appointed Benjamin M. sufficient in white corn.
Gozon as Secretary. During his
term, two agencies were created: In June 1978, the MA established 12
the Bureau of Agricultural regional offices nationwide.
Economics (forerunner of the
Bureau of Agricultural Statistics); Six years later, in June 1984, the
and the National Rice and Corn agency was renamed Ministry of
Administration or RCA (now known Agriculture and Food (MAF). The
as the National Food Authority). Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources was transferred from the
The following year, President Ministry of Natural Resources.
Macapagal appointed RCA
Administrator Jose Y. Feliciano as In 1984, under a parliamentary
concurrent Secretary of Agriculture. government, Assemblyman
Feliciano launched the Agricultural Salvador H. Escudero III — former
Marketing News Service that Director of the Bureau of Animal
provided regularly farmers and Industry and MAF Deputy Minister
consumers prices of selected — served as MAF Minister.
commodities.
Escudero implemented the
In 1965, President Ferdinand Intensive Rice Production Program

(IRPP), an import-substitution Production Enhancement Program

program, expanded government’s (CPEP) enabling the Philippines to
animal dispersal program, once again export rice in 1992 and
particularly the Bakahang attained self-sufficiency in corn,
Barangay (cattle raising the at respectively.
village level)
andPagbababuyan (swine raising). In 1992, President Fidel V. Ramos
named Roberto S. Sebastian as DA
On February 1986, as a result of chief who introduced the Key
the ‘EDSA People Power Production Approach (KPA) which
Revolution,’ Corazon C. Aquino was became the basis in the formulation
catapulted as President. She of the Medium-Term Agricultural
named Ramon V. Mitra, Jr. as MAF Development Plan (MTADP).
Minister who implemented policy
and institutional reforms that freed In 1996, President Ramos
the agriculture markets, enabling appointed Dr. Salvador H. Escudero
farmers to enjoy higher farmgate III, serving for the second time as
prices. DA Secretary. During that time, he
launched the Gintong Ani food
MAF Deputy Minister Carlos G. production and security program.
Dominguez was appointed to He also organized subsistence
replace Minister Mitra. farmers into functional groups and
cooperatives, aimed at
On January 30, 1987, President transforming them into viable
Aquino signed and issued Executive producers and entrepreneurs.
Order No. 116, which renamed and
reorganized the MAF into In July 1998, President Joseph
the Department of Agriculture. Ejercito Estrada designated William
Under DA, Dominguez introduced D. Dar as Acting DA Secretary who
reforms in the rural credit system introduced the Estrada
and established Comprehensive administration's 10-point agenda in
Agricultural Loan Fund (CALF). agriculture and fisheries under
the Agrikulturang
In 1988, the Livelihood Makamasa program.
Enhancement for Agricultural
Development (LEAD) program was In March 1999, President Estrada
launched to speed up farmers' named former Senate
organizations access to financing, President Edgardo J. Angara as DA
management expertise, and Secretary who authored the
marketing. Agriculture and Fishery Agriculture and Fisheries
Councils (AFCs) were set up at the Modernization Act of 1998 or AFMA
sectoral, regional, provincial and (Republic Act No. 8435). He put into
municipal levels to provide inputs action the law’s visions of
on major programs and policy transforming and modernizing the
decisions and help plan and country’s agriculture and fisheries
monitor DA projects. sector.
Senen C. Bacani, appointed in Domingo F. Panganiban continued

Janaury 1990, implemented the the implementation of AFMA as the
Rice Action Program (RAP) and Corn government’s comprehensive

framework and platform for rural

development when he assumed When Secretary Yap took the agri
office in January 2001. seat on October 23, 2006, he has
aggressively and consistently
A month later, he was replaced implemented various projects and
by Leonardo Q. Montemayor who policies towards the attainment of
implemented the AFMA with food security and self-sufficiency.
special emphasis on its social equity Under FIELDS, the government’s
aspect. He launched the Ginintuang centerpiece program on agriculture,
Masaganang Ani Countrywide unveiled during the 2008 Food
Assistance for Rural Employment Summit, Yap has set achievement
and Services (GMA-CARES). records for the Philippine agri and
aqua sectors.
Secretary Luis P. Lorenzo Jr., took
the helm of the Department in Secretary Bernie
December 2002 and spearheaded Fondevilla continued DA’s
the launching of the Roll-On, Roll- mandate of providing sufficient
Off or RORO transport program. food and sustainable livelihood for
The hybridization programs of the the Filipino people through
Department were intensified and modernized technologies and
interventions were focused on the facilities when he took the agri seat
Mindanao regions. on March 2010.
On June 30, 2010, President Benigno S.
Secretary Arthur C. Yap, appointed Aquino III appointed two-term
on August 23, 2004, continued to congressman of Quezon and civil
uphold the vision of a modernized engineer by profession Proceso J.
smallholder agriculture and Alcala as Secretary. One of the
fisheries, a diversified rural principal authors of Republic Act
economy that is dynamic, 10068, or the Organic Agriculture
technologically advance and Act of 2010, he is keen on
internationally competitive. Under increasing rice production and do
his term, Goal 1 (develop two away with rice imports by 2013 by
million hectares of new lands for expanding areas planted to rice to
agribusiness to contribute two include uplands, marshlands and
million to the 10 million jobs idle farmlands.
targeted by 2010) and Goal 2 (make He introduced the concept of
food plentiful while keeping the Agrikulturang Pilipino or Agr-Pinoy
price of "wage goods" at low prices) as the Department of Agriculture's
were unveiled. over-all strategic framework that
serves as a guide in the
During Panganiban’s 2nd term as implementation of its various
Secretary, a total of 203,000 services and programs in 2011-2016
hectares of idle lands and 313,000 and beyond.
jobs were developed under Goal 1 Agri-Pinoy optimizes the
and ten Huwarang Palengke development of Philippine
(outstanding markets) were resources, natural and human, to
identified under Goal 2. Food lanes achieve goals in agriculture and
were designated for easier, faster fisheries, and contribute to national
and kotong-free transport of development with its battlecry. "Sa
agricultural products. Agri-Pinoy, asenso'y tuloy-tuloy."

 It is the world's largest producer of

-Problems of Philippine Agriculture coconuts, producing 19,500,000 tonnes
1) Physical in 2015 (FAO, 2015).
a. Climate - typhoons  According to FIDA, the Philippines
b. Soil – loss of topsoil provided 87.4% of the world's abaca in
2) Biological 2014, earning the Philippines
a. Insect pests US$111.33 million.
b. Diseases  The Philippines is the world's third
c. Weeds largest producer of pineapple producing
d. Physiological disorders such as more than 2.4 million of tonnes in 2015.
nutrient deficiencies  The Philippines was in the top three
e. Genetic make-up of different BANANA producing countries in 2010,
crops including India and China. Davao and
3) Socio-economic Mindanao contribute heavily to the
a. Family profile – low farm income total national banana crop.
b. Community profile – inadequate  Mangoes are the third most important
support services for optimum production fruit crop of the country based on
c. Government support – export volume and value next to
inadequate incentives for efficient and bananas and pineapples.
effective agricultural production  Corn is the second most important crop
in the Philippines. 600,000 farm
Characteristics of Philippine Agriculture households are employed in different
 Generally small-scale businesses in the corn value chain. As of
 Dependent on manual labor 2012, around 2.594 Million ha of land is
 Farmers are heterogeneous under corn cultivation and the total
 Commercial production is 7.408 million metric
 Semi-commercial subsistence ton(MMT).
 Landless farm workers  There are an estimated 458,000 families
dependent upon the cultivation
Philippine Agriculture R & D of rubber. Rubber is mainly planted in
Public investment in agricultural Mindanao, with some plantings in
research is only 0.03% of agricultural GVA Luzon and the Visayas. As of 2013, the
(gross value-added)- - lowest in East Asia total rubber production is 111,204 tons
and less than a third of WB recommends for  About 1/3 income derived comes from
poor countries. agriculture - - traders, processors,
Average rate of return is about 40% retailers and other groups.
- - much higher than other investments in Country’s small-scale commodity
agricultural development like infrastructure production
(15%). Dominated by subsistence and
semi-commercial farmers cultivating an
Contributions of Agricultural Sector to the average area of 1.5 ha
economy:  Comprising two-thirds (2/3) of the
 Main driver of economic growth in the
country - - agricultural sector landholdings of these small farmers
contributes about 22% to the GNP account for 1/5 of the total farm
 About 27.7% of total labor force is area.
involved in agricultural activities (WB,  Poor rice farmers join the landless
2017) peasant population in toiling on
 8th largest rice producer in the world, large landholdings comprising at
accounting for 2.8% of global rice least 75% of the total farm area
production controlled by 1/5 of the landholding
 The Philippines was also the world's population.
largest rice importer in 2010.
 Sugar became the most important Agricultural and Poverty in the Philippines
agricultural export of the Philippines  In the year 2000 rural poverty
between the late eighteenth century worsened by 1.5% to 41.4% (from
and the mid-1970s. 39.9% in 1997)

 Rate of malnutrition among EXPORT – Total Agricultural products

children aged 6 to 10 years old is at USD 1.444 B
40.4%
 Annual poverty threshold (for food
and non-food needs) had increased
by 18% from 1997 (P9,834) to 2000
(P11,605) - - translated to 4.3
million families or 26.5 million
Filipinos who remain poor.

urban Areas (34%)
corn farmers - - 41% IMPORT – Total Agricultural Products
rice and corn workers - - 36% USD 2.428 B
sugarcane farm workers,
coconut farm workers, forestry
workers - - 33%
fishers in the coastal waters - -
31%
 Why Filipinos are poor?
Severe inequality of income and
assets – worsened by the
inequality of access to
education
ealth care AGRICULTURAL TRADE IMBALANCE
other social services such as USD 0.984 B
safe drinking water Constraints to increasing yield
electricity
farm to market roads
The wealthiest fifth of our Yield potential of arieties/cultivars
people are 10x richer than the - - limiting
poorest fifth Technological efficiency at farm
Rural people are the poorest level - low
because the urban poor have Declining soil fertility and
better access to social services. degraded soils (uplands)
- lack
Philippine Agricultural Situation (April 2017) of/deteriorating irrigation facilities, El Niño
Population -103.8 M
Population Annual Growth Rate - 1.9% Problems, Status and Prospects of
Agricultural Labor Force - 45 + M Philippine Agriculture
Agricultural Labor Force/Total Labor Force - (AFMA, GATT, WTO, BIOTECHNOLOGY)
30% (2014) Philippine Agriculture – SWOT
Total Land (2000) - 29.82 M ha  Strength of Philippine agriculture
Arable Land + Lands with Permanent Crops -
10.05 M ha  Agriculture provides a total output
Arable Land -5.05 M ha (GDP) of about 22% - positive
Irrigated Land- 1.55 M ha  Provides direct and indirect
Agr’l Production (Crops)- 75.14 M MT employment to about 12.5 M
Palay- 12.94 MMT families – 5.1 M are into farming
Corn = 4.52 MMT  Food security remains to be lifeline
Coconut - 13.21 MMT of the country – priority attention
Banana - 5.06 MMT of the government
Sugarcane-28.54 MMT  Agriculture – mother of many
Mango -0.88 MMT industries
Pineapple -1.62 MMT  (Raw materials processing
Cassava-1.65 MMT local/export markets)
Coffee -0.13 MMT  Land asset still valuable possession
Camote -0.55 MMT for future’s security

 Farming remains to be noble – 13 hrs) - -

human undertaking and profession sun-loving plants (heliophytes) –
10 – 15,000 fc
 Weaknesses of Philippine – 32oC) - - - - - - - - - -
agriculture shade-loving plants (sciophytes) - ginger
 Low adoption rates of component – 4,000 mm/year) –
technologies/whole systems – water-loving plants (hydrophytes)
technological deficiencies/weak - less-water requirement
extension/etc. (zerophytes)intermediate water req’t
 Heavy dependence on imported (mesophytes)
inputs - salty-water requirement
 Multiple problems (halophytes)
 Physical – climate (rainfall, To,  Soils which are fertile/suitable for
sunshine duration) agricultural production
- Soil fertility (top soil
erosion, etc.)
 Biological – Pests, diseases, weeds Farming families (about 5.2 M)
- Physiological disorders engaged in various agricultural-
(intensively cropped related activities
areas – nutrient  Family-based small farm – labor
deficiency) intensive provided
 Socioeconomic – Low farm income  Threats to Philippine Agriculture
- Inadequate support  Globalization/import
services (farm) liberalization
- Inadequate incentives –
for agricultural displaces local market of locally
production (input produced materials
prices/prices of –
product selling/mortgaging their lands
- Essentially mono-  Erratic rainfall pattern – El
culture-based design of Niño, La Niña
dominant crops – key
production areas – watershed
- Export raw materials – dysfunctional in holding water
imports finished
products (under vary below 40% critical level
developed processing  Introduction of saline water
segment) – when water table
- Presence of middlemen pumped for
in the farm – consumer domestic/irrigation
continuums purposes
- Others
Philippine Agricultural Development
 Opportunities for Philippine Programs
Agriculture
 Diverse agro environment – 1. The Agriculture and Fisheries
diverse cropping/farming Modernization Act of 1997 (AFMA)
system
 Wide variety of climate and Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act
soil that allows production (AFMA) of 1997.
of a wide variety of crops
agriculture sustainability.
Focus of AFMA
-aquaculture system
 Whole year round growing
period for essentially crop-
based agriculture lity

Today – 1B (out of 5.5 B)

Components people in poverty
Future – next 40 years
Services Population – 5.5 B + 4B
Food demand – increase
Food production – double
-Farm Employment  Environment – strained
Loss of habitat, species and
genetic resources damaging
ecosystem
Production and Marketing Support Degradation of soils and water
Services limiting agricultural productivity
trategic agriculture and and contributing to
Fisheries Development Center – suitable for famine/disease
economic scale production and agro- Global warming threatening of
industrial development the earth climate
-term Agriculture and  The Solution
Fisheries Modernization Plan – global -Collective effort
competitiveness, global climate change -Experience gained
WTO concerns and CARP concerns -Better environmental decisions
– small farmers involved -Improved technology available
in production, processing and trading small  70 – Green Revolution
and medium enterprises involved in
agriculture
Land Conversion
systems, promotion of affordable and Soil degradation
appropriate irrigation system and  80s – Productivity Decline
watershed conservation Climate change
Chemical pollution
and trade information system – supply, Eroding biodiversity
demand, price and price trends, product Water distribution
standards, etc.  90s – Alternative agriculture
– Crop rotation, Soil Health
seaports, airports, energy, communications, Conservation, Minimum tillage,
water supply, post-harvest facilities and Nutrient Cycling,
agricultural mechanization Alternative/Integrated Pest
– production Mgt.,Less Use of Chemical Inputs,
processing distribution and marketing of Alternative/Integrated Nutrient
agricultural products Mgt. Alternative/ Integrated
Crop Mgt./Varietal Resistance to
Research Development and Extension Pest and Crop Improvement
 Establishment of the National Stress Environments
Research and Development System Water Management
in Agriculture and Fisheries Others
(NRDSAF). CURRENT ISSUES
 Use of appropriate technology to  STOP THE ROT
protect the environment, reduce  Post harvest – 15% or
production costs, improve product  More in the future
quality and increase value-added MANAGING TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS
for global competitiveness  Improved technologies
 Trade and Fiscal Incentives Operate within the context
- 5-year exemption of private of Socio-economic policies
business from tariffs and duties of the governments
– importation of fertilizers, KNOWLEDGE GAP
pesticides, farm machinery, etc.  80% of world’s technology
 benefits only 10% of its
 Budget - PhP 20 B for 1st year  population
implementation  Infrastructure

NORTH SOUTH importation of agricultural products that

L H are produced in sufficient quantities.
L H
H L
H L 2. Withdrawal of domestic production
L H support by 20% over 6 years for developed
2. Ginintuang Masaganang Ani (GMA) countries and by 13% over 10 years for
Program developing countries.
– use of hybrid rice – government
– use of hybrid and inbred corn support/subsidies were pegged at minimal
crops – intensive vegetable and levels – e.g. irrigation programs were
fruit production downscaled to only 15% of farmlands
irrigated NIA. Philippine eventually ended
3. Liberalization of international trade – with zero-level subsidies – except for rice
agriculture that was provided through NFA.
Agreement on Agriculture (AoA).
Implemented under the auspices of the 3. Reduction of budgetary outlays for
World Trade Organization (WTO) export subsidies by 36% over 6 years for
Philippine membership at the World developed countries and by 24% over 10
Trade Organization (WTO) - enactment of years for developing countries and the
the AFMA – an attempt to modernize reduction of the quantity of exports
Philippine agriculture covered by export subsidy by 21% for
developed countries and by 14% for
Philippine Commitment towards the developing countries.
Liberalization of Agricultural Trade:  Philippine government did not have
– Philippine Senate ratified country’s to reduce export subsidies – there
membership in World Trade Organization is never any export subsidy
(WTO). provided to farmers.
-  Bound future government not to
oriented, import-dependent and dominated implement any agricultural
by foreign interests – such membership subsidies that could boost the
intensified the basic weakness already country’s agricultural sector.
inherent in Philippine agriculture
4. Harmonization of sanitary and
Philippine as Member of WTO is phytosanitary measures based on
committed to: internationally accepted and scientifically
1. Increase market access through the justifiable standards.
conversion of all quantitative restrictions  Restriction of entry of certain
(QR) into tariffs which will be eventually agricultural products in some
phased down. AoA/WTO stipulates that countries – e.g. aflatoxin test
tariff reduction will be by 24% over the next requirement for Philippine coconut
10 years for developing countries and by products to the US and vapor heat
36% over the next 6 years for developed treatment of Philippine mangoes
countries. Philippine have to pass the against fruit fly for mangoes
Agricultural Tariffication Act (Republic Act entering Japan.
8178) that repealed or amended existing  A set of other laws and policies
laws imposing Quantitative Restrictions effectively opens up the Philippines
(QRs) – that were designed to protect and to exploitation by citizens of other
hasten the in-country production of the member states of tee WTO.
commodity such as: - RA 7900 providing incentives, tax
-RA 7607 for corn, hogs, meat and meat holidays and infrastructure support for
products agribusiness corporations engaged in export
-RA 1296 for onion, cabbages and potatoes crop production.
-RA 2712 for coffee - RA 7562 or Investment Lease Act
-RA 1297 and 1593 for beef and beef allowing foreigners to lease agricultural
products land for 50 years renewable for another 25
-RA 7308 for seeds years.
- EO 470 or the Import
Small farmers (RA 7607) – that prohibits the Liberalization Program

- EO 264 or the Reduction in tariff Agrobacterium tumefaciens ordinarilly

on agricultural imports causes crown gall disease, a form of cancer
 Overall result of the Agreement on in plants.
Agriculture (AoA) – paved the way The bacterium enters a plant through a
for the dumping of cheap wound, it infects nearby plant cells with a
subsidized goods that directly small ring-shaped molecule of DNA, called
compete with high-production-cost plasmid (disease-causing genes).
local agricultural and food products. Scientists discovered that they could
Philippine Performance due to remove the plasmids and replace with
Globalization and Liberalization of genes that produce desirable
Agricultural Trade: characteristics.
 In the last years since the country
joined the World Trade Why make GMOs?
Organization (WTO), the Philippine Conventional Breeding
agricultural trade performance Exchange genes between two plants t
continues to weaken as trade produce offspring that have desired traits
deficit increased from year to year. done by transferring the male (pollen) of
-Local market became flooded with one plant to the female organ of another
cheap agricultural imports while the plant.
country’s exports were not able to Limitations
penetrate rich countries markets. Breeding is limited to exchanges between
-As of 2004 accumulated trade same or very closely related species
deficits have already reached a very high Takes long time to achieve desired result
value of 9 B USD Frequently, characteristics of interest do
-Agricultural liberalization caused not exist in any related species
significant decline in the agricultural
sector’s productivity (GDP) Advantages of GM Technology
– 22% Enables to put together in one plant
– 18.5% useful gene from a wide range of living
– 17.4% sources, not just from within the crop
-One of the worst hit by species of from closely related plants.
liberalization of agricultural trade is the Allows to do faster development of new
vegetable industry plant varieties of desired traits.
local markets from 42,000 metric tons (MT) Genetically Modified Organisms are
in 1995 to 115,000 MT by 2000 developed for the following traits:
-Overall number of jobs created in Insect resistance
agriculture has fallen from 128,000 in 1996 Herbicide resistance
to 44,000 in 2004. Disease resistance
Improved nutritional character
5. Biotechnology Enhanced storage life
Biotechnology is defined as any
technique that uses living organism or part Some Examples of GMOs:
of it to modify products for specific use. 1. Insect resistance
Transformed with Bt gene from a
The Birth of Agricultural Biotechnology naturally occurring soil microorganism
Agricultural biotechnology was born in (Bacillus thuringiensis)
the early 1980. – corn borer resistance
A key breakthrough was the discovery in – budworm and
1977 that a naturally occurring bacterium, bollworm resistance
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, can inject 2. Herbicide Resistance
foreign genes into plants. Transformed with genes for resistance to
Researchers isolate useful genes from herbicide e.g. Glyphosate resistance
plants (resistance to a disease, a pest, or
drought). cotton
They assemble genes using the chemical 3. Virus resistance
components of deoxyribunucleic acid
(DNA), the molecule that carries genes).

Transformed with natural host resistance Antibiotic resistance (marker gene

genes of viral genes to confervirus designated to identify genetically
resistance transformed plants)
Papaya ring spot virus resistant papaya Effect on:
Tungro virus resistant rice -Environment
Leaf curl virus resistant tomato -Effect on non-target organisms
4.Improved nutrition -Development of resistance to B
Enriched vitamin A rice
High iron rice Issues, National/International Policies and
5.Longer storage life Trade Agreements and Crop Production:
Delayed ripening tomato, papaya, mango New technologies, such as
biotechnologies, if properly focused, offer a
What are the potential benefits of GMOs? possible way to enhance agricultural
Higher crop yields productivity for now and the future.
Reduced farm costs The 1992 Convention of Biological
Increased farm profits Diversity (CBD) defined biotechnology as
Improved health and environment “any technological application that uses
What are the Potential Risks of GMOs? biological systems, living organism or
The danger of unintentionally introducing derivatives thereof, to make or modify
allergens and other antinutrition factors in products or processes for specific uses”.
foods Coupled with other technologies,
The likelihood of transgenes escaping biotechnology could provide new solutions
from cultivated crops into wild relatives for some of the old problems and
The risk of these toxins affecting non- constraints to sustainable rural
target organisms development and achievement of food
Emergence of more virulent security. It also offers unique opportunities
virus/destructive diseases to solve environmental problems.
GM Crops in the Philippines 1.3 The Nature and Features of Agricultural
Field release: Systems
– first release GM crop in
the Phil in 2002 Agricultural Systems (bases):
Under development testing: 1. Agricultural production possibilities
virus resistant -High and low potential
papaya -Favorable and marginal
2. Technological concentrations
-Green revolution
-Complex and diverse
3. Quality and available natural resources
mango -Resource – rich
-Resource – poor
Regulations on the Use and Release of 4. Use of external inputs
GMO: -High external input
-Low external input
regulation of GMOs
o Bureau of Plant Industry CLASSIFICATIONS OF AGRICULTURAL
o National Committee on Biosafety of CROPS
the Philippines
o Cartagena Protocol Plants can be classified according to the
-Protocol that seeks to following criteria: (1) botanical, (2)
ensure the safe, transfer, descriptive, and (3) agricultural. Botanical
handling and use of GMOs. classification is based on the morphological
GMOs Concerns: characteristics of plants as well as on their
Gene transfer anatomy, physiology and DNA sequences.
Gene transfer from GM crop to Descriptive classification is based on the
wild species and non-GM crops environmental adaptation, growth habit
and other observable features. In
food chain by the digestive system agriculture, plants can be broadly classified
as either useful or unuseful. Those which

are useful are called crops while those under intensive care for the foreign market.
which are not useful are called weeds. According to Lantican (2001), sweet potato
A common, well-defined system of and white potato are considered
crop classification is important in crop horticultural crops in the Philippines
science and agriculture. Grouping of plants because these crops are grown under
following established systems will simplify intensive care, but they are classified as
plant collection initiatives, research, agronomic crops in countries where their
breeding and specialized development production is highly mechanized and under
efforts. Having standardized botanical extensive or in large scale culture.
names will also facilitate efficient For comparison and further
communication, dissemination and retrieval clarification, major crop classifications as
of scientific information. Additionally, the defined by the Food and Agriculture
grouping of crops will indicate that these Organization (FAO) of the United Nations
crops may have similar uses, adaptation, are herein provided verbatim. In its report
growth habits and methods of culture. entitled “Crops Statistics - Concepts,
Classifying crops by family is Definitions and Classifications”, FAO (2010).
likewise important in intergeneric grafting
as practiced with eggplant and tomato of 1. Botanical Classification
the family Solanaceae, and bottle gourd and The botanical classification of plants
other cucurbits with watermelon and melon is based on the International Code of
(Leonardi and Romano, 2004). In disease Botanical Nomenclature and the
control and prevention, such classification is International Code of Nomenclature for
important due to commonality of some Cultivated plants.
diseases as in potato and tomato. Both are  Plant taxonomy - science that deals
affected by the fungal disease called late with classification, nomenclature
blight (Miles, undated). To students of crop and identification of plants (oldest
science, a list of crops under the various branch of Botany).
agricultural classifications will be a useful  Theoprastus (father of botany) –
reference in crop names and identification the first scientist who worked on
and as a review guide. To the farm manager botanical system of classification.
himself, the same list will offer innumerable He classified plants by gross
benefits in finding alternative crops for morphology (form, size, and
specific uses. texture).
Despite these advantages, however,  Carolus Linneaus (1707-78) - a
classifications of crops in agriculture vary Swedish physician credited for his
from place to place and from one country work by giving two-part scientific
to another due to differences in the primary names (binomial system – Genus
usage of certain crops, intensity of care, and species name) to organisms.
extent of cultivation and other criteria Usually a third name is placed after
under consideration. The confusion due to the species to give authority who
the absence of a universal standard should named the plant. Example: Oryza
be a major concern for those who are sativa L.
engaged in the dissemination of the basics
of crop production. Example of a botanical classification of a
It is not uncommon to find crops corn plant
having two or more classifications, used Classification unit
simultaneously, alternatively or Kingdom
sequentially. Peanut (groundnut) is a Plantae
legume seed crop, being grown for the Division
harvesting of mature seeds. Such Spermatophyte
classification especially applies from the Subdivision
point of view of the farmer. At the same Angiospermae
time, it can be classified as an oil seed crop Class
or industrial crop if the seeds are intended Monocotyledonae
to be processed primarily into vegetable oil. Order
Thirdly, it can fall under plantation crop if Graminales
its cultivation is so extensive as to cover a Family
large area and the operation is handled Graminae

Genus d. companion crop – a crop planted

Zea simultaneously with the main crop.
Species e. Green manure – a crop grown and
mays plowed under to improve the soil.
Scientific name: Zea mays L. f. Silage – forage that has been preserved in
2. Agronomic Classification a succulent condition by partial
Agronomy – science of field crop fermentation.
production and management.
- derived from Greek words “agros” 3. Horticultural Classification
(field) and “nomos” (to manage) Horticulture – derived from Latin words
Agronomic Crops or Field Crops. These are -“hortos” (garden) and “cultura”
annual herbaceous plants that are grown on (cultivation)
the farm under a system of “extensive” or Horticultural Crops – are annual and
large scale culture. They are grouped or perennial species which are grown under a
classified based on the manner by which system of “intensive” culture which means
they are utilized. they usually require special care. They are
a. Cereal or grain crops –belonging to the grouped in relation to the manner they are
grass family, which are utilized as staple. utilized.
The word “cereal” is derived from the name 1. Pomological or Fruit Crops
of the most important grain deity; the a. Tree fruits. Fruits borne on trees such as
Roman Goddess “Ceres”. mango, lanzones, durian, orange, etc.
b. Seed legumes or pulses of the family b. Nut fruits. Fruits borne on trees but
Leguminosae, which are consumed in the which are enclosed by a stony structure,
dry seed form. The legumes are rich sources such as talisay, cashew, and pili.
of protein. The plants posses the ability to c. Small fruits. Fruits borne not on trees but
fix nitrogen from the air in symbiotic on herbaceous plants, such as pineapple,
association with Rhizobium bacteria. The strawberry, and vine plants such as grapes.
major legume crops are mungbean, peanut, 2. Vegetables - vegetable crops are
and soybeans. classified based on similarities in the
c. Fiber crops – are sources of fiber. Ex. method of culture.
kenaf, jute, ramie and cotton a. Leafy vegetables - crops grown mainly for
d. Root and tuber crops – are rich sources their leaves, such as malungay, pechay,
of carbohydrate. kangkong, and saluyot.
Ex. Cassava, sweet potato and potato b. Cole crops or Crucifers - crops that
e. Forage legumes and grasses - for animal belong to the crucifer family specifically
fodder. cabbage, cauliflower and chinese cabbage.
Ex. Grasses – Napier (elephant grass), c. Root, Tuber, and Bulb Crops - crops with
guinea grass, para grass, swollen underground stems or roots, such
pangola grass, Alabang X, legume as sweet potato, onion, radish and potato.
forages - centro, ipil-ipil, townsville stylo, d. Legumes - crops belonging to the legume
siratro. family, like sitao, cowpea, lima bean, pigeon
f. Crops for industrial processing Ex. pea, chick pea, and winged bean
sugarcane, tobacco, castor bean. e. Solanaceous Crops - crops belonging to
g. Sugar – grown for their sweet syrup the solanaceous or nightshade family
(Solanaceae) whose economically useful
Special purpose classification of field parts are the fruits, such as tomato,
crops: eggplant, and sweet pepper.
f. Cucurbits - crops belonging to the
a. Soiling crop or zero grazing – one that is cucurbit family (Cucurbitaceae) such as
cut green and fed to livestock. cucumber,muskmelon, squash,
b. Cover crops/cash crops – crops grown to watermelon, ampalaya and chayote.
maintain a plant cover on the land to g. Sweet corn
prevent erosion and leaching, when h. Okra
turned under it becomes a manure crop i. Tree Vegetables. ex. Malungay, katuray,
hence, improved soil condition. himbabao
c. Catch crop – a crop planted on land
where other crops have failed, usually a
quick growing one.

3. Ornamentals. Ornamentals can be f. Medicinal and biocidal crops – are sources

classified
according to their
special uses or
aesthetic value.
a. Cut flower or
florist crop -
plants grown for
their flowers, such
as daisies, rose,
gladiolus,
carnation,
chrysanthemum,
anthuriums,
sampaguita,
orchids.
b. Cut foliage or florist greens - plants of pharmaceutical and insecticidal
whose foliage provides background in floral compounds eg. lagundi (Vitex negundo),
arrangemen such as ferns and asparagus yerba buena (Mentha cordiflora), sambong
use for corsages, bouquets, and wreaths. (Blumea balsamifera).
c. Flowering pot plants - plants grown in
containers for their beautiful flowers, # Descriptive Classification – plants are
usually for display purposes. classified (described) based on the following
Crysanthemum, poinsettia, santan, criteria.
bougainvilla a. Growth habits
d. Landscape plants - almost all Annuals – single growing season
ornamentals are use for landscaping Biennials – two growing seasons
purposes. Perennial – continue growing
e. Foliage plants - grown for their attractive indefinitely
foliage, they are sometimes called indoor b. Structure and form
plants ex. Begonia, philodendron. Herbaceous – soft and succulent
f. Turf - grasses used for lawns (grass for Woody – develop secondary tissues
golf courses) ex. Manila grass Vines – trailing or climbing plants
Trees – woody; single stem
4. Plantation/Industrial crops - are c. Leaf retention
classified according to their useful Deciduous – loose leaves annually for
components. They may have different extended period.
cultural practices but their principal Evergreen – maintain leaves throughout
products can be substituted for one the year
another. d. Climatic adaptation
a. Oil crops - are grown for their oil content Tropical – warm climate
such as coconut, african oil palm, lumbang, Temperate – marked winter season
castor bean. (freezing)
b. Fiber crops - grown for their fibers used Sub-tropical – eg. Baguio city
for textiles, corsage pulp, paper twines, e. Usefulness
sacks, bags, mats, etc. Root crops
c. Beverage crops - use for brewing, non- Medicinal
alcoholic drinks, ex. cacao, tea, coffee. Forage
d. Spices, Condiments and Essences - used Fruits and vegetable
to provide special flavor, scents, and color Grains and cereals
to food, perfume, soaps, and body dressings Ornamental
(sprays, splashes, rubbing ointments), such Fiber crop
as black pepper, vanilla, lemon grass Sugar cop
(tanglad), ilang-ilang. Oil crop
e. Latexes and Resins - crops where Beverage crop
products of the sap (latex) tapped from the f. Other classifications used:
back are obtained, such as rubber. 1. Phylogenetic – how they look

a. Herbaceous – succulent and has a PhilRice - Philippine Rice Research Institute

self-supporting stem. SRA -Sugar Regulatory Administration
b. Vine –non-woody, requires support PRCRTC - Philippine Rootcrops Research and
for upright growth. Training Center
c. Liana – woody requires support for
upright growth. MAJOR CROPS OF THE PHILIPPINES
d. Shrubs – with self-supporting stem, AND THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
one with several more or less Table 3. Geographical distribution of Some
upright stems. of the major horticultural and agronomic
e. Tree – has a single central and woody crops of the country. The areas in which
stem and usually taller than a shrub at its crops are listed are ranked among the first
peak height. five regions producing the crop.
PCA -Philippine Coconut Authority
2. Environmental – where they grow NPRCRTC- Northern Philippines Rootcrops
a. terrestrial Research and Training Center
b. aquatic NARC - National Abaca research Center
c. epiphytes – plants that grow on live Specialized Discipline-research Oriented
trees or dead trunks but do not depend on Research Centers:
them for water and nutrients ex. Orchids IPB - Institute of Plant Breeding
3. Shoot growth habit NCPC - National Crop Protection Center
a. Determinate – shoot ends turn into NPGRL - National Plant Genetic Resources
flower.Ex. Tomato, mungbean. Laboratory
b. Indeterminate – shoots continue to
grow until the plant senesces
ex. Stringbeans, squash
MAJOR INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH

ORGANIZATIONS MANDATED TO DO
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN CROP
SPECIES:
IRRI– International Rice Research Institute
(Philippines)
CIMMYT – Centro International de
Mejoramiente de Maize y Trigo (Mexico)
CIP – Centro International de Patatas (Peru)
ICRISAT – International Center for Semi-
Arid and Tropics (India)
CIAT- Centro De International de
Agricultural Tropical (Colombia)
ICARDA - International Center for
Agricultural Research for dry Areas (Syria)
IITA- International Institute for Tropical
Agriculture (Nigeria)
ICRAF - International Centre for Research
in Agroforestry (Kenya)
AVRDC - Asian Vegetable research and
Development Center (Taiwan)
Biodiversity International- for International
Plant Genetic Research Institute (Italy)
NATIONAL COMMODITY RESEARCH

CENTERS:
FIDA -Fiber Industry Development
Authority
NTA -National Tobacco Administration

 Allied Botanicals
PHTRC - Postharvest Horticulture Training

and Research Center
BIOTECH- National institute of Molecular
Biology and Biotechnology
Private Seed Companies:

 East West
 Monsanto
 Pioneer
 Syngenta

OTHER SOURCES: mango, molave (Vitex parviflora), narra

(Pterocarpus indicus), tamarind.
Crop Classifications According To Growth
Habit: E. Crop Classifications According to Leaf
Retention
1. Herbs- succulent plants with self-
supporting stems. Examples: aglaonema,
banana, dumbcane, sugarcane, tomato. 1. Evergreen- plants that maintain their
leaves throughout the year. Abscissed
2. Vines- herbaceous climbing or twining leaves are continually replaced by new
plants without self-supporting stems. flushes. Examples: pines, banana, papaya,
Examples: charantia (ampalaya), cucumber, palms and most tropical plants.
luffa (patola), pole sitao, yam.
2. Deciduous- plants which naturally shed
3. Lianas- woody climbing or twining plants off or lose leaves annually for extended
which depend on other plants for vertical periods. Natural leaf shedding is
support to climb up to the top of the pronounced in deciduous trees of
canopy. These climbers often form bridges temperate regions. In the Philippines,
between the forest canopy (Wikipedia, defoliation occurs during summer months
2010). Examples: Climbing bamboo, grape, in Fire Tree (Delonix regia) and red mombin
Jade vine (Strongylodon macrobotrys), or siniguelas. Many other plants exhibit
rattans, passion fruit. partial defoliation during drought periods.
4. Shrubs- small trees or tree-like plants, F. Crop Classifications According to

generally less than 5 meters in height but by Ecological Adaptation or Habitat
other authorities it is restricted to small,
erect, woody plants which produce several 1. Aquatic, hydrophyte or hydrophytic
trunks from the base. Examples: Barbados plant - a plant adapted to growing in water
cherry, pink jasmine (kamuning), Siam weed or waterlogged soil. It may grow entirely
(hagonoy), santan, Lantana. submerged, partly submerged or floating,
or anchored to the ground in bogs, swamps,
5. Trees- plants having erect and or beside the edges of ponds, lakes or
continuous growth with a large streams. Examples: azolla, kangkong
development of woody tissue, with a single (Ipomea aquatica), bulrush (Cyperus spp.),
distinct stem or trunk, reaching a height of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), water lily
5 meters or more. Examples: durian, (Nymphaea spp.), mangrove species.

shade, e.g. most ferns and mosses, black

2. Epiphyte or epiphytic plant- a plant that pepper, cacao, coffee, lanzones,
grows aboveground on another plant but is mangosteen, hot pepper, gingers, and many
not parasitic, usually deriving only physical orchids can tolerate or require shade.
support from the host and obtaining
nourishment from the air and other 9. Terrestrial or land plant- a plant which
sources. Some have roots that take grows on land, rooting in the soil. It has
moisture and minerals leached from the aerial parts, collectively called shoot, and an
canopy of trees and others catch rain and underground part called root which absorbs
debris in special hollow leaves. The most most of its water and nutrient needs from
common epiphytes belong to the pineapple the soil. Most agricultural crops are
(bromyliad), orchid, and fern families; also terrestrial and are further subclassified into
called air plant or tree dweller. various groups such as halophytes,
mesophytes, sciophytes and xerophytes
Where a plant, e.g. strangler fig (balete), depending on climatic and special
initially grows as an epiphyte but later adaptations.
becomes rooted to the soil, it is especially
called a hemiepiphyte. 10. Xerophyte, xerophytic or xeric plant- a
plant which is adapted to conditions with
3. Halophyte or halophytic plant- a plant little or no water. Examples: adelfa,
that is able to grow in habitats excessively bromyliads, euphorbias, cacti and many
rich in salts or under saline conditions. succulents.
Examples: nipa, talisay, bakawan Note: According to Went and The Editors of
(Rhizophora mucronata) and other Life (1963), pygmy cedar (Peucepyllum) can
mangrove species. Coconut, cashew and live without soil water. It obtains its water
tamarind have varying levels of tolerance to need from the water vapor in the air alone,
saline conditions. replenishing its supply during the night.
They also noted that the caper plant
4. Lithophyte or lithophytic plant- a plant (Capparis spinosa) of the Sahara seems to
adapted to growing on rocks or in rocky have the same ability. However, it is now
terrain with little humus, absorbing known that caper has one of the deepest
nutrients from the atmosphere, rain, and root systems among plants (Ozkahraman
decaying matter which accumulate on the (1997), cited by Sakcali, et al., 2008).
rocks. Vanda, Ascocenda, Ascocentrum, and
Trudelia orchids can be grown as Agronomic vs. Horticultural Crops
lithophytes (McKinley, 2005). Dendrobium On the basis of tradition, extent of
has also been grown in pots filled with cultivation and intensity of culture,
gravel or stone. agricultural crops are classified into two
main divisions: agronomic and horticultural.
5. Mesophyte or mesophitic plant-a 1. Agronomic crops are also called
terrestrial plant which is adapted to “field crops”. They are mostly
moderate conditions for growth, i.e. not too annual herbaceous plants that are
dry and not too wet (e.g. corn and most grown under extensive or large-
commercially-grown crops). scale culture. The usable products
are usually in high dry matter form.
6. Parasite or parasitic plant- a plant which By tradition, cereals, seed legumes,
grows on another plant from which it takes root and tuber crops, sugar crops,
part or all nourishment (e.g. Cassytha, latex and rubber crops, pasture and
Loranthaceae (mistletoe family), Rafflesia; forage crops, and fiber crops are
Neottia and Corallorhiza orchids). classified under agronomic crops.
2. Horticultural crops have been
7. Saprophyte or saprophytic crop- grows referred to as “garden crops”.
on decaying organic matter and has no Included in this classification are
green tissue. This classification applies to those grown under any of the fields
the mushrooms, which are fungi. of horticulture such as olericulture
or vegetable crops production,
8. Sciophyte or sciophytic plant- a plant pomology or fruit crops production,
that is adapted to low light intensity or and ornamental horticulture

(floriculture and landscape and utilized primarily as staple or feed or

horticulture), as well as spices and processed into carbohydrate-rich products.
medicinal plants. Horticultural The word “cereal” is derived from Ceres,
crops are annual and perennial the ancient Roman goddess of harvest.
plants which are grown under an The grain of cereals is technically a type of
intensive system of culture. single, dry, indehiscent fruit called
Horticultural products are generally caryopsis, which has a hard outer pericarp
utilized with high moisture content fused to the seed coat. The endosperm
and are therefore highly perishable. predominantly consists of starch.
From Janick (1972), these crops can Examples: corn, millet, rice, sorghum,
be defined as “intensively cultured wheat.
plants directly used by man for FAO (2010) definition: Cereals are annual
food, for medicinal purposes, or for plants, generally of the gramineous family,
esthetic gratification”. Intensive yielding grains used for food, feed, seed and
culture means a large input of industrial purposes, e.g., ethanol. They
capital, labor and technology per exclude legumes, such as pulses, but include
unit area of land. rice, canary seed, buckwheat and triticale. It
has been recommended that the
Agricultural Classifications Based on denomination of "cereal crops" be limited to
Primary Uses: crops harvested for dry grain only,
1. Food Crops – plants grown primarily for excluding, therefore, crops harvested green
the harvesting of any part which is used by for forage, silage, grazing, etc.; and, in the
man as food or processed into food case of maize, harvested green, also for
product. This classification is a collective food.
term for crops which are variously 5. Legume Seed Crops or Pulses-
subclassified into smaller groups such as leguminous plants which produce edible,
cereals, root and tuber crops, legume seed protein-rich seeds. The seeds are utilized in
crops, sugar crops, beverage crops, fruit the mature, dry form as food or feed or
crops and vegetables. processed into various products. However,
2. Non-food Crops- plants grown for the protein quality is inferior compared to meat
production of non-food products such as because methionine content is generally
fiber, fodder, alcohol, tobacco, industrial oil, insufficient. Being leguminous, they are
rubber, gums and resins, drugs, etc. or for capable of fixing nitrogen from the air
ornamentation. Included in this through symbiotic relation with Rhizobium
classification are fiber crops, pasture and bacteria.
forage crops, rubber crops, latex and gum 6. Root and Tuber Crops or Tuberous
crops, dye and tannin crops, biofuel crops, Crops- plants with modified, swollen root or
essential-oil crops, biocidal crops and most underground stem. These organs are rich
industrial crops. sources of carbohydrate and are commonly
3. Staple Crops- plants grown for the used as staple, livestock feed, or as raw
harvesting of parts which are used as staple materials for industrial purposes, such as
food. A staple food is one that is regularly starch and alcohol production, or processed
consumed in such quantities as to form the into various food products.
basis of a traditional diet and from Crops with modified roots are distinct from
which people obtain a major proportion of those having modified stems. Examples of
their energy and nutrient modified roots are the tuberous and fleshy
requirements. In the Philippines, the top roots while the tuber and corm are
staple crop is rice followed by corn. Cassava examples of modified stems. A tuberous
is also consumed as staple by some ethnic root is a thickened secondary root as in
groups. arrowroot, cassava, sweet potato and yam
Examples of other staple crops: wheat, bean. A fleshy root is usually an enlarged
banana and plantains, breadfruit, millet, primary root, as in carrot, ginseng (Panax
white potato, sweet potato, yam. spp.) and sugar beet. The upper portion on
4. Cereal or Grain Crops - annual, which secondary roots develop is hypocotyl
herbaceous plants belonging to the grass or the first internode of the stem. In
family Gramineae (Poaceae) and some raddish, the fleshy root consist mainly of
graminoids which are grown for their seeds the hypocotyl.
or grains. The grains are harvested mature

A tuber is an enlarged tip of an Examples: cacao, coconut, coffee, soursop,

underground stem with leaves reduced to tea.
scales or scars subtending the auxillary 10. Rubber Crops- plants grown for the
buds, as in white potato and yam. The production of latex which is processed into
“eyes” represent buds in nodes, arranged in the industrial product called rubber. Rubber
spiral pattern from base to the apical end of is an elastic hydrocarbon polymer
the tuber. Aerial tubers are called tubercle. constructed of isoprene units. It has
A corm, as in gabi, elephant’s ear and widespread uses, from household to
tannia, is a short, solid, underground stem. industrial products, with the main bulk in
The corms are usually flattened from top to the transportation sector.
bottom with numerous roots at the lower Examples: para rubber tree (Hevea
part, and a tuft of leaves on the upper. brasiliensis), Castilla rubber (Castilla
7. Oil Seed Crops- plants grown for their elastica), Ceara rubber (Manihot glaziovii),
seeds which are rich source of edible and guayule (Parthenium argentatum), Lagos
industrial oil. The important oil seed crops Silk Rubber (Funtumia elastica).
in the world include soybeans, peanut, 11. Latex and Gum Crops- plants grown for
sunflower, oil palm, sesame and cotton. the collection of latex which is processed
However, the leading crop in the Philippines into chewing gum, inelastic rubber and
is the coconut, followed far behind by oil other industrial products such as surgical
palm. tapes and dental supplies, insulation,
FAO (2010) definition: Temporary oil- splints, pipes, golf balls, waterproofing,
bearing crops are usually called oilseeds. adhesives, etc.
These are annual plants whose seeds are Examples: chicle tree or chico (Manilkara
used mainly for extraction of culinary and zapota), gutta-percha (Palaquium spp.),
industrial oils, excluding essential oils. balata (Manilkara bidentata), jelutong
Permanent oil-bearing crops are perennial (Dyera costulata).
plants whose seeds (kapok), fruits or 12. Dye and Tannin Crops- plants grown as
mesocarp (olives) and nuts (coconuts) are sources of tannin and coloring substances.
used mainly for extraction of culinary or Tannin is an aromatic, phenolic substance
industrial oils and fats. Consequently, which is obtained from barks and other
dessert or table nuts, such as walnuts, are plant organs and variously used in tanning,
excluded because although they are high in medicines, dyeing, ink manufacture, etc.
oil content, they are not used mainly for Examples: anatto or achuete, Indian almond
extraction of oil. or talisay, indigo (Indigofera tinctoria),
8. Sugar and Sweetener Crops - plants bakawan (Rhizophora and Bruguiera).
grown primarily for the production of sugar 13. Fiber Crops- plants grown as sources of
or other sweet-tasting products. fiber, a strong, thread-like material used in
Sugars, such as sucrose, glucose and making textiles, rope, twine and similar
fructose, are simple carbohydrates. Sucrose materials. The fiber is extracted from the
is the common table sugar. Glucose is also bark, leaves, or other organs including the
called dextrose and grape sugar while husk of coconut.
fructose is called levulose and fruit sugar. Examples: abaca, jute, kenaf, maguey and
Other organic compounds with sweet taste ramie.
are the mannitol (a colorless crystalline FAO (2010) definition: Fibre crops are
alcohol), stevioside (a complex mixture of annual crops yielding vegetable fibres,
diterpene glycosides) and monellin (a mostly soft fibres, which are utilized by the
protein). These are derived from various textile industry to produce first thread and
parts of certain plants such as from stems, yarn, and, from these, innumerable fabrics
bulb and other underground organs, leaves, or manufactures. The primary fibre crops
flowers, fruits, seeds, sap and resin are cotton, jute and flax.
(Hagelberg, 2003). 14. Pasture and Forage Crops – plants
9. Beverage Crops- plants which are sources grown or managed as vegetable feed for
of various drinks including fruit juices, tea, grazing animals. They are classified as either
coffee, cocoa, toddy, beer and wine. They native or improved species, grasses or
supply water which is essential to human legumes, and may be fed fresh or dry or in
nutrition. Some of these drinks also provide processed form.
vitamins and minerals. Others have Examples: carabao grass, paragrass, napier,
stimulating or relaxing effects. ipil-ipil, renzoni.

Soilage Crops- grasses grown, cut and plants which, if harvested for the dry grain,
directly fed to animals. are classified among cereals and pulses,
Silage Crops- grasses grown, cut, fermented belong to this group as far as they are
and preserved before being fed to animals. harvested green for the green grains and/or
FAO (2010) definition: Fodder crops are for the green pods (e.g., green maize, green
those cultivated explicitly or primarily for peas, green beans, string beans, etc.).
feeding animals. By extension, natural Moreover, only those vegetables which are
grasslands and pastures, whether cultivated principally for human
somewhat cultivated or not, also are consumption belong to this group.
included in this category. Consequently, vegetables grown principally
Temporary crops grow in artificial meadows for animal feed should be excluded, as
which are normally used very intensively, should vegetables cultivated for seed.
with various cuttings per year. They contain This group includes also melons and
three major groups of fodder: grasses, watermelons which some countries classify
including cereals harvested green; legumes, as fruit crops. As with all other vegetables,
including pulses harvested green; and root melons and watermelons are temporary
crops that are cultivated for fodder. All can crops, while fruit crops are permanent
be fed to animals as green feed; as hay, i.e. crops.
crops harvested dry or left to dry if Vegetable Classifications Based on Edible
harvested green; or as silage products. Part:
Silage or ensilage is a method of a. Leafy Vegetables- these crops are grown
preservation of green fodder through mainly for their leaves. They are rich in
fermentation to retard spoiling. vitamins and minerals and they also look
15. Biofuel Crops- plants grown for the decorative. Examples: Malabar nightshade
production of fuel that is used as additive or (alugbate), amaranth (kulitis), lettuce, jute
replacement for petroleum products. The (saluyot), (horse raddish tree) malunggay.
main biofuels are bioethanol, an alcohol b. Shoot Vegetables- plants grown primarily
derived from fermented sugar or starch, for their edible shoot, mainly the young,
and biodiesel from vegetable oils. succulent stem. Examples: asparagus,
Examples: sugarcane, cassava, corn, bamboo, celery.
coconut, castor bean, Jatropha. c. Pod and Seed Vegetables- Generally
Note: Researchers at the North Carolina members of Leguminosae or Fabaceae
State University have developed a more family, these plants are grown for their
efficient technique for producing ethanol, young pods and seeds. Examples: snap
butanol or other biofuels from woody plant bean, pole sitao, winged bean, okra, sweet
parts such as the inedible corn stalks and corn.
switchgrass. The technique degrades the d. Root and Bulb Vegetables- plants grown
plant’s lignin and frees the carbohydrates. for their swollen underground roots and
The carbohydrate thus becomes available stems. Examples: carrot, potato, onion,
for biofuel production (North Carolina State raddish, tannia
University, 2010). e. Flower Vegetables- plants with edible
16. Olericultural or Vegetable Crops – flowers. Examples: horse raddish tree
plants (except mushroom) grown for their (malunggay), katuray (Sesbania
succulent and edible parts such as the grandiflora), squash, rose, sunflower
roots, stems, leaves, young tops, fruits or
seeds for use in culinary preparations either f. Fruit Vegetables- grown for their fleshy,
fresh or preserved in the fresh state. They succulent fruits. Examples: ampalaya,
are nearly all rich in vitamins A and C with eggplant, tomato, peppers, melons.
high amounts of dietary fiber. These crops Vegetable Classifications by Family:
are further classified into different a. Cole Crops or Crucifers- these vegetable
groupings according to similarities in edible crops belong to the Cruciferae or
parts, growth habits, methods of culture Brassicaceae (Mustard) family, with edible
and botanical family. Melons are generally leaves or heads. Examples: cabbage,
included in this crop classification. cauliflower, mustard, pechay, Chinese
FAO (2010) definition: Vegetables are cabbage, raddish.
plants cultivated both as field crops and b. Cucurbits- belong to the Cucurbitaceae
garden crops, both in the open and under (Gourd and Squash) family. They are grown
glass. Certain gramineous and leguminous mainly for their fruits but some have edible

young shoots and flowers; also called Vine further classified as cutflowers, cut foliage,
Crops. Examples: bottle gourd, charantia, turfgrasses, groundcovers, hedges, accents,
cucumber, luffa, melons, squash. specimen plants, avenue trees, screens,
c. Legume Vegetables- members of the topiaries, fillers and others. Floricultural
Leguminosae or Fabaceae (Bean) family. crops are valued for their attractive flowers,
The seeds are rich in protein. Examples: foliage ornamentals for their leaves.
bush sitao, katuray, kidney bean, lima bean,
pea, pole sitao. a. Lawn or Turf Grasses- grasses grown for
aesthetic purpose in the landscape or for
d. Lilies- members of the Liliaceae (Lily) any outdoor recreational use. They are
family. Examples: asparagus, garlic, onion. usually maintained at a low height.
e. Solanaceous Crops- belong to the Examples: Bermuda grass, carabao grass,
Solanaceae (Nightshade or Eggplant) family zoysiagrass, creeping bent grass, perennial
and, with the exception of white potato, are rye grass.
also called Fruit Vegetables. Examples: b. Cutflowers- plants grown for their
eggplant, tomato, peppers, white potato. attractive flowers with long shelf life.
f. Mushrooms- these are edible fungi Examples: anthurium, chrysanthemum,
belonging to the division Basidiomycota gladiolus, orchids, rose.
(club fungi). The edible part commonly c. Cutfoliage- plants grown for their
consist of an upright stalk and an umbrella- attractive foliage which are cut for floral
shaped cap. Examples: straw mushroom, decoration. Examples: ferns, fishtail palm,
Shiitake mushroom, puffball, termite kamuning, Song of India, Song of Jamaica.
mushroom, “kabuting-higante”. d. Edge Crops- short statured plants grown
17. Pomological or Fruit Crops and Nuts– to serve as barrier between the lawn and
plants grown primarily for their edible fruits garden, to highlight gardens, or to create
or closely related structures which, as a stand-alone gardens; also called border
rule, are consumed raw. Fruits borne on plants. Examples: mondo grass, dwarf
trees are called tree fruits, among which are cucharita, dwarf sansevieria.
the duhat, durian, jackfruit, mango, e. Groundcovers- low-lying, aesthetically
mangosteen and papaya. Fruits borne on appealing plants grown in the landscape
low-growing plants such as shrubs, vines, primarily to suppress weed growth and to
lianas and some herbs are called small fruits control, retard or prevent soil erosion by
(e.g. grape, passion fruit, pineapple, covering and binding loose, bare soil. It is
strawberry). oftenly used en masse to produce a
Nuts are tree crops yielding dry fruits or carpeting effect. Examples: cucharita
kernels. They are characterized by their (Alternanthera versicolor) , Cuphea,
woody shells or hard husks which are travelling jew, creeping peanut, Vietnam
generally covered by a thick, fleshy/fibrous rose.
outer husk which is removed at harvesting e. Hedges- plants grown at the edges of
time. pathways or boundaries and continuously
18. Spice Crops- plants grown for the pruned to knee-high height or upper but
production of aromatic materials or below eye level. Examples: Duranta, hedge
substances which are used as food flavoring bamboo, Chinese holly, dwarf santan,
or for other purposes because of their papua.
fragrance or preservative qualities. Spices f. Accents- plants with showy features
are in solid or liquid forms. distinct from the rest of the other plants. It
Examples: black pepper, garlic, ginger, hot immediately attracts attention and
pepper, onion, turmeric. becomes a focal item in the landscape
19. Essential-oil Crops- plants grown for the garden and at the same time provides the
extraction of essential oils which are contrast which gives attention to other
volatile, aromatic substances for perfumery plants.
and other uses. g. Specimens- plants having showy
Examples: citronella, eucalyptus, ilang-ilang, features, or with unique characteristics
peppermint, sampagita. which make them pieces of conversation or
20. Ornamental Crops – plants which are botanical curiosity, or otherwise desired as
grown primarily for decoration or collector’s item. They are ideally planted in
landscaping or to be appreciated because of isolation rather than massed with other
their attractive flowers or foliage. They are plants, and easily become focal point in the

landscape. Examples of potential classification. These classifications do not

specimens: queen of flowering trees consider the direct benefit of the crop to
(Amherstia nobilis), palms, Mussaenda the ultimate consumer, nor to the extent of
‘Doña Eva’. cultivation and the intensity of care
h. Screens- plants grown to serve as barrier required. These classifications are used to
against sun rays, to conceal certain parts of refer to plants having special advantages to
the landscape, or to obstruct view. the farmer himself in relation to his farming
Examples: Indian tree, shrubs, trellised practices.
vines. 1. Main Crop- any crop which is intended by
i. Shade crops- generally trees, shrubs, the grower to become his main source of
trellised vines and lianas which are grown revenue.
mainly to provide shade singly or with 2. Nursery crop- a plant which is
supporting trellis. temporarily grown in the nursery and later
j. Avenue Trees- trees and shrubs grown, planted in the field or garden or used for
more or less equidistant, beside roads and ornamental display when it reaches the
streets. Palms are also used. Examples: proper age and size (e.g. most fruit crops
acacia (raintree), katuray, narra, Norfolk and ornamental crops.
Island pine, date palm. 3. Intercrop- any crop which is planted
21. Biocidal Crops- plants containing simultaneously with or before the flowering
organic compounds with pesticidal or anti- season of the main crop in intercropping.
microbial properties. The effective parts are 4. Filler Crop- any crop which is planted to
either directly applied or seeped in water fill a gap. In quincunx system of planting
for foliar spray. Many have been arrangement, the space at the center of
commercially exploited by extracting the four hills of a main crop is commonly
active ingredients. intended for a filler crop which is of a
Examples: chrysanthemum different variety or species.
(Chrysanthemum cineriaefolium), kayos 5. Relay Crop- the crop which is planted
(Dioscorea hispida), lagtang, makabuhay after the flowering period or harvest of the
(Tinospora crispa), tobacco, tubli (Derris main crop in relay cropping.
elliptica), neem. 6. Ratoon crop- the crop consisting of the
23. Industrial Crops – plants grown to regrowth from shoots retained on the
provide materials for industrial processing plants after harvest or from cut stalks of the
and production of non-food products such previous crop (e.g. pineapple, sorghum,
as biofuel, sugar, rubber, starch, industrial sugarcane).
oil, aromatic compounds, steroids, 7. Cash crop- any short maturing crop
medicinal drugs, organic pestides, tannins which is grown to generate income while
and dye. This is a special classification based the main crop is still in its vegetative stage
on the method of processing and the nature of growth; any crop grown to generate cash
of the product (non-food) and not on the rather than for subsistence.
part of the plant which is harvested and 8. Catch crop- any short maturing plant that
used as raw material. Based on these is grown simultaneously with, or between
criteria, both agronomic and horticultural successive plantings of a main crop to utilize
crops can be classified as industrial crops. residual fertilizer and soil moisture. It is
Corn (grain crop) and legume seed crops often used as a green manure or to provide
(e.g. soybean) can be classified as industrial supplemental livestock feed; also called
if they are grown primarily for industrial emergency crop.
processing to produce biofuel or industrial 9. Nurse crop- any crop which is grown to
oil. provide shade and increase humidity for the
24. Plantation Crops – plants grown in large benefit of the main crop during its seedling
tracts of land under intensive culture, and early stages of growth.
usually in a tropical or subtropical country, 10. Companion crop- any crop which is
where products are sold in distant markets planted close to the main crop to
rather than for local consumption. complement the latter’s growth and
D. Special-Purpose Classifications of Crops production, or to maximize utilization of
There are other groupings of agricultural space because they do not compete.
crops or crop-epithets which are commonly
used but cannot be appropriately placed
under either agronomic or horticultural

Examples: a. Basil (Ocimum basilicum)- green, loopy

a. Black pepper is planted with live madre tomato caterpillar.
de cacao (Gliricidia sepium) to serve as b. Garlic (Allium sativum)- greenfly.
trellis. c. Chive (Allium schoenoprasum)- greenfly
b. Lettuce acts as a living mulch to keep the and cutworms.
soil moist while sunflowers to the south or d. Corn (Zea mays)- cotton bollworm.
west provide shade for the vegetable. e. Marigold (Calendula officinalis)-
c. Planting squash and onions will maximize caterpillars and cutworms.
production per unit area of land. These f. Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus)- aphids.
crops occupy different root zones, squash g. Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus)- loopy
being deep rooted while onion is shallow caterpillar.
rooted. h. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)- cotton
11. Cover crop- a crop grown mainly to bollworm.
control soil erosion, regulate soil 16. Insect pest repellant crop- plants grown
temperature, control weeds and reduce along the borders and at strategic places in
evaporative losses. Leguminous vines such the farm to repel insect pests because of
as improved pasture and forage crops are their strong aroma and anti-herbivory
excellent cover crops. As legumes they can properties. Examples:
enrich the soil fertility by fixing atmospheric a. Anise or Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum)
nitrogen. b. Basil (Ocimum basilecum)
12. Green manure crop- a leguminous crop c. Chive (Allium schoenoprasum)
grown to be plowed under the soil to d. Garlic (Allium sativum)
increase organic matter and serve as e. Marigold or Amarillo (Tagetes sp.)
organic fertilizer. Mungbean (mungo) is f. Marjoram (Origanum majorama)
ideal for this purpose. Seeds of mungbean g. Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus)-
are commonly broadcasted in a field of rice h. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)-
immediately after harvest and allowed to i. Sesame (Sesamum indicum)
grow using residual water, thus also j.Thyme (Thymus vulgaris)
becoming a catch crop. In time for tillage in 17. Natural enemies attractant crop-
preparation for the next rice crop, the flowering plants grown at strategic places in
mungbean plants are plowed under and the farm to attract natural enemies of
allowed to decompose. insect pests. Examples:
13. Agroforest Crop – any crop which is a. Dill (Anethum graveolens)- can be grown
suited under a cropping system consisting to attract spiders, lacewings and parasitic
of mixed agricultural and forest crops. wasps which eat or parasitize caterpillars,
14. Contour Hedgerow Crop- nitrogen- beetles and aphids.
fixing trees and shrubs which are grown b. Tagetes, Calendula and Nasturtiums-
along contour lines in sloping lands under attract hoverflies whose larvae feed on
the Sloping Agricultural Land Technology aphids.
(SALT). These crops are grown mainly to
produce green manure and mulch, to serve NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF PLANTS
as firebreak, to stabilize the soil and to
control soil erosion. Examples: Plants are very important to humans
a. Madre de Cacao, kakawate (Gliricidia and all other living things in the world since
sepium) they are sources of food, clothing shelter,
b. Giant Ipil-ipil (Leucaena latisiliqua) medicine and other materials for our
c. Acid Ipil-ipil (Leucaena diversifolia) existence. Therefore a knowledge about
d. Flemingia (Flemingia macrophylla) their nature and competition is essential in
e. Renzoni (Desmodium renzonii) order to:
f. Red Powderpuff (Calliandra calothyrsus)
g. Yellow Cassia (Senna spectabilis) 1. Understand how they grow, develop
15. Trap crop or Decoy crop- plants grown and respond to their environment;
to attract certain insect pests or parasites 2. Provide proper cultural and
because they are favorite hosts. They act as management practices;
decoys to lure pests away from the main 3. Increase their number through
crop. different methods of propagation: grafting,
Examples of trap crops and the insect pests budding, division, cuttings, layering and
that they attract: tissue culture;

4. Make crosses in plant breeding; THE CELL

5. Diagnose plant disorders; and The cell Is the functional basic unit
6. Manipulate plants to produce of life or the unit structure of life of an
materials (food, feed, clothing, shelter, etc) organism. It is also called the smallest unit
to support life of life that is classified as a living thing, and
Plants have well organized structure. It is often called the building blocks of life.
starts from the smallest materials inside the
cell called organelles to a more complex Characteristics of Cells
composition making the whole plant. The 1. They can divide or reproduce.
cell is the basic unit structure of life. Group 2. They can grow.
of cells are called tissues and group of 3. They can transport food and water.
tissues constitute an organ; group of organs 4. They can photosynthesize.
make up the system which in return 5. They can respire.
comprise the whole organism or plant body. 6. They can secrete nectars.
Group of plants also constitute a 7. They can absorb, contain and
community or population as shown in excrete elements and toxic
Figure 1. substances.
8. They can contain genetic material.
Organelles >Cells>Tissues > Organs System Generally, there are two parts of a
>Organism/Plant>community cell: the PROTOPLAST and the CELL WALL.
Protoplast
The protoplast is divided into many
compartments by different particles and
membranes or organelles. Among these
organelles, the most important is the
Nucleus.
NUCLEUS
Figure 1. Organizational structure of plants 1. The nucleus is the control center of the
cell It regulates the various cell activities.
Why Study Plants? We need to study them 2. It contains large complex compound
for the following reasons: known as nucleic acid which stores the
information that
1. They are diverse and have different helps the cell produce the substances it
characteristics. needs.
2. They make people happy.
3. They are amazing living organisms.
4. They provide all living things with Types of nucleic acid:
food and oxygen through photosynthesis. a.) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which
5. They also produce an assortment of the information needed to build proteins, &
chemicals as source of medicines and b) ribonucleic acid (RNA) which reads the
biopesticides. DNA messages and guides protein synthesis
6. They are sources of materials for 3. It also contains large irregular mass of
clothing, shelter and raw resources for thin threads known as chromosomes which
many industries. occupy most of the space in the nucleus
7. Studying about the plants will inform
us about our world. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
8. Plants help make the air clean &
purify the atmosphere through CO2 This organelle is a thin membrane that
sequestration ; and separates the nucleus from the rest of the
9. They provide shade, control soil cell. It regulates the movement of materials
erosion and provide shelter for wildlife into and from the nucleus.
NUCLEOLUS
The nucleolus is a small dense floating

structure made up of RNA and protein

proteins and lipids that are synthesized by

Mitochondria and Chloroplast the cell.
 The particles of cell include CELL WALL

chloroplast where photosynthesis The outer most part of the cell; composed
occur, and the mitochondria the mainly of cellulose (long-chained sugar);
site of respiration. stiff but permeable to water, oxygen,
 The membranes also include the CO2 and dissolved materials
bounding ectoplast and tonoplast
and the internal endoplasmic CELL MEMBRANE
reticulum and dictysomes. It is the structure next to the cell wall; thin
and flexible envelope that surrounds the
Endoplasmic Reticulum protoplasm (the whole living material inside
the cell); It regulates movement of
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) materials into and from the cell; keeps
The endoplasmic reticulum is made of condition inside the cell relatively stable
tube-like passageway structure scattered in even if external conditions fluctuate.
the cytoplasm (also known as protoplasm).
It leads out from the nuclear membrane to PLANT TISSUES
the cytoplasm and is involved in the
transport of protein from one part of the Cells that are similar in structure and
cell to another. The ER has two forms: the function joined together form a tissue.
rough ER, which has ribosomes on its There are three types of tissues:
surface and secretes proteins into the 1. Dermal tissue – consists of the cuticle,
cytoplasm, and the smooth ER plays a role epidermis and sub-epidermis
in calcium sequestration its release; 2. Vascular tissue – consists of the phloem
however ,it lacks ribosomes and xylem cells
3. Ground tissue – consists of the
RIBOSOMES endodermis, cortex and pith
This organelle is a grain-like bodies attached
to the inner surface of endoplasmic Functions of Cell and Tissue Systems
reticulum, some are floating and it is the
site of protein synthesis in the cell. 1. The parenchyma cells functions as
Ribosomes read the sequence of messenger storage of water and food and for
RNAs and assemble proteins out of amino the conduction of materials
acids bound to transfer RNAs. 2. Collenchyma: sclerids, fibers and
tracheids strengthens the cells or
MITOCHONDRIA serve as mechanical tissue elements
It is a rod-shaped structures somewhat 3. Tracheids and vessels conduct
larger than the ribosomes and it supplies water and mineral salts.
most of the energy for the cell hence it is 4. Sieve tubes conduct food
sometimes called “powerhouse” of the cell 5. Vascular cambium is a
meristematic tissue whose cells are
Vacuoles capable of cell division.
It is a large, round water-filled sac floating
in the cytoplasm and the main water The growth regions of plants are composed
storage in plant cells. It is the main water of :
storage of other substances and chemicals 1. Meristematic Region .This is
and it is enveloped by a membrane known where cells multiply or divide.
as tonoplast. Meristems are found at the tip
CHLOROPLASTS of the root and shoot (apical
These are irregularly shaped green and axial), intercalary
structures floating in the cytoplasm and meristems, margin of
contains the green pigment “chlorophyll.” expanding leaves, and vascular
GOLGI APPARATUS cambium.
The role of golgi apparatus is to process and
package the macromolecules such as

2. Elongation Region epidermis and the vascular cylinder

This is where cells elongate and leads to Types of Root Systems
elongation of the organ or the plant. It is  Taproot system
found next to the region of cell division Single primary root dominates over
3. Maturation Region branch roots (usually found in
This is where cells differentiate to perform Gymnosperms and most Dicotyledons)
specific function(s); and founds next to the  Fibrous root system
elongation region A network of fine roots with no
The Plant Organs central dominant root. Fibrous root systems
don't go as deep as taproots, but they
1. Roots spread laterally
C. Tubers are various types of modified
plant structures that are enlarged to
store nutrients. They are used by plants to
survive the winter or dry months and
provide energy and nutrients for regrowth
during the next growing season and they
are a means of asexual reproduction.
2. Stem
The major functions of the roots are:

1. absorption of water and inorganic
nutrients;
2. anchorage of the plant body to the
ground; and
3. storage of food and nutrients.
In response to the concentration of

nutrients, roots also synthesize cytokinin,
which acts as a signal as to how fast the
shoots can grow
The major functions of the roots are: The stem consists of major parts: bark, pith
1. absorption of water and inorganic and wood (composed of xylem made up of
nutrients; vessels, fibers, and parenchyma cells)
2. anchorage of the plant body to the
ground; and Characteristics of stems:
3. storage of food and nutrients.
1. All stems have nodes and internodes
In response to the concentration of which may be distinct or not
nutrients, roots also synthesize cytokinin, 2. Buds and leaves are attached on these
which acts as a signal as to how fast the nodes and by their position on the stem can
shoots can grow The Cross section of a either be terminal, lateral, or axillary,
simple root shows the following: accessory or adventitious.
1. Epidermis which consists of a layer 3. These buds may further develop into a
of epidermal cells and protective leaf, flower or a combination of both.
layer called cuticle.
2. Vascular cylinder which is Main Functions of the Stem
composed of the vascular tissue The stem serves as:
(xylem and phloem and one or
more layers of non-vascular tissues 1. As Support System. Stems
called pericylce. functions to support leaves, flowers
and fruit. The leaves being the site
of photosynthesis are held in a
3. Cortex which is between the favorable position by the stem to
receive air and light. Likewise, the
flowers are raised in a position that

will facilitate pollination and 6. Bracts are simple shaped and small
subsequent dispersal of seeds. structured than a leaf and more exposed
2. As Conduction System. The stem than the petals.
conducts water, mineral salts from 5. Flower
the roots to the structures above
the soil. It also conducts food from
the leaves to all parts of the plant.
3. As Storage of Food and Water.
Some plants particularly the root
crops have stems which store food
and water.
4. As Vegetative reproductive
Structures. The stems can be used
as propagating materials.
TYPES OF STEMS
Bulb- is a short, erect underground stem Functions of the Flower
Corm – it is an enlarged solid fleshy base 1. For reproduction
Culm – is a flowering stem of grasses and 2. For breeding or crop improvement
sedges 3. For aesthetic purposes
Rhizome – it is a horizontal underground 4. For food
stem
Runner Or Stolon – it is an indeterminate
aboveground stem with internodes and
new plantlet at the tip
Sucker – it is a shoot arising below the
ground from old stem
Tendril – this is a slender coiling branch for
climbing
Tiller – this is a shoot produced from the
base of the stem or culm
Tuber – described as a thick storage
underground stem
4. LEAVES 6. FRUITS
A leaf is considered a plant organ and The fruit is formed as a result of fertilization
typically consists of the following tissues: of the egg cell; or an enlargement of the
1. An epidermis that covers the upper ovary. Some fruits develop even without
and lower surfaces fertilization like banana, pineapple, seedless
2. An interior chlorenchyma called the grapes. These are called parthenocarpic
mesophyll fruits.
3. An arrangement of veins (the
vascular tissue) The fruit consists of the fruit wall and the
seeds. The fruit wall could be dry or fleshy,
The leaf consists of the following: dehiscent (splits apart when ripe) or
1. The lamina which is the extended flat indehiscent. The three of layers of fruit wall
part of the blade is the most important part are:
of the true leaf. 1. Exocarp or epicarp – outer layer
2. The leaf blade may be attached to a which is colored, thick and has oil
stem- like part known as petiole. glands beneath the surface
3. Leaf sheaths- the base of a leaf encircles 2. Mesocarp – middle part is white
the stem. and spongy
4. bracts and tendrils- they are modified 3. Endocarp – inner part is composed
leaves. of locular membrane and the juice
5. tendrils- these are slender threadlike sacks
structures used by plants to twine around
objects.

TYPES OF FRUITS
SIMPLE FRUITS
Simple fruits can be either dry or fleshy, and
result from the ripening of a simple or
compound ovary in a flower with only one
pistil; e.g. tomato, grapes
AGGREGATE FRUITS
Aggregate fruits form from single flowers
that have multiple carpels which are not
joined together, i.e. each pistil contains one
carpel. Each pistil forms a fruitlet, and
collectively the fruitlets are called an
etaerio; e.g. strawberry
MULTIPLE FRUITS
A multiple fruit is one formed from a cluster
of flowers (called an inflorescence). Each
flower produces a fruit, but these mature
into a single mass. Examples are the 7. SEEDS
pineapple, fig, mulberry, and breadfruit.
The seed is a small embryonic plant
enclosed in a covering called the seed coat,
usually with some stored food. It is the
product of the ripened ovule of plants
which occurs after fertilization and some
growth within the mother plant. The
formation of the seed completes the
process of reproduction in seed plants
(started with the development of flowers
and pollination), with the embryo
developed from the zygote and the seed
coat from the integuments of the ovule.

5. Vascular cambium is a meristematic

tissue whose cells are capable of
cell division.
8. ROOTS
Roots absorb nutrients and water from the

SEEDS soil. They serve as the anchorage of the
plant to the soil media. They serve as
storage organs for food.
The primary plant body is composed of the FACTORS AFFECTING CROP

following different kinds of cells and tissues. PRODUCTION
1. Epidermis – which has the three
types of cells : the epidermal, guard 1. Photosynthesis
and epidermal hairs Photosynthetic System
2. Cortex – composed of collenchyma, • a system that converts solar energy
sclerenchyma (the fibers and into chemical energy
sclerids) and parenchyma • plant dry matter analysis
3. Vascular Tissues – consist of the • CO2 and H2O are practically free
xylem and the phloem while the mineral elements have to
4. Pith – composed largely of be usually purchased
parenchyma with occasional fibers • The product (grains, root, tubers)
5. Pith rays – composed of the are essentially net products of
parenchyma cells photosynthesis
Functions of Cell and Tissue Systems Photosynthetic Organ

• Leaf – chief site of photosynthesis
1. The parenchyma cells functions as • Structural parts:
storage of water and food – upper and lower epidermis
and for the conduction of materials – mesophyll cells
2. Collenchyma, scleroids, fibers and – vascular bundles
tracheids strengthens the – Mesophyll sheaths:
cells or serve as mechanical – upper side – palisade
tissue elements parenchyma (regular-
3. Tracheids and vessels conduct shaped cells)
water and mineral salts. – lower side – spongy
4. Sieve tubes conduct food parenchyma (irregular
shaped cells)

– In some crops (corn), the – Other pigments: carotene,

mesophyll is xanthophyll
undifferentiated Dark Reaction
translocation of materials • Assimilation of CO2 production of
Photosynthetic Organs CH2O
• Use of ATP and NADPH2 in the
process
• Occurs in 3 pathways:
– Calvin-Benson or C3
Pathway
– Hatch and Slack or C4
Pathway
- Crassulacean Acid
Metabolism (CAM) Pathway
Photosynthetic Reaction ROLES AND FUNCTIONS:
• Photosynthesis starts when a 1. FRS - the primary acceptor for
photon of light strikes the photosystem 1 of photosynthesis.
chlorophyll molecule and excites an The functionality of a primary
electron, raising it to a high energy acceptor, other than ferredoxin, at
level that makes it capable of the reducing terminus of
transforming this energy to other photosystem 1 of the
compounds in the photosynthetic photosynthetic electron transport
system chain has been shown indirectly by
a number of investigatons.
2. The plant-type FERREDOXINS (Fds)
are the [2Fe-2S] proteins that
function primarily in
photosynthesis; they transfer
electrons from photoreduced
Photosystem I to ferredoxin
NADP(+) reductase in which NADPH
is produced for CO(2) assimilation.
3. Explain the role of NADP+ as an
energy carrier in photosynthesis. It
transfers high-energy electrons
from chlorophyll to other
molecules.
Basic Processes during Photosynthesis 4. The role that PLASTOQUINONe
• Diffusion of CO2 from the air to the plays in photosynthesis, more
reaction sites in the leaf specifically in the light-dependent
• Light reaction (photochemical reactions of photosynthesis, is that
reaction) of a mobile electron carrier through
• Dark reaction (biochemical the membrane of the thylakoid.
reaction) 5. PLASTOCYANIN is a copper-
containing protein that plays a role
Light Reaction in the electron transport process
• Light energizes chlorophyll associated with photosynthesis. It
• Produce high energy compounds, serves as an electron transfer agent
ATP and NADPH2 between the cytochrome complex
• Evolution of O2 through the which follows Photosystem II and
photolysis of H2O and the entry point to Photosystem I of
photoelectron transport the non-cyclic electron transfer
• Involves 2 kinds of chlorophyll: process.
– chlorophyll a (bluish green) • Photosynthesis I = chl a (P700)
=3 = ATP & NADPH2
– chlorophyll b (yellowish = cyclic phosphorylation
green) = 1 • Photosynthesis II = chl b (P672)
= ATP

= noncyclic phosphorylation DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

• ATP/NADPH2 = used for fixing 1. Kranz anatomy. the special structure of
CO2 leaves in C4 PLANTS (e.g. maize) where the
tissue equivalent to the spongy mesophyll
Occurs in 3 Pathways cells is clustered in a ring around the leaf
1. Calvin-Benson or C3 pathway veins, outside the bundle-sheath cells. (The
2. Hatch-Slack or C4 pathway term 'Kranz' means wreath or ring in
3. Crassulacean Acid Metabolism German)
(CAM 2. RuBisCo - Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase, commonly known
C3, C4 and CAM Pathways by the abbreviations RuBisCO, RuBPCase, or
RuBPco, is an enzyme involved in the first
major step of carbon fixation, a process by
which atmospheric carbon dioxide is
converted by plants and other
photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich
molecules.
3. CO2 compensation Point - the (light)
compensation point is the amount of light
intensity on the light curve where the rate
of photosynthesis exactly matches the rate
of respiration. ... In assimilation terms, at
compensation point, the net carbon dioxide
assimilation is zero.
C4
Typically tropical or semi-tropical species
e.g. corn, sugarcane, sorghum, grasses.
General characteristics of C3, C4 and CAM Adapted to high light, temperature and semi-
plants arid environment
3 Highly productive ~ 80t/ha in sugarcane

Typically temperate species Kranz anatomy and peripheral reticulum
e.g. spinach, wheat, potato, tobacco, sugarbeet,
soybean, sunflower Initial CO2 acceptor is PEP, a 3-C acid
Moderately productive Initial CO2 fixation product is 4-C oxoloacetate
Cells containing chloroplasts do not have Kranz
Two CO2 fixation pathways
anatomy, peripheral reticulum, only one type of
chloroplast Low rate of glycolate synthesis
Initial CO2 acceptor is RuBP, a 5-6 sugar
High water use efficiency and salinity (ion)
Initial CO2 fixation product is 3-C tolerance
phosphoglycerate Do not readily photosaturate at high light
Only one CO2 fixation pathway Low CO2 compensation point
High rate of glycolate synthesis Open stomates by day
Low High water use efficiency and salinity (ion)
tolerance CAM
Photosaturate 1/5 full sunlight
Typically arid zone
High CO compensation point e.g. cacti, agave, orchid, pineapple and other
2
succulents
Open stomates by day night
Usually very low productivity; possible high yield in
pineapple

No Kranz anatomy; only one type of chloroplast –

Abundance of elements essential for
the synthesis of chlorophyll (e.g. Fe,
CO2 acceptor is PEP in the dark and RuBP in light Mg)
Oxoloacetate in the dark and phosphoglycerate in RESPIRATION
light Significance
• plants need energy to build and maintain
Two CO2 fixation pathways separated in time cells, protoplasm
• main source of energy
Low rate of glycolate synthesis
Respiration Process
High water use efficiency and salinity (ion) tolerance • a slow process taking place in the
mitochondria
Do not readily photosaturate at high light • involves enzymes
High affinity for CO2 at night
Open stomates by night

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + 678 kcal/energy
1. Kranz anatomy. the special structure of • basically an oxidation process
leaves in C4 PLANTS (e.g. maize) where the (combustion/release energy in the form of
tissue equivalent to the spongy mesophyll heat)
cells is clustered in a ring around the leaf Measure of Respiration
veins, outside the bundle-sheath cells. (TheRespiratory Quotient (RQ) = moles CO2 evolved
term 'Kranz' means wreath or ring in moles O2 absorbed
German) • if RQ = 1, glucose is being respired <1, some
2. RuBisCo - Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate other substances are respired (e.g. fats)
carboxylase/oxygenase, commonly known
by the abbreviations RuBisCO, RuBPCase, or
RuBPco, is an enzyme involved in the first
major step of carbon fixation, a process by
Steps in Respiration
which atmospheric carbon dioxide is
1. Phosphorylation - formation of sugar
converted by plants and other
phosphates
photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich
molecules. 2. Glycolysis - breakdown of sugar into
3. CO2 compensation Point - the (light) pyruvate
compensation point is the amount of light 3. Kreb’s Cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA)
- completes the oxidation of pyruvate to
intensity on the light curve where the rate
CO2 Reducing potential is stored as NADH
of photosynthesis exactly matches the rate
and FADH2
of respiration. ... In assimilation terms, at
4. Phosphate Pentose Pathway (PPP) – aerobic
compensation point, the net carbon dioxide
assimilation is zero. process
5. Electron Transport System
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis 6. where electron transport takes place
7. particularly in formation of H2O - an
• External factors
oxidation-reduction reaction
– Light = intensity, quality, duration
8. energy trapped in the process through
– CO2 concentration in atmosphere
conversion of low energy phosphates into
– Temperature
– Moisture high energy phosphates
– Dust
– Insect pest
– Structural condition of leaves
– Number and distribution of stomata
– Abundance of leaf intercellular spaces
– Organic/inorganic conditions
– Amount/distribution of chlorophyll and
enzymes
– Cell acidity

Factors affecting respiration
1. Species
6. Oxygen supply - with increasing 02, the
– Azotobacter chroococcum -
aerobic respiration become more dominant
2,000,000 æl 02/gmdry weight
so that 02 uptake and needs increases.
– Arum maculatum - 15,600-
– The external oxygen
31,800 æl 02/gram
concentration at which
– Valencia orange - 20 mgm
fermentation is extinguished is
C02/kgm/24 hours
known as the extinction point.
– Ripe tomato - 70 mgm
– Light, salts, injury, biologically
C02/kgm/24 hours
active gases like ethylene - may
– Part of the plant - generally, plant
increase respiration.
parts that are highly protoplasmic
7. Inhibitors like cyanide and high C02 - may
and are actively involved in growth
reduce or inhibit respiration.
or protein synthesis have higher
respiratory activity.
2. Physiological state - dormant organs or
organisms respire less than those that are
actively growing.
3. Degree of hydration - tissues with higher
moisture content respire more than drier
tissues such as those in dry seeds.
5. Temperature - between 00C-350C, the

respiratory rate increases at the rate or 2 to
2.5 times for every 100C rise in temperature
(Q10 or temperature coefficient is 2 or
greater)

Summary Comparison: PS vs RN •Cuticular transpiration – water loss

Photosynthesis Respiration through epidermis covered by a cuticle.
Only in green plants In all living cells (plants and About 5%-10% of the water lost from
animals plants may be lost by this pathway.
Only in light During cell lifetime (light or
• Lenticular transpiration – water loss
dark)
Uses CO + H O Uses food and O through the lenticels in tress without
2 2 2 leaves, and in some fruits.
Releases O Releases CO + H O
2 2 2 • Stomatal transpiration – water loss
Solar energy to chemical
Chemical energy to heat through the stomata can account for
energy (useful energy)
Weight increase Weight loss
more than 90% of the water lost from
Food is produced Food is broken down plants.
Occur in chloroplast Occur in cytoplasm and Examples:
mitochondria • The daily water loss of a large, well-
watered, tropical plant such as the palm
TRANSPIRATION may run as high as 500 liters.
• A process wherein plants • A corn plant may lose 3-4 liters/day 
use water through 99% of the water absorbed by a corn
evaporation in the form of plant during its life cycle is lost in
gaseous water diffusion transpiration
driven by net radiation • A tree-size desert cactus loses less than
absorbed by the leaf. 25 ml/day
Significance of Transpiration
• Transport and distribution of nutrients and Factors Affecting Transpiration
assimilates • Since most of the water lost from plants
• Dissipate plant’s heat load to maintain occur through the stomata, factors that
favorable temperature for growth and would influence the opening and closure
development of the stomata will invariably affect
In excess leads to plant desiccation  transpiration
conversion of starch to sugar and proteins 1. Light intensity
are hydrolyzed to amino acid 2. Carbon dioxide concentration
Two Stages of Transpiration 3. Water content of the plant
1. Evaporation of water from cell surfaces 4. Vapor pressure deficit of the air
 dependent on the heat of vaporization 5. Temperature which in turn affect RH
= 539 cal/gram 6. Air movement
 energy to convert water from liquid to 7. Species which affect the stomatal
gaseous state w/o change in density, degree of cuticular deposition
temperature and other surface/stomatal
2. Diffusion out of leaves through openings or modifications (sunken stomates,
barriers presence of hairs etc.).
 vapor pressure gradient --- driving force
of moisture loss from surfaces Implications to Crop Production
 magnitude of loss --- resistance in the • To sustain beneficial effects of
pathway due to barriers such as cuticles transpiration, crop should be:
and reduced opening of the tomates – Given supplemental irrigation when
Types of Transpiration needed
• Loss of liquid water through the leaf – Reduced competition from weeds
surface (hydathodes)  Guttation – Not fully exposed to winds – use of
wind breaks
• Most of the water lost by plants is
through  Transpiration (in 3 types)

– Proper light management – based on

crop light requirement in relation to
maintenance of heatload DEFINITION OF TERMS
TRANSLOCATION 1. Phloem Loading - the process whereby
Significance of Translocation carbohydrates enter the. sieve tubes at the
• Absorption and transport of raw source. As a result of phloem loading, a
materials used for photosynthesis high. concentration of sugar develops in
• Translocation of photosynthetic phloem cells near the source.
products to areas of storage and 2. Phloem Unloading - Photoassimilate
consumption removal from phloem and delivery to
Tissues Involved in Translocation recipient sink cells (phloem unloading) is
• Xylem --- water and solutes the final step in photoassimilate transport
• Phloem --- photosyntates (sucrose) from source to sink.
Principal Translocation System Dry Matter Allocation and Partitioning
• Water and solutes dissolved in it are MINERAL NUTRITION
transported from roots to the other Background
parts through non-living conduits --- • 60 elements present in plant tissues
dead xylem vessels and intercellular • 92 naturally occurring elements when
spaces --- apoplast supplied to plants in available forms ---
Apoplastic Transport plants may absorb them
• Photosynthates are transported in living • element may be present in plant tissue -
conduits like the phloem vessels that -- but not necessarily essential
contain protoplasmic strands or • importance of an element --- not
plasmodesmata --- symplast proportion to amount absorbed/uptake
Symplastic Transport Criteria for Essentiality (Arnon and Stout, 1939)
Principal Translocation System • Positive requirement of the element for
• Upward movement of solution  roots normal growth or reproduction or to
 xylem  stems  uppermost leaves complete the plant's life cycle
--- Transpirational Stream • Function of the element cannot be
With transpiration as primary cause replaced by another element (i.e. the
of this movement, water column during deficiency symptom attributed to a
rapid transpiration is usually under tension particular element can not be corrected
Mechanisms of Translocation by the addition of another)
Movement of materials in living plants have • Element has a direct or indirect function
been observed to occur in different ways: in plant metabolism
1. Ordinary diffusion --- transports ions Nutrient Classification
and molecules slowly • Macronutrients (N, P, K, S, Ca, & Mg)
2. Cytoplasmic streaming --- which • Major nutrients --- needed by plants in
transports ions and molecules within larger quantities
the cytoplasm at a considerably faster • Components of proteins, nucleic acids
rate than diffusion and wide range of smaller molecules
3. Downward mass or bulk flow --- • Micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, B,
movement of materials from the upper Cl & Ni)
portion of the plant to the roots --- • Nutrients needed by plants in smaller
Munch pressure flow hypothesis quantities
4. Other mechanisms may include • As enzyme cofactors or components of
- activated diffusion and pumping, electron transport proteins wide range
interface diffusion and electroosmosis of smaller molecules
• Beneficial Plant Nutrients (Co, Al, Na, &
Phloem Loading and Unloading I)
• Elements which stimulate growth, but
do not fulfill Arnon's criteria of
essentiality or which are essential only
for certain plant species
Functions of the Nutrient Elements:
Macronutrients
Element/ Functions/ Available Form:

1. N •Integral component of proteins C. Mottled or chlorotic leaves, typically may

(enzymes) and nucleic acids, NH4+, NO3- redden, as with cotton, sometimes with
2. P •Component of nucleic acids, phytin, dead spots; tips and margins turned or
coenzymes, adenylases, •Regulatory cupped upward, stalks slender
function of synthetase reactions, H2PO4-, 3. Magnesium
HPO42- CC. Mottled or chlorotic leaves with large or
3. K •Osmoregulation,• Activator of certain small spots of dead tissue.
kinases, synthetases, lyases, • Required 4. POTASSIUM
for protein synthesis,K+ D. Spots of dead tissue small, usually at tips
4. S •Integral component of proteins, and between veins, more Marked at
sulfolipids, S-coenzymes, S- and Fe-S- margins of leaves; stalks slender
proteins, SO4 2- 5. ZINC
5. Ca •Pectates,•Regulatory protein DD. Spots generalized, rapidly enlarging,
(calmodulin),•Regulates ion transport, generally involving areas between veins and
senescence, membrane permeability eventually involving secondary and even
•Activator of numerous enzymes,Ca2+ primary veins; leaves thick; stalks with
6. Mg • Integral component of chlorophyll, shortened internodes
Mg-ATP, •Activator of phosphorylation, Plant Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms: Bud
Rub-P carboxylase,Mg2+ or Young Leaves
Micronutrients: 1. Calcium
1. Fe - Fe-, Fe-S-proteins, cytochromes, AA. Newer or bud leaves affected;
ferredoxins, Fe2+, Fe3+ symptoms localized.
2. Mn -Possibly cis-diol-type borate B. Terminal bud dies, following appearance
complexes with proteins of distortions at tips or bases of young
Enzymatic regulation of growth and leaves
development, BO33- C. Young leaves of terminal bud at first
3. Zn - Activator of carbonic anhydrase, typically hooked, finally dying back at tips
Alkalne phosphatas, hexokinase, Alcohol and margins, so that later growth is
dehydrogenase, Zn2+ characterized by a cut-out appearance at
4. Cu- Activator of several oxidases, these points; stalk finally dies at terminal
Activates synthesis of lignin, Cu2+ bud
5. Mo - Component of nitrate reductase 2. Boron
Essential for nitrogenase in bacteria for N2- CC. Young leaves of terminal bud becoming
fixation related plants, MoO42- light green at bases, with final breakdown
6. Cl - Activator of photosystem II here; in later growth, leaves become
Participates in e- transport in chloroplast, twisted; stalks finally dies back at terminal
Cl- bud
Plant Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms: Old 3. Copper
Leaves (Symptom/Deficient Element) BB. Terminal bud commonly remains alive;
1. Nitorgen wilting or chlorosis of younger bud leaves
A. Older or lower leaves of plant mostly with or without spots of dead tissue; veins
affected; effects localized or generalized. light or dark green.
B. Effects mostly generalized over whole C. Young leaves permanently wilted
plant; more or less drying or firing of lower without spotting or marked chlorosis; twig
leaves; plant light or dark green. or stalk just below tip and seedhead often
C. Plant light green; lower leaves yellow, unable to stand erect in later stages when
drying to light brown color; stalks short and shortage is acute
slender if element is deficient in later stages 4. Manganese
C. Plant dark green, often developing red D. Spots of dead tissue scattered over the
and purple colors, lower leaves sometimes leaf; smallest veins tend to remain green,
yellow, drying to greenish brown or black producing a checkered or reticulating effect
color, stalk short and slender if element 5. Sulfur
deficient in later stages of growth DD. Dead spots not commonly present;
2. Phosphorus chlorosis may or may not involve veins,
BB. Effects mostly localized; mottling or making them light or dark green color.
chlorosis with or without spots of dead E. Young leaves with veins and tissues light
tissue on lower leaves; little or no drying up green in color
of lower leaves. 6. Iron

EE. Young leaves chlorotic, principal veins A. Metabolism of Storage Product and
typically green; stalk short and slender, at Subsequent Transport
extreme terminal leaves may be completely Three types of chemical changes during
white germination:
Growth and Development Related 1. Breakdown of reserve materials in
Processes seeds
Definition 2. Transport of breakdown products
Growth (from one part of the seed to
Irreversible change accompanied by another)
increase in size, number, weight or 3. Synthesis of new materials from
mass breakdown products like:
Differentiation  Carbohydrates
Outward sign of selective gene action,  Lipids
the reflection of change in the cell's  Proteins
biochemical repertoire (or program) as  P-containing compounds
a consequence of the release of B. Synthesis of new materials from
information encoded in one- breakdown products like:
dimensional sequences a) Carbohydrates-typically broken
Organization down by  & ß amylases
Orientation and integration of a)  amylases --- starch into
differentiated cells in space together variety of sugars such as
with regulated growth with the maltose, glucose
consequent attainment of form and b) ß amylases ---
structure of the complete organism oligosaccharides into
Morphogenesis maltose
Process concerned with the shaping of c) Lipids
three dimensional structures  by d) Lipid to fatty acids ---
folding and aggregation of one- converted via ß oxidation to
dimensional gene products, or acetyl CoA to TCA
aggregation and redistribution of cells e) Also via  oxidation ---
The molding of the whole into a definite peroxidative
pattern which is morphogenesis  decarboxylation of fatty
should be distinguished from acid coupled
differentiation, which is essentially a by CO2 formation
process of developing localized a) Proteins
differences • Storage proteins are broken
Germination down
I. Germination Process • Seeds contains several
A. Formation or Activation of Enzyme proteolytic enzymes present in
Systems dry seeds/appear during
Evidence for activation or de novo germination
synthesis during germination: • P-containing compounds
– Appearance of enzyme activity prior to • Main forms --- nucleic acid,
and during increased germination phospholipids, phosphate
– Use of protein synthesis inhibitors esters of sugars, nucleotides,
– Incorporation of radioactive precursors phytin
into proteins • Large decrease in phytin which
– Immunological studies make up to 80 % of total
– Molecular techniques phosphate in seeds --- phytin as
During germination --- formation of enzyme storage pool
system can occur in several ways: • Release of P from phytin by
– From pre-existing enzymes which are phosphatase called phytase
active upon hydration .
– Activation of pre-existing enzymes 4. Transport of Digested Storage
– De novo synthesis of enzymes from pre- Compound
existing or de novo produced Mrna Once compounds reached their
destination, they are used for:
I. Germination Process – Production of new enzymes

– Structural materials – Due to physical factors or

– Regulatory compounds biochemical signals originating
– Plant growth substances external to affected structure for
– Nucleic acids ( cell functions and initial reaction
synthesis of new materials) – e.g. in buds - apical dominance
II. Emergence of Radicle and Seedling Endodormancy
Growth – Regulated by physiological factors
– Second burst of water uptake inside the affected structure
during imbibition --- caused by – e.g. buds -- rest period
decrease in osmotic potential --- Categories of Seed Dormancy
due to hydrolysis of storage I. Primary Seed Dormancy
compounds A. Physical Dormancy
– Concurrent emergence of radicle --- • seed coat dormancy
continuous supply of water and • seed coverings impervious to
nutrients for seedling growth water
– Seedling development begins with • acts as safety mechanism by
cell division --- two ends of preserving the seed in the dry
embryonic axis--- expansion of state
seedling structures • germination can be induced by
– Plumule (shoot) disrupting the seed coat-->
– Radicle (root imbibition
II. Emergence of Radicle and Seedling • seed coats are softened by:
Growth – action of
– Monocots --- endosperm; dicots --- microorganism
cotyledons – passing through
– Sharp decrease in RN once seedling digestive tracts
breaks through soil surface – mechanical abrasion
– Water absorption increases --- as – alternate freezing and
new roots are formed thawing
Epigeous germination – fire
--- hypocotyl elongates and brings B. Mechanical Dormancy
cotyledons above ground • Caused by seed
Hypogeous germination enclosing structure ---
--- epicotyl emerges and the cotyledons being strong to permit
remain below soil surface expansion of embryo
Dormancy even water can
– Temporary suspension of visible penetrate it
growth of any plant structure • Germination artificially
containing meristem induced by cracking the
Quiescence structure covering the
– Condition where seed or bud is embryo or naturally by
under exogenous control such as microorganisms
water supply, temperature and C. Chemical Dormancy
other environmental conditions • Caused by
Rest germination
– Condition where seed or bud is inhibitors ---
under endogenous control such as accumulate in fruit
internal factors which prevent seed coverings
growth even environmental during
conditions are favorable development
• Overcome by
DORMANCY TERMINOLOGY (LANG 1987) prolonged
Ecodormancy leaching/removal of
– Due to one or more unsuitable seed coat
factors in the environment --- non- D. Morphological Dormancy
specific effect (equivalent to • Occurs when seeds
quiescence) are shed from
Paradormancy parent plant when

their embryos are • Initiation, maintenance and release

not fully developed of dormancy in buds involves
• Embryos begin to complex
enlarge after the interaction of factors that are
seed imbibes water genetic, chemical and environmental
and before • Temp & light are the two most
germination begins important environmental factors
• Causes: • Moisture and nutrients control
– rudimentary during initial stages
embryos- • Plants generally undergo cessation
preembryos of plant growth due to quiescence--
embedded into prior to beginning of physiological
massive endosperm dormancy
– underdeveloped Once dormancy is broken -- brief period of
embryo - torpedo quiescence
shape and fill up to followed by:
I/2 the size of the 1. Rehydration of bud leading to
seed cavity increase in fresh weight
– overcomes by 2. Increased RN
subjecting seeds to 3. Formation/activation of enzyme
temp that favors system---> breakdown of storage
embryo materials
enlargement and 4. Growth of bud into shoots
KNO3 and GA Senescence
treatment • endogenously controlled
E. Physiological Dormancy deteriorative changes which are
• General type of natural causes of death of cells,
primary dormancy tissues, organs, organism; natural
in freshly harvested developmental process --->
seeds terminal differentiation
• Controlled by Changes During Senescence
endogenous growth • “ The ability to quantify specific
regulators and regulating components central to
environmental cues senescence is ideal”
like light, temp Due to lack of evidences, basis are:
II. Secondary Seed Dormancy • decrease in chlorophyll, total
A. Safety mechanism for the protein, PS (RUBP, PEP
seed--- preventing carboxylases)
germination if other • changes in plant growth substances
environmental conditions • increase in membrane permeability
are not favorable • abscission
B. Conditions that promote Flowering
SSD are • transition from vegetative to
• unfavorable reproductive development
temperature Stages:
• prolonged darkness 1. Flower initiation - internal
• prolonged white physiological change in the
light meristem --- precedes any
• prolonged red light morphological change
• water stress Indicating that a transition from
C. Overcome by vegetative to reproductive development is
• chilling occurring
• light Enhanced cell division in the central
• PGR (GA) zone---immediately below the apical part of
Bud Dormancy the vegetative meristem
• An adaptation in temperate woody Divisions occuring --->
plants ---> cold T differentiation of parenchyma cells which
• Slow progress in this research

surround meristem ---> giving rise to flower and then transported

primordia elsewhere for use
2. Flower formation  have capacity to
 visible initiation of flower stimulate and/or
parts inhibit physiological
3. Final stage processes
 flower development --->  at least five major plant
differentiation of flower hormones or plant growth
structure including events regulators:
from flower formation to  auxins, cytokinins,
anthesis (flowering). gibberellins,
PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS: ethylene and
Plant Growth Regulators - control growth, abscisic acid
development and movement PGRs:
 Internal and external signals that  Auxins (cell elongation)
regulate plant growth are  Gibberellins (cell elongation + cell
mediated, at least in part, by plant division - translated into growth)
growth-regulating substances, or  Cytokinins (cell division + inhibits
hormones (from the Greek word senescence)
hormaein, meaning "to excite").  Abscisic acid (abscission of leaves
 Plant hormones differ from animal and fruits + dormancy induction of
hormones in that: buds and
 No evidence that the seeds)
fundamental actions of  Ethylene (promotes senescence,
plant and animal hormones epinasty, and fruit ripening)
are the same. AUXIN
 Unlike animal hormones, • Auxin increases the plasticity of
plant hormones are not plant cell walls and is involved in
made in tissues specialized stem elongation.
for hormone production. • Arpad Paál (1919) - Asymmetrical
(e.g., sex hormones made in placement of cut tips on coleoptiles
the gonads, human growth resulted in a bending of the
hormone - pituitary gland) coleoptile away from the side onto
Unlike animal hormones, plant hormones which the tips were placed
do not have definite target areas (e.g., (response mimicked the response
auxins can stimulate adventitious root seen in phototropism).
development in a cut shoot, or shoot • Frits Went (1926) determined auxin
elongation or apical dominance, or enhanced cell elongation
differentiation of vascular tissue, etc.).
 PLANT GROWTH
REGULATORS ARE
NECESSARY FOR, BUT DO
NOT CONTROL, MANY
ASPECTS OF PLANT
GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT. - BETTER
NAME IS GROWTH
REGULATOR.
 THE EFFECT ON PLANT
 Discovered as substance associated
PHYSIOLOGY IS DEPENDENT
with phototropic response.
ON THE AMOUNT OF
 Occurs in very low concentrations.
HORMONE PRESENT AND
o Isolated from human urine,
TISSUE SENSITIVITY TO THE
(40mg 33 gals-1)
PLANT GROWTH
o In coleoptiles (1g 20,000
REGULATOR
tons-1)
 substances produced in
 Differential response depending on
small quantities by a plant,
dose.

Additional responses to auxin

 abscission - loss of leaves
 flower initiation
 sex determination
 fruit development
 apical dominance
Apical Dominance
 Lateral branch growth are inhibited
near the shoot apex, but less so
farther from the tip.
 Apical dominance is disrupted in
some plants by removing the shoot
tip, causing the plant to become
• Auxin promotes activity of the
bushy.
vascular cambium and vascular
GIBERRELINS
tissues.
Discovered in association with In 1930's,
– plays key role in fruit
bakanae or foolish seedling disease of rice
development
(Gibberella fujikuroi)
• Cell Elongation: Acid growth
• In 1930's, Ewiti Kurosawa and
hypothesis
colleagues were studying plants
– auxin works by causing
suffering from bakanae, or "foolish
responsive cells to actively
seedling" disease in rice.
transport hydrogen ions
• Disease caused by fungus called,
from the cytoplasm into the
Gibberella fujikuroi, which was
cell wall space
stimulating cell elongation and
– Transport: Polar in nature
division.
• Basipetal – tip to
• Compound secreted by fungus
base
could cause bakanae disease in
• Acropetal – base to
uninfected plants. Kurosawa named
tip
this compound gibberellin.
Signal-transduction pathways in plants
– Gibberella fujikuroi also
Auxin interacts with calcium ions which in
causes stalk rot in corn,
turn calmodulin, a protein, which regulates
sorghum and other plants.
many processes in plants, animals, and
– Secondary metabolites
microbes.
produced by the fungus
STP - A set of chemical reactions in a cell
include mycotoxins, like
that occurs when a molecule, such as a
fumonisin, which when
hormone, attaches to a receptor on the cell
ingested by horses can
membrane. The pathway is actually a
cause equine
cascade of biochemical reactions inside the
leukoencephalomalacia -
cell that eventually reach the target
necrotic brain or crazy
molecule or reaction
horse or hole in the head
• Synthetic auxins
disease.
 widely used in agriculture
– Fumonisin is considered to
and horticulture
be a carcinogen.
 prevent leaf
• Gibberellins are named after the
abscission
fungus Gibberella fujikuroi which
 prevent fruit drop
causes rice plants to grow
 promote flowering
abnormally tall.
and fruiting
– synthesized in apical
 control weeds
portions of stems and roots
 Agent Orange - 1:1 ratio of 2,4-D
– important effects on stem
and 2,4,5-T used to defoliate trees
elongation
in Vietnam War.
– in some cases, hastens seed
Dioxin usually contaminates 2,4,5-T, which
germination
is linked to miscarriages, birth
• Cell elongation.
defects,leukemia, and other types of
• GA induces cellular division
cancer.
and cellular elongation;

auxin induces cellular not repeated. Only old DNA seemed

elongation alone. to work. Miller later discovered that
• GA-stimulated elongation adding the purine base of DNA
does not involve the cell (adenine) would cause the cells to
wall acidification divide.
characteristic of auxin- • Adenine or adenine-like compounds
induced elongation induce cell division in plant tissue
• Breaking of dormancy in culture. Miller, Skoog and their
buds and seeds. coworkers isolated the growth facto
• Seed Germination - responsible for cellular division
Especially in cereal grasses, from a DNA preparation calling it
like barley. Not necessarily kinetin which belongs to a class of
as critical in dicot seeds. compounds called cytokinins.
• Promotion of flowering. • In 1964, the first naturally occurring
Transport is non-polar, bidirectional cytokinin was isolated from corn
producing general responses called zeatin. Zeatin and zeatin
 Gibberellins and Fruit Size riboside are found in coconut milk.
 Fruit Formation - "Thompson All cytokinins (artificial or natural)
Seedless" grapes grown in California are chemically similar to adenine.
are treated with GA to increase size • Cytokinins move nonpolarly in
and decrease packing. xylem, phloem, and parenchyma
 Wild Radish – Rosette & Bolt cells.
 Common Mullen – Rosette & Bolt • Cytokinins are found in
 Mobilization of reserves angiosperms, gymnosperms,
CYTOKININS mosses, and ferns. In angiosperms,
cytokinins are produced in the
roots, seeds, fruits, and young
leaves
Function of cytokinins
 Promotes cell division.
 Morphogenesis.
 Lateral bud development.
 Delay of senescence
 Cytokinins, in combination with
auxin, stimulate cell division and
Discovery of cytokinins differentiation.
• Gottlieb Haberlandt in 1913 • most cytokinin produced in root
reported an unknown compound apical meristems and transported
that stimulated cellular division. throughout plant
• In the 1940s, Johannes van • inhibit formation of lateral roots,
Overbeek, noted that plant auxins promote their formation
embryos grew faster when they Interaction of cytokinin and auxin in
were supplied with coconut milk tobacco callus (undifferentiated plant cells)
(liquid endosperm), which is rich in tissue
nucleic acids.  Organogenesis: Cytokinins and
• In the 1950s, Folke Skoog and auxin affect organogenesis
Carlos Miller studying the influence  High cytokinin/auxin ratios favor
of auxin on the growth of tobacco the formation of shoots
in tissue culture. When auxin was  Low cytokinin/auxin ratios favor the
added to artificial medium, the cells formation of roots.
enlarged but did not divide. Miller
took herring-sperm DNA. Miller
knew of Overbeek's work, and
decided to add this to the culture ABSCISSIC ACID (ABA)
medium, the tobacco cells started
dividing. He repeated this
experiment with fresh herring-
sperm DNA, but the results were

 Initiation of stem elongation and

bud development.
 In 1940s, scientists started  Flowering - Ethylene inhibits
searching for hormones that would flowering in most species, but
inhibit growth and development, promotes it in a few plants such as
what Hemberg called dormins. pineapple, bromeliads, and mango.
 In the early 1960s, Philip Wareing  Sex Expression - Cucumber buds
confirmed that application of a treated with ethylene become
dormin to a bud would induce carpellate (female) flowers,
dormancy. whereas those treated with
 F.T. Addicott discovered that this gibberellins become staminate
substance stimulated abscission of (male) flowers.
cotton fruit. he named this HOW PLANTS RESPOND TO
substance abscisin. (Subsequent ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULI
research showed that ethylene and  Tropisms - plant growth toward or
not abscisin controls abscission). away from a stimulus such as light
 Abscisin is made from carotenoids or gravity.
and moves nonpolarly through  Nastic Movements - response to
plant tissue. environmental stimuli that are
Functions of abscisic acid independent of the direction of the
 General growth inhibitor. stimulus. Pre-determined
 Causes stomatal closure. response.
 Produced in response to stress. Tropic responses
• Produced chiefly in mature green Directional movements by growth in
leaves and in fruits. response to a directional stimulus
– suppresses bud growth and 1. Phototropism
promotes leaf senescence • Phototropic responses involve
– also plays important role in bending of growing stems toward
controlling stomatal light sources. Individual leaves may
opening and closing also display phototrophic
ETHYLENE responses. Auxin is most likely
Discovery of ethylene involved
 In the 1800s, it was recognized that 2. Gravitropism
street lights that burned gas, could It is the response of a plant to the
cause neighboring plants to develop earth’s gravitational field.
short, thick stems and cause the – present at germination
leaves to fall off. In 1901, Dimitry • auxins play primary role
Neljubow identified that a – Four steps
byproduct of gas combustion was • gravity perceived by cell
ethylene gas and that this gas could • signal formed that perceives
affect plant growth. gravity
 In R. Gane showed that this same • signal transduced intra- and
gas was naturally produced by intercellularly
plants and that it caused faster • differential cell elongation
ripening of many fruits. • Increased auxin
 Synthesis of ethylene is inhibited by concentration on
carbon dioxide and requires the lower side in
oxygen. stems causes those
Functions of ethylene cells to grow more
 Gaseous in form and rapidly than cells on the
diffusing. upper side.
 Gas produced by one plant will – negative gravitropism -
affect nearby plants. Stem bends up against the
 Fruit ripening. force of gravity
 Epinasty – downward curvature of • Upper side of roots oriented
leaves. horizontally grow more rapidly than
 Encourages senescence and the lower side
abscission.

– positive gravitropism - roots – must be about 24 hours in

ultimately grow downward duration
Gravitropism = Geotropism – can be reset or entrained
Statoliths - An inclusion, e.g. starch grains, (to determine or modify the
in plant cells and is involved in geotropic phase or period of
responses. <circadian rhythms
3. Thigmotropism is directional growth entrained by a light cycle>)
response to contact with an object, the – can compensate for
tendrils. temperature differences
4. Seismonasty - a nastic response resulting CROP IMPROVEMENT AND SELECTION
from contact or mechanical shaking Plant breeding defined:
Mimosa pudica L. (sensitive plant) - the art and science of the genetic
5. Photomorphogenesis -nondirectional, improvement of plants (Fehr, 1993)
light-mediated changes in plant - the art, science, and business …
growth and development of improving plants for human benefit
• red light changes the shape of (Bernardo, 2002)
phytochrome and can trigger PB = multi- and inter-disciplinary field of
photomorphogenesis science
• Stems go from etiolated (in dark or Central disciplines: genetics, agronomy,
Pfr) to unetiolated (in light with Pr). horticulture
• Photoperiodism  plant pathology & entomology
– Regulates when seeds of  statistics = fundamental to
lettue and some weeds. o performance evaluation
Presence of Pr inhibits  biochemistry
germination, while its  plant or crop physiology
conversion to Pfr in red  botany (morphology, anatomy)
light induces germination  molecular biology, others
Red light ===> germination Overall objective of PB =
Far-red light ===> no germination to improve those characteristics (or
Red ===> far-red ===> red ===> traits) of a crop species that contribute to
germination its economic value
Red ===> far-red ===> red ===> far-red (e.g. leaves, flowers, roots, stem, fruits,
===> no germination seed, whole plant)
Those seeds not buried deep in the ground Traits of primary importance:
get exposed to red light, and this signals Yield = amount of production per unit area
germination. Resistance to pests = genetic resistance is
– Regulates when plants flower; either in the most effective of biological control
the Spring or later in the Summer and Seed composition = percentage of content
Fall. and quality of protein, oil, carbohydrates,
6. Nyctinasty is the circadian rhythmic etc. (influences taste, smell, quality)
nastic movement of higher plants in Forage quality = quality of feed for cattle,
response to the onset of darkness. sheep, and other ruminant animals
Examples are the closing of the petals of a influence their productivity
flower at dusk and the sleep movements of Tolerance to mineral stresses = salinity,
the leaves of many legumes. alkalinity, deficiency, etc.
• sleep movements Tolerance to environmental stresses =
• prayer plant - lower leaves during temperature and moisture extremes (e.g.
the day and raises leaves at night flooding, drought, frost)
• shamrock (Oxalis) Adaptability to mechanizations = (e.g.
• legumes reduced plant height (dwarfing), non-
shattering)
• Circadian clocks are endogenous Standability = lodging resistance
timekeepers that keep plant Photoperiod response = limitations of crop
responses synchronized with the productivity due to day length based on
environment. geographic location
• circadian rhythm characteristics Breeders do not improve plants for the sake
– must continue to run in of the plants themselves.
absence of external inputs e.g. shattering habit

Breeders improve plants to meet specific

human needs, most often for food, feed,
fiber, or aesthetic.
Questions:
1.What combination of traits to
breed for?
2. What group of environments to
breed for?
#Golden Rice was first published in 2005
and produced by a team of researchers
from SYNGENTA, which produced 23 times
more carotenoids which accumulate B-
carotene.
Genetics = concerned at explaining how Gene expression = “decoding the genetic
cells and whole organisms can both info”
resemble and differ from the organisms that DNA: replication  transcription 
gave rise to them translation = protein
Steps of Plant Breeding Evolution = consequence of genetic
The following are the major activities of changes in the composition of a population
plant breeding; over time and of new populations that are
1. Creation of variation genetically isolated from their parental
2. Selection species.
3. Evaluation Genes of many eukaryotic species contain
4. Release non-coding regions called introns, whereas
5. Multiplication the coding regions are called exons.
6. Distribution of the new variety Phenotype = physical appearance of an
Germplasm = the sum total of all hereditary organism
material in a single (interbreeding) species, Genotype = genetic constitution of an
all those that can be sources of genes organism
Genetic diversity = the total number of Homozygous dominant gene e.g. AA
genetic characteristics in the genetic Homozygous recessive gene e.g. aa
makeup of a species. Heterozygous dominant gene e.g. Aa
Review of plant breeding jargons Locus (loci) = position of a gene on the
or terminologies: genome (or
DNA = hereditary material; double helix, chromosome)
composed of 2 intertwined nucleotide Mutation = a change from the parental type
chains, chain of nucleotides  composed of in 1 or more heritable characteristics due to
nitrogen bases (A, T, C, G), deoxyribose, & a change or changes in a gene or genes, or
phosphate groups in a chromosome or chromosomes
4 N bases: 2 purines (A, G) and Genome (x) = a full set of chromosomes, all
2 pyrimidines (C, G) the heritable traits of an organism 
Gene = basic unit of inheritance or genomics
heredity, a segment in a DNA molecule that Haploid = an organism or cell with only 1
codes an instruction for mRNA synthesis, genome (n)
then protein synthesis  genetics Diploid = an organism or cell with 2 genome
Hereditary variation is caused by variant (2n)
forms of genes called alleles. Polyploid = an organism or cell with more
than 2 genomes; e.g. wheat (6x), cultivated
banana (3x)
Autopolyploid = an organism or cell with
more than 2 identical genomes; e.g.
cultivated banana (AAA)
Allopolyploid = an organism or cell with
more than 2 non-identical genomes; e.g.
wheat (AABBDD)
Chromosome = threadlike bodies that are
carrier of genes

Some crops and their chromosome Discreet variations = simply inherited,

numbers: identifiable even in variable environments
1. Corn (2n=20)  qualitative characters
2. Sorghum- (2n=20) e.g. seed color, flower color, seed
3. Rice (2n=24) shape, pubescence
4. Mungbean (2n=22) Continuous variations = easily modified by
5. Peanut (2n=40) environment, have complex inheritance 
6. Soybean (2n=40) quantitative characters
7. Wheat (2n=6x=42) e.g. seed yield, plant height,
8. Sweet corn? seed size, protein or oil
9. Sweet sorghum? concentration
10. Pop corn? Monohybrid cross: AA x aa
Recombinants = results from new F1: Aa
combinations of genetic material (or (GR) F2: ¼ AA: ½ Aa: ¼ aa
parents) (PR) ¾ A_: ¼ aa
Superior recombinants = those progenies Dihybrid cross: AABB x aabb or
that possess good combinations of genes AAbb x aaBB
from parents F1: AaBb
Heterosis or hybrid vigor- the phenomenon (GR) F2: 1 AABB: 2 AABb: 1 AAbb: 2
wherein a hybrid exceeds the performance AaBB: 4 AaBb: 2 Aabb: 1
of its parents for one or more aaBB: 2aaBb: 1 aabb
characteristics (PR) F2: 9 A_B_: 3 A_bb: 3 aaB_: 1
Inbreeding depression- reduction in aabb
performance that is associated with an Trihybrid cross AABBCC x aabbcc
increase in homozygosity due to inbreeding, F1: AaBbCc
reduction, in vigor due to the mating of F2: 27:9:9:9:3:3:3:1
closely related individuals Monogenic inheritance = one gene
Recombinant DNA technology Oligogenic inheritance = 2 to 10 genes
= genetic engineering Polygenic inheritance = > 10 genes
GMOs = genetically modified organisms Epistasis = interactions between non-allelic
GMCs = genetically modified crops genes affecting the same phenotype (or
GMAs = genetically modified animals trait)
A cultigen Complementary action = 2 non-allelic genes
(from Latin cultus - cultivated, and gens - maybe required to produce a single
kind) phenotype
- a plant that was deliberately altered or e.g. AB = resistant; Ab, aB, ab =
selected by humans; result of artificial susceptible
selection Modifying action = 1 gene produces an
- "man-made" or anthropogenic plants, effect only in the presence of a 2nd gene at
- plants of commerce that are used in another locus
horticulture, agriculture and forestry e.g. PrR = purple aleurone, prR
cultivar (s) = red, Prr, prr = colorless
= a cultivated variety of a plant, deliberately Inhibiting action = 1 gene may act as
selected for specific desirable inhibitor of the expression of another gene
characteristics (such as the color and form e.g. Ri = red; RI, rI, ri = white
of the flower, yield of the crop, disease Masking action = 1 gene may hide the
resistance etc.) effect of another gene when both are
= when propagated correctly, plants of a present
particular cultivar retain their special e.g. BY, By = black; bY = yellow, by = white
characteristics. Duplicate action = either of 2 genes may
Landrace (s) produce a similar or same effect
= domesticated plants adapted to the e.g. Cd, cD, CD = triangular
natural and cultural environment in which shape seed capsule
they live (or originated) cd = ovoid shape seed capsule
= often develop naturally with minimal Additive effect = 2 genes may produce the
assistance or guidance from humans using same effect and effects add up when both
traditional breeding methods are present

e.g. Ab, aB = medium-length awns; AB =

long
awns, ab = awnless
Pleiotropic genes (or pleiotropy) = 1 gene
may have more than 1 effect or may
influence > 1 trait
e.g. W1_ = purple flower, hypocotyl
in soybean
w1w1 = white flower, green
hypocotyl in soybean
Linkage = when 2 or more genes tend to be
inherited together because of proximity
4 Types of gene action:
1. Additive effects = each gene enhances
the expression of a trait
e.g. aabb = 0, Aabb = 1, AAbb =
2, AABb = 3, AABB = 4
2. Dominance effects = homozygous
dominant (e.g. AA) and heterozygous
dominant (e.g. Aa) parents have same
effects
e.g. aa = 0, Aa = 2, AA = 2
3. Epistasis effects = due to non-allelic gene
interactions
e.g. AAbb = 0, aaBB = 0, AABB = 4
4. Overdominance effects = when each
allele in a locus contributes a separate
effect
Phenotype (P) = Genetic + Environment +
Genotype x Environment
P = G+E+GxE
Phenotypic variance (VP) = VG + VE + VGE
Genetic variance (VG) = Additive +
Dominance + Epistasis
= VA + VD +
Floral Morphology and Floral Biology

euploidy:
 alloploidy (allopolyploidy) or
autoploidy (autopolyploidy)
alloploidy = e.g. AAB (allotriploid),
AACC (allotetraploid, e.g. Brassica napus),
AABBDD (allohexaploid, e.g. wheat)
autoploidy = e.g. AAA (autotriploid,
e.g. banana), autotetraploid (AAAA),
autopentaploid (BBBBB)
aneuploidy:
 nullisomic (2n – 2), monosomic
(2n – 1), double monosomic (2n – 1 – 1),
trisomic (2n + 1), double trisomic (2n + 1 +
1), tetrasomic (2n + 2)
2. Mutation = sudden change in the
hereditary material of a cell; could be
genic, involving deletions, or molecular
changes; or chromosomal, involving
rearrangement, loss, or duplication of
chromosome segments or entire
chromosomes
Types of mutation:
- gene mutation may be dominant
(a  A), recessive (A  a)
- somatic mutation or gametic
mutation
- spontaneous (natural) or induced
(e.g. gamma rays, x-rays, colchicine, EMS or
ethyl methane sulfonate) mutation
3. Fertility-regulating mechanisms =
a. Incompatibility (gametophytic or
sporophytic)
b. Genetic male sterility (GMS)
c. Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS)
d. Apomixis
e. Interspecific hybridization
f. Time of pollen shed (chasmogamy,
cleistogamy, dichogamy:
protogynous or protandrous)
4. Molecular biology
a. Plant cell and tissue culture
Marker assisted selection or b. Embryo culture, ovule culture, in
marker aided selection (MAS) vitro pollination
a process whereby a marker c. Anther culture
(morphological, biochemical or one based d. Somatic cell hybridization
on DNA/RNA variation) is used for indirect e. Plant genetic engineering (genetic
selection of a genetic determinant or transformation, rDNA technology)
determinants of a trait of interest (i.e. Molecular markers:
productivity, disease resistance, abiotic RFLP (restriction fragment length
stress tolerance, and/or quality). polymorphism),
TOOLS OF A PLANT BREEDER: RAPD (random amplified
1. Variations in chromosome number polymorphic DNA),
Euploidy = chromosome numbers vary by SSR (simple sequence repeats),
the basic complete chromosome set AFLP (amplified fragment length
(genome) polymorphism),
Aneuploidy = chromosome numbers vary SNPs (single nucleotide
by addition or loss of specific chromosomes polymorphisms)

• Molecular markers can be used for  1 pure line = a progeny descendant solely
several different applications including: by self- pollination from a single
• Germplasm characterization, homozygous plant
• Genetic diagnostics, Hybridization = method that uses cross-
• Characterization of transformants, pollination between genetically different
• Study of genome parents to obtain gene recombination
• Organization and phylogenic Selection procedures following
analysis. hybridization:
Microsatellites (1) Pedigree selection = for desired trait
• Used for within-population studies; combinations starts at F2 until genetic purity
• not as much for between- is attained
population studies b/c they evolve (2) Bulk population = seeds harvested in
too fast the F2 and succeeding generations are
• Paternity analysis and other studies bulked & grown, with selection delayed
of kinship either at F5 or F6 when gene segregation has
What is a SNP? virtually ceased
(3) Single-seed-descent (SSD) = progenies
of F2 plants are advanced rapidly
through succeeding generations from single
seeds
(4) Doubled-haploid = haploid (n) plants are
generated from anthers of F1 plants, or by
other means, and chromosomes are
doubled with colchicine to produce diploid
(2n) plants
Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms Backcross breeding =
backcross is a form of recurrent
hybridization by which a desirable allele for
a character is substituted for the alternative
allele in an otherwise desirable cultivar
- has a donor parent and a recurrent parent
- e.g. Joy_bean 101a x PI 09157272985b
a
high-yielding but susceptible to very
soybean rust
b
poor-yielding but has a gene for resistance
Self-pollinating (e.g. ?) to soybean rust
(Assembly of germplasm)  genebanks, F1 x Joy_bean 101 BC1
collections, etc. BC1F1 X Joy_bean 101 BC2
1. Introductions (PIs) BC2F1 x Joy_bean 101 BC3
2. Selection: mass selection, pure line Multiline breeding =
selection  procedure to address easy
- identify & propagate individual breakdown of genetic resistance to a
genotypes or groups of genotypes from disease with many strains or races
mixed populations, or from segregating  to develop a multiline cultivar
populations following hybridization which is a composite of genetically similar
mass selection = plants are chosen and lines, except that each line possesses a
harvested on the basis of phenotype and different gene for resistance to the disease
seeds are composited without progeny (isolines or isogenic lines); ~ NILs
testing; (near-isogenic lines)
(i) purify a mixed cultivar e.g. R1R1, R2R2, R3R3, R4R4, R5R5, …
(ii) develop a new cultivar by improving *In contrast to gene pyramiding
average performance of the population Variety blend = a composite cultivar
pure line1 selection = procedure of isolating produced by mixing seed of two or more
pure lines from a mixed population; cultivars
 pure-lined cultivar is more uniform than Rationale:
a mass- selected cultivar a blend of genotypes will yield constantly
higher than the average of the pure
component genotypes due to buffering

effect against G x E interactions, and will be cross in the breeding of hybrid cultivars, or
more stable over locations and years than a to id clones to include in a synthetic cultivar
pure-line cultivar of a forage crop
Non-traditional breeding procedures: Plant features promoting CP:
selection is not delayed until a high 1. Monoecy = pistillate & staminate
percentage of homozygosity is obtained flowers on same plant
1. Early testing (early generation 2. Dioecy = pistillate & staminate
selection) = flowers on different plants
 selection at F2 or F3, inferior segregates 3. Self-incompatibility = pre-zygotic or
are quickly eliminated; post-zygotic
 good for huge breeding programs to 4. Male or female sterility
reduce sizes of populations rapidly; 5. Floral devices (e.g. asynchrononous
 yield evaluation starts at F5 or F6 maturation or emergence of male
2. Population improvement and female flowers)
a. Recurrent selection = to increase 6. Inbreeding
1
frequency of desirable alleles for a examples: cabbage, cassava, carrot, corn,
particular quantitative character by cucumber, onion, pepper, squash,
frequent intermatings among sugarcane, sunflower, sweet potato,
superior genotypes within the colocasia
population Generally based on population
b. Multiple cross = or, convergent improvement principles (increasing the
cross, produced by crossing pairs of frequency of desirable genes*)
parents, then crossing pairs of F1s 1. Recurrent selection = involves
until all parents enter into a repeated cycles of selection
common progeny  phenotypic RS (based on visual
e.g. A x B CxD ExF GxH observation), or
AB x CD EF x GH  genotypic RS (based on progeny
ABCD x EFGH performance)
ABCDEFGH 1. Mass selection = e.g. common
Cross-pollinating crops (e.g?) practice of traditional maize
Breeding of CP species exploits the farmers
heterozygous nature of individual plants 2. Half-sib selection with progeny test
- in every generation, genes are reshuffled = plants or families with a common
and regrouped into new combinations parent (or pollen source) are
- plant breeder focuses on the population as selected based from progeny
a whole and not on individual plants, with performance rather than
more emphasis on quantitative inheritance phenotypic appearance
- due to extensive heterozygosity, there is an 3. Half-sib selection with testcross =
abundance of phenotypic variation selection of half-sibs is based on
How do breeders evaluate breeding testcross performance rather than
materials? progeny performance
while progeny test is done for SP 6. Reciprocal recurrent selection =
species, a testcross is done for CP species, designed for corn breeders to improve
which compares progeny performance of populations simultaneously for both GCA
plants or strains pollinated with a known and SCA
tester line = this evaluates the combining RS for GCA = uses tester with a broad
ability of the mother plants or strains with a genetic base and identifies mainly additive
common tester line average or overall genetic effects
performance of a plant or genetic strain in a RS for SCA = relies on a tester with a narrow
series of crosses with different tested lines genetic base and identifies both additive
is a measure of its GCA = general combining and non-additive gene action
ability 7. Synthetic cultivar = an advanced
Performance of a plant or strain in a specific generation of a seed mixture of strains,
combination vs. other cross combinations is clones, inbreds, or hybrids among them and
a measure of its SCA = specific combining propagated for a number of limited
ability generations by open-pollination
Combining ability tests = used to id Other strategies:
desirable combinations of inbred lines to

1. Polycross procedure – for d. accomplished through sib matings: half-

population formation by sib (1 common parent or pollen source) or
hybridization full-sib (between plants within the progeny
= method for intercrossing parents of of a single plant) matings
vegetatively propagated species with - inbreeding depression: decline in
mechanisms that prevent or minimize self- vigor, results from increases in the
fertilization (e.g. self-incompatibility) frequency of homozygous loci with
= to intercross parents as equally as deleterious effects; many dominant alleles
possible and obtain a similar genetic are lost and deleterious effects of recessive
contribution from each parent in the alleles on the phenotype are expressed
population that is formed Hybrid vigor or heterosis – increase in size,
1. Topcross (or testcross) = to vigor, productivity of a cultivar over the
determine GCA average or mean of its parents (mid-parent
2. Diallel cross = mating a group of value)
genotypes in all possible Explanations of HV: 2 theories are proposed
combinations but neither is wholly adequate
3. Reciprocal cross: A x B B x A 1. HV is due to bringing together of an
Breeding methods for clonally-propagated assortment of favorable dominant genes –
cross-pollinated crops alleles that contribute to vigor and growth
Clone = vegetatively propagated plant are dominant, whereas, recessive alleles
population of genetically identical plants may be neutral, harmful, or deleterious to
e.g. sugarcane, potato, sweet the individual
potato, cassava, taro, bermuda grass e.g. genes ABCDE are favorable for high
1. Germplasm assembly and yield
maintenance AABBccddEE x aabbCCDDEE
2. Clonal selection F1 hybrid: AaBbCcDdEe
3. Hybridization = sexual reproduction 2. HV = heterozygous loci contribute more
is necessary to create genetic to productivity than homozygous loci;
variability through gene overdominance of heterozygous locus to
recombination either dominant or recessive homozygous
4. Selection parents
Breeding Hybrid Cultivars: Cytoplasmic male sterility and its utilization
Hybrid cultivars = 1st generation offspring in hybrid seed production (HSP)
of a cross between inbred parent lines - CMS genes and fertility-restoring
(homozygous) with different genotypes (Fr) genes = eliminates the tedious
Hybrid cultivar ≠ cultivar produced by emasculation procedure
hybridization in SPCs - CMS = 1st used for commercial
HC is produced in 3 steps: hybrid onion production in the late
1. Development of inbred lines, 1940s
normally by several generations of A-line, B-line, R-line Model for HSP:
inbreeding in a natural or A-line: CMS lines (cms, rf1rf2)
segregating population of a CP B-line: male-fertility maintainer
species lines (N, rf1rf2)
2. Crossing pairs of unrelated lines to R-line: male-fertile, fertility-
produce a single-cross F1 hybrid restoring lines (N, Rf1Rf2)
cultivar with many heterozygous How?
loci 1. Introduce a MS cytoplasm into the
3. Producing seed of the single-cross A-line by backcross procedure
hybrid cultivar for distribution to 2. Maintain MS A-line by pollination
grower from a male-fertile maintainer line
Inbreeding and Inbreeding depression with identical genotype (B-line)
- inbreeding is any system of mating 3. Develop fertility-restorer lines (R-
that: lines)
a. leads to an increase of homozygosity; 4. Cross A-lines x R-lines = hybrid seed
b. occurs when mated individuals are Alternative hybrid procedures:
related by ancestry; 1. hand emasculation and pollination
c. most rapid approach to homozygosity in 2. self-incompatibility
plants is through self-fertilization; 3. clonal propagation of an F1 hybrid

4. hybrids in dioecious species: 1. artificial emasculation = manual

pistillate x staminate clones removal of stamens (e.g.
6. apomictically propagated F1 hybrids detasseling) , suction, chemicals
(using apomixis) (gas vapor)
apomixis = production of seed without 2. use of male sterility = genetic or
fertilization (union of gametes); cytoplasmic
= could be facultative apomixis or obligate genic male sterility
apomixis cytoplasmic male sterility 
7. genetic male sterility (GMS) = nuclear MS cytoplasmic inheritance or maternal
8. chemically induced MS inheritance
Seeds that will be produced are those that Pollen transfer from male to female parent
will be sold as certified planting materials =
to farmers for their crop production. By wind (usually effective for grass species)
Seed = coat (testa) + stored food (cotyledon Or insects (e.g. sunflower)
or endosperm) + embryo Or, manual pollination (e.g. tomato,
Double fertilization  seed petunia)
 egg cell of the embryo sac (n) + sperm 6 Types of hybrid seed =
nucleus (n) = zygote (2n) = function of the number of parents (P)
 2 polar nuclei (n + n) + sperm involved and the relationship among the
nucleus (n) = endosperm (3n) parents
 Orthodox1 vs. recalcitrant seeds2 = sister lines (related materials, when
1
moisture content (MC) can be lowered crossed P1 x P*)
with detrimental effects and seeds can be • Single cross
kept for a longer time P1 x P2
2
MC cannot be lowered without damage to • Modified single cross
seed embryo (e.g. seeds of most fruit trees) (P1* x P1) x P2
Hybrid seed production: • Double modified single cross
Hybrid seed is used for commercial (P1* x P1) x (P2* x P2)
production of a number of crops. • Three-way cross
Must meet 4 requirements for successful P1 x P2 x P3
production and use of hybrid seed: • Modified three-way cross
1. Heterosis (hybrid vigor) is exhibited by (P1 x P2) x (P3* x P3)
the F1 progeny of crosses between parents • Double cross
2. Fertile pollen can be eliminated from the (P1 x P2) x (P3 x P4)
female parent (emasculation) Advantages and disadvantages of the
3. Pollen from the male parent is effectively hybrid types:
transported to the female parent 1. Productivity = single cross >
(pollination) modified single cross > double
4. Hybrid seed can be produced reliably & modified single cross > three-way
economically cross > modified three-way cross >
Heterosis = present when performance of double cross
F1 progeny of a cross exceeds that of the 2. Uniformity = single cross from 2
parents inbred parents is the most uniform
How to determine? Single cross > > modified single cross >
- compare performance of F1 progeny vs. double modified single cross > three-way
mean of parents (mid-parent heterosis) vs. cross > modified three-way cross > double
best parent (high-parent heterosis) cross
- to justify use of hybrid seed, high-parent 1. Cost of hybrid seed production =
heterosis must exist single cross > modified
Transgressive segregants/progeny = single cross > double modified single
offspring from parental cross that have cross > three-way cross > modified
extreme characteristics than any of the 2 three-way cross > double cross
parents 4. Number of different plantings =
Positive transgressive segregants production of seed of each parent and of
Negative transgressive segregants the hybrid requires separate plantings;
Elimination of fertile pollen from female complexity of production increases when
parent = number of separate plantings increases
Classes of certified seed:

Breeder seed = produced under direct Inspections are made at the time
control of originator of cultivar or that purity and diseases can best be
designated representative; has highest level observed.
of genetic purity; can be used to produce 6. 6. Seed inspections by
foundation, registered, & certified seeds representatives (DA) to observe and
(WHITE TAG) supervise harvesting, conditioning,
Foundation seed = direct increase from bagging, and other processing
breeder seed; but can be produced from operations. Representative samples
breeder or foundation seed per se; also are drawn by the inspector from
called basic seed each seed lot after it has been
(RED TAG) condition, bagged, and prepared for
Registered seed = 1st generation increase of sale. Seed samples are tested for
breeder or foundation seed; must maintain impurities, germination, and other
satisfactory genetic purity (GREEN TAG) factors affecting seed quality
Certified seed = from breeder, foundation, according to the particular crop.
or registered seed; generally not used to Only seed meeting or exceeding
produce additional generations of certified minimum standards in all respects
seed except when foundation seed of old is accepted for certification
cultivars were not maintained or in case of Official tags supplied by the seed-certifying
emergency when supplies of foundation or agency are sealed on the bags of seed
registered seed are not enough (BLUE TAG) approved for certification. Tag is labeled to
YELLOW TAG = cultivar is not certified but show that the seed meets the specific
breeder wants to have the cultivar produced standards for the crop
under the same standards of seed quality as
used for certified seed
How a cultivar is certified PRODUCTION PRACTICES OF
1. Grower plants the foundation or ANNUAL CROPS
registered seed of an approve
cultivar Land Preparation
2. Plant seed on clean ground, field
should not have been planted in the  Otherwise known as tillage
previous year to another cultivar of  done in accordance with the
requirements of the crops,
same crop, or to other crops that
whether they grow under dryland
might affect genetic purity of crop
or wetland systems
being certified; remove noxious  two systems of land preparation
weeds before harvest; clip borders and water management (wetland
if necessary to maintain seed purity and dryland) have contrasting
3. In CPCs, isolation of seed-producing features in terms of its physical,
field is necessary, either by planting biological and chemical nature of
a specified distance from all other soils.
fields of the same crop, or by  The land is prepared before
planting a specified number of seeding by the process of tillage.
pollinator rows around the border  Tillage - the manual or
of the field to reduce opportunity mechanized manipulation of the
for cross-pollination with other soil to provide a medium for
cultivars in neighboring fields proper crop establishment and
4. Rogue off type plans and mixtures growth
before harvest, or before flowering 1. Land Leveling – Land is leveled for
several purposes.
in case of CPCs
2. Seedbed preparation
5. 5. Field inspections are made by
 for germination to occur, the
representatives of the seed- seed must make good contact
certifying agency to check on the with the soil to be able to imbibe
purity of the cultivar, freedom from moisture
other crop plants, freedom from  Seedbed preparation is done
noxious weeds, amount of disease according to the seed
that might affect certification, and characteristics, especially size
general conformity by the grower  fineness of the soil after tillage is
to the seed certification rules. called its tilth

 fine tilth is required for seeding using various kind of

small-sized seeds implements
3. Incorporating organic matter and  final condition depends on
soil amendments the purpose of tillage and the
 Stubbles left after crop crop to be produced.
harvesting can be mixed in the Two basic methods:
soil to improve its physical a) clean tillage (no debris or
characteristics. plant remains are left on
 Fertilizers, organic and the soil surface)
inorganic and soil amendments b) mulch tillage (some debris are
such as lime, may be added to left on the soil surface).
the soil during the preparation Steps in conventional tillage
prior to seeding. 1. Clearing the land
4. Weed control  to remove large pieces
 Weeds compete with crop plants of debris, and trees and
for growth factors and may shrubs
harbor diseases and insect  to facilitate the use of
pests. tillage implements
 Weeds are controlled at various 2. Primary tillage (plowing)
stages in crop production.  manipulation of the soil
 5. Improve soil physical condition that produces less than
 Soil texture and structure are 15% of the soil covered
important in crop production. with plant residue
 Soil structure can be destroyed  top soil is stirred up to a
with time, because of a variety of depth of 6 to 14 inches,
reasons. and inverted
5. Improve soil physical condition  burying the vegetation
 Soil texture and structure and debris on the soil
are important in crop surface
production.  implements used in primary tillage
 Soil structure can be 1) moldboard plow
destroyed with time, 2) disk plow
because of a variety of 3) chisel plow
reasons. 4) powered rotary tiller
 Heavy traffic (vehicles, 5) sweep plow (also
farm animals, humans) called stubble mulch
can compact the soil and plow)
create an impervious soil 6) lister/bedder (for ridges
barrier called a hard pan. or beds)
 Tillage can be used to  depth of tillage also depends on
break up the hard pan for the ---
crop root growth and  amount and nature of the
development. plant residue on the soil
6. Erosion control  soil type
 Tillage may be conducted  farmer‟s preference
in a certain way to  depth of tillage also depends on
provide a rough soil the ---
surface to impede the  amount and nature of the
actions of the agents of plant residue on the soil
soil erosion (conservation  soil type
tillage).  farmer‟s preference
7. Shaping soil Secondary tillage (harrowing)
 Tillage is used to create  mechanical manipulation
raised beds for planting of the soil to produce a
or to create furrows for finer tilth for preparing a
irrigation. seedbed
Classification of Tillage  usually follows primary
Systems tillage
1. Conventional tillage  done at a shallower
 field is stirred up to a certain depth from 2-6 inches
depth (called plow depth)

 the implements pulverize wear and tear of machineries;

the clods left by primary reduce fuel and oil cost
tillage  slightly sloping areas - plow
 farm implements include along the contour of the land to
the disk harrow, harrow, prevent soil erosion
and field cultivator Characteristics of a well-prepared
upland field
Advantages:  Granular, mellow yet compact
 easier to apply fertilizers enough so that seeds are in
and perform other close contact with the soil for
operations better germination
 Lack of crop residues  Free of trash or vegetation
reduce hibernating pests  Field is level, with minimum
Disadvantages: depressions where water may
 Erosion accumulate
 Compaction Effect of moisture on land
2.Conservation tillage preparation of upland fields
(crop residue 1. too dry increases power
management) requirements and likehood of
 a basic tillage strategy implement breakage;
that entails practices in 2.too wet promotes soil compaction,
which some crop residue reduces soil granulation, lengthens
remains on the soil land preparation;
surface after the operatio 3. ideal soil moisture content is at a
chief goals of level below field capacity (the
conservation tillage moisture content after soil has
1) to reduce soil erosion been saturated and allowed to
2) conserve moisture. drain for 1-3 days)
Common types of Practical indicators that the soil is
conservation tillage good for plowing:
1. no tillage - crop is seeded 1) soil should slide freely from the
directly into a seedbed moldboard
not tilled since the 2) soil is friable and breaks easily
harvest of the previous
crop Tillage equipment for upland
2. mulch tillage - crop residue operations
to serve as mulch 1. Carabao or bullock drawn
3. strip tillage - strip-till or  moldboard plow cuts a depth of
zone tillage that entails 9.8-15.2cm
the disturbance of  native spike tooth harrow
narrow strips in the soil (kalmot) – made of bamboo or
where seeding is done steel bars
4)minimum tillage or reduced 2. hand tractor drawn equipment
tillage - considerable soil (moldboard or disc plow and
disturbance but lesser rotavator)
than conventional tillage; 3) tractor-mounted implements (four-
Some crop residue is left wheeled)
on the soil surface a. moldboard plow – cuts, inverts
5) ridge tillage - small band and breaks furrow slices and turns
of soil on the ridge is under surface weeds, crop
tilled and crop residues residues, and trash; cut ranges
are mixed between from 15-30 cm
ridges to reduce soil Hand-mounted farm implements
erosion and increase a. disc plow – cuts the soil without
water retention inversion of furrow slice; cut
Tillage Direction ranges from 15-20 cm
 Right direction in plowing, and b. disc harrows – the disc cuts the
harrowing: soil and crop residues while the
 flat lands - follow the longer side trailing edge can raise soil and
for faster operation; minimize push it to one side

c. rotavators – with a set of cutting B. Harrowing and its purposes; done

knives which rotates vertically at 2-3x
high speed that initially cut the soil  pulverize the clods left
and crop residues after plowing
d. mower – for grass cutter for  level the field
cutting into small pieces standing  to compact soil to a
stubbles certain degree
e. subsoiler – used to break hard  destroy weeds as they
pans to improve internal drainage start to grow
of the soil with a penetration of 51- Considerations in tillage
91 cm operations:
f. furrower or ridger – it resembles a  Factors to consider in the
double mounted moldboard, joint number of plowing and
together at the middle used for harrowing
setting furrows where seeding or  soil type
planting of seeds/seed pieces is  weed density
done manually Characteristics of a well prepared
Sources of power for upland upland field:
tillage  Granular
• ox or bullock is preferable  mellow yet compact
in upland conditions than enough so that the seeds
the carabao because it are in close contact with
can withstand heat better the soil for better
• hand tractors germination free of trash
• four-wheeled tractors or vegetation
Land Preparation Under Terminologies:

Submerged Conditions • Planting materials – seeds, setts,
 Operations: seedpieces, propagules
 one plowing • Seeding rate – number of seeds
 two harrowings to be planted in a given hill or
 leveling of the field linear meter
 Activities : • Population density – the amount
1.fixing dikes to improve water of seeds planted in a given area
impounding • Furrows – an opening in the soil
2.soaking paddies with water 2-3 where the seeds are planted
days before plowing/rotavation • Basal fertilizers – fertilizer
3. harrow the area 7-10 days after materials before the seeds are
plowing with a combed tooth placed.
harrow Planting materials for row planting
4. 7-10 days after harrowing, level 1. Seeds
the field with a planer or leveling  all grain crops (legume
board, then marking using a and cereals)
planting board  forage grasses
 Harrowing and leveling at 7-10  Legumes
days interval until the weeds are  fiber crops (jute, ramie,
decomposed cotton)
 If rotavator is used, there is no 2. Vegetative materials:
need to plow the field Stem cuttings - sugarcane ,
Tillage Operation for upland sweet potato, cassava, forage
(dryland) condition: grasses
A. Plowing (1-2 x) and its purposes: Tubers – irish potato, yams
 cut the soil into furrow Bulbs – multiplier onions, garlic
slices Corms – taro (gabi)
 pulverize the soil Rhizomes – ramie, ginger
 incorporate weeds and Characteristics of planting
stubble underneath the materials
soil using a carabao • adaptability to the area where it
drawn moldboard plow or will be planted
a tractor drawn • high yielding ability
implement • Purity

• quality of products for market White potato – tuber cut into

• disease and insect resistance seedpieces, with a bud in each
For good seeds, it must have the portion and treated with
following qualities: methoxyethyl mercury chloride
• strong germination (MEMC)
• proper size and development Recommended varieties of crops
• uniformity Philippine Seed Board (PSB)
• freedom from seed-borne now renamed as the National
diseases Seed Industry Council (NSIC)
• freedom from noxious and other rationalizes the release of
weeds varieties emanating from
• high purity different sources, with a system
• freedom from mechanical injury of coordinated ecological trials
Pre-germination treatments that has been in operation since
1.Use of fungicides - protectant against 1955
fungal diseases of crops at 1. Rice : breeding institutions are
seedling stage IRRI, UPLB, DA-BPI and DA-
 Vegetables and legume seeds – Philrice
Captan, Arasan a. Recommended lowland varieties
• Corn seeds – Metalaxyl (Apron C4-63, BPI-76, IR 36, IR 42, IR
35 SD) against downy mildew 64, IR 66 (with salinity
discovered by Dr. Efelio tolerance), PSB RC 2, PSB RC
Exconde 4, PSB RC-6, IPS RC 8, PSB RC
2.Vernalization or cold treatment to 10, PSB RC 10, PSB RC 12,
enhance germination PSB RC 14,; F-1 hybrids: PSB
 Gladioli - corm is vegetative and RC 26H, PSB RC 72H released
dormant – dormancy of freshly by PhilRice
harvested gladioli corm at 35oF b. lowland glutinous varieties: IR
at high RH is required to prolong 29, UPL Ri-1, UPL Ri 3, IR 65
its dormancy to 12-18 months; c. rainfed lowland: IR 46, IR 52,
for a storage of 4-6 months at UPL Ri 2
below 40oF d. upland varieties: C-22, IR 45,
 GA3 (Gibberillic Acid) can be UPL Ri 5 (with acid sulfate
used as a substitute for tolerance), UPL Ri 7, PSB RC 1,
vernalization by soaking the PSB RC 16 (Ennano)
corms of gladiolus in a solution 2. Maize
at 500-2,500ppm for 12 hours 2.1 Government breeding
 To induce cabbage, onions, and institutions:
radish to flower for seed IPB-UPLB
production purposes - DA
vernalization or subjecting seeds USM
to refrigeration temperatures 2.2 Private companies:
before planting will help Pioneer Overseas Corp-Phil,
3.Seed inoculation – seeds of Cargill Phil, Inc., Ayala Agric‟l
soybeans, peanuts, and mungo Deve‟t Corp,. BM Domingo &
seeds are treated with rhizobia Co., Inc. (Corn World Breeding
by wetting the powder and System Corp), Asian hybrid
mixing the seeds thoroughly but Corporation
inoculated seeds should not be a. open-pollinated varieties – yields
exposed to sunlight 5-6 t/ha
4.Preparation of vegetative a.1 Yellow corn – IPB Var 1
planting materials (Ginintuan), IPB Var 5, IPB Var
Cassava – use mature stems; 7 7, BPI LG Comp 1, USM Var 3,
months old; 20-25 cm long; USM VAr 5, USM Var 7; IES Cn
viable for 5 months if properly 3
stored a.2 white flint types – IPB Var 2
Sugarcane – top portion of stem (Tanco White), IPB Var 4, USM
with 3 nodes Var 10, USM Var 12, IES Cn 6;
Sweet potato and kangkong – CMU Var 2
25-30 cm long, tip cuttings b. F-I hybrids – Pioneer 3228, SMC
preferred 305, SMC 301, IPB 911 (single

cross), IPB 947 (3 way cross), c. Cowpea – UPL Cp 1 (Sagana),

etc. UPL Cp 3, UPL Cp 5 (Magbunyi),
3. Tropical wheat: Trigo 1, Trigo 2 and UPL Cp 9 (Juliet), BPI Cp 4, BPI Cp
Trigo 3 (yields 1.6-1.8 tons/ha as 3
grown in Northern Luzon) d. White potato – T-204 (Banahaw),
4. Sorghum – UPL Sg 5 (Cosor 5), PSB Arka, Siro, Kennebec, Up-to-date,
Sg 93-01 (USMARC 104), PSB Conchita, Cosima
Sg 02 (IES Sor 1), PSB Sg 94- e. Cabbage – F-1 KK Cross, F-1 KY
02 (IES Sg 2) Cross (heat tolerant), Marion market,
5. Sugarcane – The agencies involved F-1 Princess #39, F1 Stone Head,
in the breeding work are the YR Summer 50
Sugarcane Regulatory f. Tomato – UPL Tm-1 (Marikit),
Administration (SRA) and the UPL Tm 2 (Marilag), UPL Tm 6
Victorias Milling Corporation (Maligaya), Improved Pope
(VMC). g. Eggplant – UPL Eg 11,
Recommended varieties: Dumaguete Long Purple, Dingras
Phil 66-14, Phil 56-226, Phil 72- Multiple Purple #1, EG Long Purple
70, SRA 80-13, SRA 85-83, h. Onion- Red Globe, Excel, Yellow
VMC 71-39, VMC 711-238, VMC Granex
73-229 i. Chinese Cabbage – Esperanza,
6. Rootcrops (with VisCa, IPB-UPLB) Corazon, Reyna Elena
a. Cassava varieties: j. Cucumber – UPL Cu-1 (Pilipinas),
UPL Cv 3 (Sultan 1), UPL Cu 6 (Pilmaria), UPL Cu-2
UPL Cv 4 (Vassourinha), (Pinagpala), Explorer, Panorama
UPL Cv 5 (Sultan 2), UPL Cv k. Cauliflower – Early Patna
1 (Datu 1), UPL Cv 2 (Lakan) 1; l. Garlic – Ilocos Purple Shank,
Lakan 2, lakan 3, Lakan 4, PSB Ilocos White Shank, Batangas Strain
Cv 9, PSB Cv 10 m. Lima Bean – Kentucky Wonder,
b. Sweet potato – UPL Sp 1 Habas, Sugar Mammotj
(Kinabakab), UPL Sp 3 (Tinipay), n. Honey Dew Melon – Tan Dew,
UPL Sp 5, UPL Sp 2, UPL Sp 4 Honey Dew
(Cambel), UPL Sp 6, PSB Sp 16 o. Pechay – Black Behi
(VisCa), PSB Sp 17 (VisCa) p. Watermelon – Sugar Baby
c. Taro (Gabi) – PSB Vg 2, PSB
Vg 3 PLANTING PRACTICES
d. Yam (Ubi) – PSB Vt 2, PSB  Crop productivity begins with
Vt 3 good crop establishment, which
7. Grain legumes is a factor of seed quality and
a. Mungbean – MG 50-10A, Mg favorable environment.
1 (Pag-asa), UPL Mg 3 (Pag-asa  Seeding should be conducted
3), UPL Mg 5 (Pag-asa 5), UPL such that land use is optimized
Mg 7 (Pag-asa 7), etc. by adopting appropriate plant
b. Peanut – UPL Pn 2 (Mekong), distribution or spacing in the
UPL Pn 4 (Biyaya 4, UPL Pn 8 field.
(Biyaya 8), etc. I. Seed Analysis. A good crop starts
c. Soybeans – UPL Sy 4 (Tiwala with a good quality seed and a good
4), UPL Sy 6 or PSB Sy 2 crop stand and establishment
(Tiwala 6), BPI Sy 4, PSB Sy 3 depends on the quality of seed
(La Granja) planted and the conditions under
8. Cotton – UPL Ct 1 (Batac 1), UPL Ct which the seed was planted.
2 (Batac 2), CRDI-1, PSB Ct 6 • Seed testing - a procedure for
9. Kenaf – UPL K-1 gathering pertinent information
10.Vegetables. about a seed, its capacity for
breeding institutions: IPB-UPLB, DA, establishing a stand of
East-West-Phil, Kaneko Seeds-Phil. seedlings.
a. Pole sitao – UPL PS 1 Methods of seed viability testing:
(Sandigan), UPL PS-2 (Ana), A. Standard Germination Test
CSL 15, BPI PS 3 1. Rug doll method or rolled-towel
b. Bush sitao – UPL BS 3 test
(Sumilang), PSB B2-2  Seeds are arranged in rows
and rolled up

 rolled material is placed in a Stem cuttings (sugarcane, sweet

germinator at 90% RH at potato, cassava, forages grasses
26oC for 16 hour Rhizomes (ramie, ginger)
2. Seedbox method Preparation of Vegetative Plant
 seeds are sown Materials
in previously  Field crops - direct seeded
sterilized soil (cereal grains, grain legumes,
3. Petri dish method forage crops, oil crops and fiber
 seeds are placed crops) and seeds are placed
in absorbent where they will grow and
material in the develop until maturity
dish  Tree crops and many vegetables
Computation for % Germination … (pechay, cabbage, cauliflower,
Scoring is done by grouping seedlings etc.) are transplanted
into categories:  Some vegetables may be direct-
a. normal seedlings seeded (okra, malunggay,
b. hard seeds (no imbibition) raddish, etc)
c. abnormal (malformed) seedlings  Transplanting - seedlings are
d. dead or decayed seeds raised in nurseries and then
transferred to permanent
B. Tetrazolium Test - a colometric test locations in the field
in which the biochemical reaction  Considerations in
causes the test solution to change color seeding/planting
under certain conditions.  determine the depth of
 Certain enzymes become active seed placement
when viable seeds (living tissue)  plant density
imbibe water (hydration) and  plant arrangement
start respiration.  time of planting
T-Z test (2,3,5 triphenyltetrazolium  method of planting
chloride) A. Depth of Seed Placement
 Solution is colorless but Factors to consider:
changes into a red  seed size
insoluble compound  type of seedling emergence
called formazan upon  soil type
being reduced by  depth of soil moisture available
hydrogen ions. A.1. Seed size - Small seeds are
 Respiring and viable seeds will planted at shallow depths.
change color to red A.2 Type of seedling emergence
 Dead or non-respiring seeds Species with epigeal germination need
remain colorless to emerge above the soil to commence
II. Seed Purity Test seedling establishment; not be planted
• Seed Purity is the percentage too deeply for seeds may rot in the
pure seed (only the seed of the process
desired kind without Epigeal germination – cotyledons
contaminants) in the sample emerge from the ground surface
tested. Hypogeal germination – cotyledons
remain in the soil
Seed contaminants includes: A3 Soil type. Seed placement in heavy
1. seed of other crops (seeds soils (clay) – shallow; light soils (sandy)
other than the desired crop seed - shallow planting is necessary; prone to
for planting) drying
2. weed seeds A.4 Depth of soil moisture available -
III. Field Seeding/Planting related to soil type and seeds placement
Types of Planting Materials: should be dependent on the type of soil
1. Seeds – all grain crops, vegetable to be planted
crops, forage grasses and legumes, B. Estimation of Required Plant
and fiber crops Population Density
2. Vegetative materials Plant density is determined by the
Tubers (white potato, yam) seeding rate of a crop or the number of
Bulbs (multiplier onion, garlic) established plants per unit land area
Corms (taro, yautia) Computation of PD

1) Hill Method source of the certified

No of plants/ha = 10,000 sq. m.XNo.of plants/hill seeds
DBR X DBH  green tag
Estimation of Required Plant Population 4. certified seeds
Density …  available in large
2) Drill Method quantities and are sold
Plants/ha = area X no. of PPLM commercially to farmers
(1m)(DBR)  blue tag
C. Plant Arrangement Good seeds – seeds produced
 It is influenced by some of the from certified seeds which are
factors that influence plant widely available at village levels
density. Methods of Raising RiceSeedlings
 Seeds may be distributed in the 1. Wetbed method
field according to predetermined,  seeds are sown on raised beds
constant and uniform spacing with continuous irrigation water
pattern, or randomly distributed.  seedlings are ready for
 Distribution pattern depends on transplanting in 25-30 days
seed size and production 2. Dapog method
system.  pre-germinated seeds are sown
Categories of plant distributions in cemented or puddled soil
a. random distribution or broadcast covered with banana leaves or
Small-size seeds are distributed plastic sheet
without pre-determined interplant  seedlings are ready for
spacing (wheat, oats, rice, transplanting in 10-14 days
forage grasses and forage 3. Dry-bed method
legumes).  only applicable for rainfed areas
b. Structured/patterned distribution wherein seedbeds are prepared
b.1 Seed drilling - planting of seeds followed by sowing of seeds
with a mechanical seed drill  seedlings are ready for
(drum seeder for rice) transplanting in 20-40 days
b.2 Row planting - more accurate Methods of planting rice seedlings:
spacing between seeds in a row 1.square method – Two to three
and between rows ordinary rice seedlings or
b.2.1drill planting – seeds are 4-6 seedlings for dapog
placed individually at method shall be planted
predetermined spacing between at a distance of 20cm x
adjacent seeds in a row common 20cm or 25cm x 25 cm.
to row crops 2.wide rows, closer hills – Rice
b.2.2 hill drop – two or more seeds seedlings are spaced at a
are placed in a group in one distance of 40cm x 5 cm
planting hole or spot called hill with 1 seedling per hill or
Preparation and Selection of Rice 30cm x 30 cm with 2
Seeds seedlings per hill
Classes of rice seeds 3.double row method – alternation of
1. breeder seeds 20cm and 40 cm row
 purest seeds and spacing with hills 10cm
controlled by plant apart and 2 seedlings per
institutions or plant hill
breeders Direct Seeding on Puddled Field
 planted to produced  Seeds are pre-emerged and
foundation seeds seed requirement is 100-125 kg
 white tag per hectare.
2. foundation seeds Methods of seeding rice in a puddle
 multiplied from breeder field:
seeds and is planted to 1. broadcast (with herbicide
produce registered seeds application)
 red tag 2. drill – Pre-germinated seeds are
3. registered seeds sown in rows with spacing at 25-
 progeny of the breeder or 30cm using a rice drum seeder
foundation seeds and the at the rate of 50-100 kg per
hectare

3. dibbling – Pre-germinated succeeding 3-4 weeks of rapid

seeds are dibbled in straight vegetative growth
rows and in hills at 15cm x 15cm 3. reproductive stage – at flowering is
to 25cm with 5-8 seeds per hill. the most critical period
Dryland Seeding of Lowland Rice and moisture should be in
 Non germinated seeds are sown adequate amounts (e.g.
in unpuddled soil by broadcast rice)
method followed by a single 4. seed filling stage – critical in seed
pass of a spike toothed harrow development; lack of
along the furrows to cover the moisture in the soil will
seeds. result in reduced seed
 An “inverted T-seeder” may be yields
used to drill the seeds in straight 5. ripening stage – 2-3 weeks prior to
rows harvesting when irrigation
Water Requirements of Crops is no longer needed
 Water Requirements of Crops – Methods of water application for
refers to the total amount of lowland rice:
water that is required to bring a 1. continuous submergence – from
Crop to complete its growth 2 weeks up to about 2 weeks
cycle, from germination to full before harvesting
maturity. 2. intermittent – paddy fields are
e.g. to produce 1 kg of alternately flooded and
rice, 5000 L of water drained; soil surface is
1 kg of corn, 1,400L of allowed to dry before the
water next water application is
To determine irrigation requirement of made
a crop Sources of water for lowland rice
 an estimate of the “consumptive fields:
use” of water by crops 1.rainfall – for rainfed lowland rice
 amount that is lost through fields, bunding paddies to
evaporation impound water
 transpiration should be obtained. 2. surface water from streams and
Some Terminlogies…. rivers
• Evaporation - loss of soil water 3.river diversion system – e.g Magat
• Transpiration – loss of water in Dam (Region II),
leaves Pantabangan and Angat
• Seepage and percolation – loss Dams (Region III), San
of water during irrigation Roque in Pangasinan
• Seepage – lateral subsurface (the largest dam in the
water movements Phils.)
• Percolation – vertical subsurface 4.small farm reservoirs - reservoir is
water movement found in elevated portion
 Factors that affect seepage to irrigate the field
and percolation: 5. ground water - use of tube wells
 soil texture and structure and shallow tube wells.
 soil permeability
 depth of hardpan and
impervious layer Pump Irrigation
 extent of soil puddling Pump systems - used to lift water from
 Rate of evapo-transpiration in surface sources (canals,
the Philippines - 2-5mm/day for rivers, streams, water
wet season and 4-9mm/day for table, underground
dry season sources)
Water requirements of plants of Types of mechanical devices for
different stages: transferring water:
1. seedling – adequate moisture for 1. hydraulic ram – gravity operated
germination and early seedling device to used to raise a large amount
establishment of water available up to 20 feet; gravity
2. vegetative period – adequate operated; no fuel is necessary.
amount of moisture during the 2. axial flow pump or propeller pumps –
the propeller is submerged in the

water source and provides a

lifting action of the water to as  slope of the land
high as 4 meters.  crops to be irrigated
 The propeller is coupled to an  source of water supply
engine or belt-driven by a power  permeability of the soil
tiller.  water holding capacity of the soil
 The “sipa pump” is a pump Methods of irrigation in the
designed for low-lift application Philippines (and other countries):
of 1 to 3 meters which uses an 1. Border strip irrigation – the fields
improved boat-type propeller. are divided into strips that are
3. Shallow-well centrifugal pumps or bounded by low levees or dikes.
“suction lift” pumps  slope length of strip not to
 The pump is located above the exceed 3% (3 feet drop per 100
well and takes water from the feet)
source by suction lift  slope across the strip should not
 Pumps operate within the limit exceed 1%.
of 7m of water depth. Border strip irrigation
Types of shallow-well pumps:  Strip dimension: 5-15 m in width;
a. watt-miser electric pumps –small 75-100m in length
self-priming electric  Water is spread over the
pumps that can provide strip but not allowed to
supplemental irrigation accumulate for long.
for 1-3 ha of rice using a  used for pasture and
single phase electric upland grain crops
motor (0.5 to 1.5 hp). (upland rice for export)
The pumps are 2. Basin or paddy irrigation – Water is
connected to an electric applied to level plots surrounded by
power source of 115/230 dikes or levees and leveled following
v. the topography of the land.
b. centrifugal pump –run by an engine 3. Furrow Irrigation (dryland areas) – For
to operate a shallow areas planted to potatoes, vegetables
tube-well at depths of 6-7 and corn wherein water runs down
m of aquifer; the furrows between row of plants
4. Deep well or “submergence” pumps 4. Irrigation of dryland crops after lowland
– are installed within the rice
well casing (of 4”  For vegetables/spices like
diameter) and with the onions, garlic, tomatoes, cotton,
pump inlet submerged soybeans, peanuts, maize,
below the pumping level tobacco, and watermelon usually
through a shaft. using irrigation structures plus
 The motor or engine is located at temporary farm ditches to
ground and drives the convey water to areas planted to
submersible pump through the crops.
shaft. Water is raised through a
tube enclosed within the well
casing.
 It operates at depths beyond 5. Aerial irrigation
100ft.  used on most crops and over a
Five general ways of applying wider range of topography, flat or
Irrigation water: rolling to a slope of 12%.
1. flooding – wetting all land surfaces  These are used in irrigating corn,
2. by furrows – wetting part of the sugarcane, and banana,
ground particularly the hand-moved
surface portable lateral system or the
3. by sprinkle– same way as rain center-pivot sprinkler.
4. sub-irrigation – surface is wetted a 6. Trickle irrigation
little  This was developed in Israel and
5.localized – water is applied at each the most commonly used type is
plant at daily rate the “drip” irrigation where water
Factors to consider in choice of is slowly applied directly and
irrigation

only to the soil immediately applying it as a spray to plants which

surrounding each plant. is effecting in correcting trace
 It has been used in growing element deficiency at critical stages
vegetables, and flowering plants of the crop.
in greenhouses and fruit trees. Other sources of nutrients:
Soil Fertility Management 1. organic fertilizers (compost) 1-
Crop Nutrition 7%N, 2-13%P2O5 and 1-10%
 very important contributing factor K2O from plant and animal
to increase production nutrient sources
should be present in Trichoderma harzianum – speed up
proportionately balanced decomposition of
condition compost materials (1 ton
 if any one elements is lacking, it of compost material
should be made available in the needs 10 kg of
soil. Trichoderma inoculum)
 Plants absorb significant 2. green manure – biomass produced by
amounts of macro-nutrients (N, a N-fixing legume crop,
P, K, Ca, Mg, S) and trace plowed under at
elements (Fe, Mn, B, Cu, Zn, near flowering time to
Mo, and Cl) from the soil during serve as source of
their growth period. nutrient to the succeeding
 These nutrients should be crop
present in a proportionately 3. azolla (Anabaena azolla) – water fern
balanced condition and if any that grows symbiotically
one element is lacking, it should with blue-green algae;
be made available to the soil. can produce 30T/ha in
Ways to maintain soil fertility one growing season
1. adoption of agronomic practices that equivalent to 150 kg of
would return crop residues to the soil N/ha
2. use of animal and green manure and • Liming – application of lime to
chemical fertilizers correct soil acidity; Ideal pH
3. Correction of soil acidity range is from 6.0 -6.5
4. Enhance cation exchange capacity of
soils • Calcic limestone is the main
5.Correct methods and timing of fertilizer liming material in the Philippines.
application to prevent leaching  It should be done at least one
Fertilizer Application Methods month before planting the crop.
1. broadcast – application of fertilizer  Lime materials be mixed with the
be done at final harrowing, done plow layer (15-30cm deep) by
either by hand or with the use of a plowing and harrowing.
“cyclone spreader” Pest Management
2. band application - fertilizer is applied Causes of crop losses or reduction in
in a strip 2-3 cm beneath and to the yield:
side of the location of the seed during 1. damaged caused by weeds
seeding. 2. insect
3. sidedressing and topdressing 3. pests and diseases
sidedressing – placement of fertilizer
along the rows near the base of the 
In pest management,
plant indiscriminate and careless use
topdressing – N fertilizers are applied to of farm chemicals should be
juvenile crops wherein fertilizer is avoided, and if possible,
broadcast over the growing plants biological and sound
4.localized placement – placement of management practices should
fertilizer-centered mudballs in flooded be an integral part of the overall
soils wherein one mudball (urea) is control strategy (integrated pest
plunged 10-12 cm deep for every four management).
rice placed spaced at 20 x 30cm Weed Control Management
which are applied immediately after Weeds cause 34% reduction in
transplanting transplanted rice; 45% in
5. foliar application – involves dissolving direct seeded rainfed rice
the fertilizer material in water and and 67% in upland rice.

Classes of weeds: 3. handweeding and use of rotary

1. grasses (Graminae) – e.g. cogon weeders
(Imperata cylindrica) 4. use of herbicides
2. sedges (Cyperaceae) – e.g. Purple Methods of weed control for
nutsedge (Cyperus upland fields
rotundus) 1. thorough land preparation
3. broadleaves (Angiospermae) – e.g. 2. combination of “offbarring” and
Hagonoy (Chromolaena “hilling-up”
odorata) 3. interrow cultivation (for wider
Common weeds of lowland and spacing, 50-75cm using
upland fields animal drawn “lithao”)
1. Associated with lowland rice 4. handweeding and hoeing
Annuals: 5. mulching – cut grasses or crop
Sedges – Cyperus difformis, C. iria residues, black plastic
Grasses – Echinochloa glabrescens; film
E. crusgalli (barnyard 6. use of herbicides
grass) Methods of weed control:
Broadleaves – Monochoria vaginalis A. handweeding
Ludwigia octovalvis Minimum time of weeding for some
Perennials: crops are:
Grasses – Cynodon dactylon, 1. transplanted rice (continuous
Paspalum conjugatum submergence) – 1 hand
Sedges - Scirpus maritimus weeding (35-42 DAT) + 1
2. Common weeds in upland crops rotary weeding (60-65
Grasses – Gramineae family DAT)
 Dactyloctenium 2. direct seeded (drilled, pre-
aegyptium (Krus-krusan) germinated, irrigated – 1
 Eleusine indica handweeding (20-21
 Pasplaidium flavidum DAS)+1rotary weeding
 Rottboellia exaltata (42-43DAS)
(Aguingay or itchgrass) 3.dry-seeded (drilled) lowland rice –
 Imperata cylindrical 1 hand weeding (21-25
(cogon) DAS)+1 rotary weeding
Sedges – Cyperaceae family (42-43 DAS) + another
 Cyperus rotundus rotary weeding (63-64
(Mutha) DAS)
 Cyperus iria 4. upland rice – 1 hand weeding (21-
Broadleaved weeds 22 DAS) + 1 hand weeding (42-
 Ageratum conyzoides 43 DAS) or interrow cultivation +
(bulak manok) another handweeding (63-64
 Celosia argentia DAS)
(kadayohan) B. intertillage operations
 Cleome rutidosperma b.1. offbarring – plow is plowed
(silisilihan) along the side of the row,
 Euphorbia hirta (Gatas- throwing soil slice away
gatas) from plants
 Heliotropium indicum b.2. hilling up – soil slice is thrown
(Buntot-leon) towards the base of the
 Ipomoea triloba plants
(Kamotikamotihan) corn – offbarring at14-18 DAS;
 Mimosa pudica hillling-up – 26-34 DAS
(Makahiya) sugarcane – offbarring at 30DAT;
 Portulaca oleraceae hilling-up at 40 DAT
(Ulasiman)
Amaranthus spinosus C. Chemical weed control – use of
(Uray or Kulitis herbicides; should be
Methods of weed control in rice used with great caution;
fields are applied directly to
1. thorough land preparation the soil or to leaves of
2. continuous flooding plants
Herbicide Applications:

1. pre-plant – applied before the Diadegma semiclausum – against

crop is planted and DBM in cabbage
incorporated with the Epidinocarsis manihoti – controls
soil at 15-20 cm cassava mealy bugs
depth to prevent *detasseling of corn (leaving 2 rows
volatilization or UV intact for every 4 rows)
degradation before pollen shedding to
e.g. Trifuralin control corn borers
2. pre-emergence – applied shortly 4. use of trap crops and
after the crop has been intercropping – e.g.
planted but prior to cabbage and tomato;
crop emergence; applied white potato and corn
2 cm of the soil surface 5. use of light traps, attractants
but soil must be wet (female sex pheromones)
e.g. Atrazine against adult moths and
3. post-emergence – is potato weevil
selective or non-selective 6. use of vertebrate biological
and applied after the agents – ducks against
weeds and crop have grasses and weeds
emerged from the soil 7. Use of insecticides
B. Insect Control Management Kinds of insecticides:
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 1. contact insecticides –
A strategy in combating pest using penetrates exoskeletons of
integration of insects; pose dangers to non-
many components: target and beneficial organisms
 varietal resistance (spiders)
 good cultural and sanitation 2. systemic insecticides – be
practices applied on plants or to
 use of biocon the soil in the presence of
 synchronous planting water in the soil
 cropping patterns Classification of insecticides
 crop rotation based on structure:
 use of trap crops, attractants, 1.Organochlorines/ chlorinated
repellants and insecticides. hydrocarbons – DDT, dieldrin, endrin,
1. Varietal resistance – crops have endosulfan, heptachlor, chlordane
been bred for resistance and lindane
to pests
e.g. 15 rice varieties are DDT – most widely used insecticide
resistant to BPH ever manufactured; discovered by
Paul Mueller of Geigy Chemical
Company in Switzerland. It was
2. Sound cultural practices banned in 1972 in the USA and other
 sanitation or countries.
removal of weeds (DDT-
 synchronous dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
planting 2. Organophosphates – These are
 crop rotation esters of phosphoric or
3. Biocon phosphorochloic acid which are nerve
 It makes use of natural poisons – e.g. phosdrin, dimethoate,
parasites, predators and malathion, parathion. These
parasites against pests chemicals are non-persistent in the
Trichogramma evanescens – environment and do not
parasitizes eggs of corn bioaccumulate
borer 3. Carbamates – similar to the
T. chilonis – against cotton bollworm organophosphates and are widely
T. japonicum – against rice used in agriculture, forestry, health,
stemborers verterinary practice and in the
Bacillus thuringiensis – against corn homes.– e.g. carbofuran (Furadan),
borers, rice stem borer aldicarb, carbaryl and pirimicarb
and DBM of cabbage 4. Pyrethroids – has a synthetic
structure resembling natural

pyrethrins derived from pyrethrum Kinds of fungicides:

flowers which are relatively safe to 1. protective fungicides– as foliage
the spray operators and fruit sprays or dusts to keep
eg. Permethrin, cypermethrin disease-causing fungi from
and bioremethrin penetrating plants
5. Insect growth regulators – juvenile e.g. Zineb
hormones which was first elucidated 2. eradicant fungicides– kills or
in 1967 which kills insects by inhibits fungi after they have
inhibiting the molting process or penetrated the plants
interfering with chitin synthesis. e.g. e.g. mercury chloride
methoprene, fenoxycarb, 3.protective and eradicant fungicides –
benzoylphenyureas,diflubenzuron controls foliage and fruit diseases; as
and chlorfluazuron seed treatment.
6. new classes of chemicals – for control e.g. captan
of arthropods – 4.systemic and curative fungicides –
eevernectins,chloronicotinyls, absorbed by roots and distributed
pyrroles, phenypyrazoles and within the plants to control certain
spinosyns. diseases; applied to seeds or soil
7. Botanical insecticides – naturally e.g. Benlate, Apron 35
existing compounds in plants which Harvesting and Postharvest
have insecticidal properties. Operations
Commercial products are extracted Harvesting – separation of the
from plant sources. economic yield (whole or portion of
the whole plant biomass when crops
Pyrethrum - from have reached highest or optimum level
Chrysanthemum of productivity (physiological maturity
cinerariaefolium onwards)
flower heads - the cutting or collecting of crops from
Rotenone - from Derris elliptica the field which can be done by hand,
or tubli tools, machines, depending on
Nicotine - from Nicotiana technical and economic factors
tabacum Primary processing – postharvest
Azadirachtin – extracted from handling that will market the product
Azadirachta indica or neem tree suitable for consumers or to prepare it
Disease Management for further processing
Plant diseases - one of the natural Secondary Processing – Postharvest
hazards in crop production. handling that results in a product that
Diseases causing organisms: cannot be subjected for another
1. Bacteria change – include food processing in
2. Fungi food crops and industrial processing in
3. Viruses non-food crops
4. viroids Postharvest handling
5. nematodes --- movement of farm products or
Components of disease control: operations through which the
1. varietal resistance commodities undergo from
2. sound practices - timely planting (as harvest to possession by the final
in the case of downy mildew of consumer
corn), proper nutrition, sanitation, Harvesting packing house (sorting/
crop rotation, use of disease free grading, cleaning, or primary
planting materials processing, packaging, etc)
3. soil sterilization in seedbeds transport storage marketing
4. biological control agents consumer
5. Use of fungicides Factors to consider in harvesting
Paecilomyces lilacinus (fungus) – 1. labor cost and its availability
control against nematodes of white 2. timeliness of operation
potatoes, bananas and citrus; 3. farm size and layout
commercial product is called Biocon 4. soil properties
Bacillus (China) – a bacterial 5. available capital
fungicide; used to enhance yield of Indices of maturity of cereals
wheat, rice, corn, cabbage, turnip, *appearance of black layer at the seed
rapeseed stalk (corn)

*grains are clear and firm (rice) Maturity Indices of Annual and Field
*change in color of stalk, leaf, panicle Crops
*expected maturity date 1. Growth duration – days from germination
*moisture content of seeds to flowering or maturity
Methods of harvesting 2. Change in the color – grains, pods, fruits
1. traditional – using sickle or scyte 3. Appearance of senescing foliage
(rice, sorghum, soybean); yatab (rice) 4. Other physical conditions associated with
2. modern – use of windrower and maturity
cutter binder (rice), combine harvester (Note: additional reading on Practices of
Crop Production by Lantican…and
Methods of threshing rice Green Empire)
1. manual (foot-threshing) Grading
2. mechanical The process of classifying
Drying produce into groups according to a
 It is the heat transfer by set of recognized criteria of quality
converting the water in the grain and size, with each group bearing
into vapor transferring it to the accepted name and size grouping.
atmosphere. Grades are the units of grading or the name
 prevents growth of molds and of the groups to which the produce
respiration are classified.
 reduce MC from 20-25% to 14% Example: Fancy Grade 1,2, and 3
or lower Sorting
 prevents development of Classifying produce into groups
Aspergillus flavus which designated by the person classifying
produces aflatoxin it according to whatever criteria he
 12-14% of grains results to high may desire
milling recovery Sizing
 if MC is less than 12%, rice Classifying produce into different sizes (the
grains become too brittle criteria for sizing may or may not be
Methods of drying rice grains recognized or accepted by the
1. sundrying – 2-3 days to bring the industry)
MC to 14% Size classification –the unit of sizing
2. mechanical drying – heated air e.g. small, medium, large
drying
3. continuous flow grain drying – for PRODUCTION PRACTICES FOR
large volume (artificial drying) PERENNIAL CROPS
Type of storage 1. Selection Criteria and Varieties of
1. farm house storage Fruits and Plantation Crops
2. granary A. Fruits
3. warehouse storage 1. Sweetness and wholesome taste, non-
4. bulk storage (silos) fibrous, attractive color of flesh and
• Rice milling – removal of outer rind, large fruitedness and small
covering, husk, hull which seededness.
involves a dehulling or 2. Acidity or sourness of the fruit, a high
dehusking process; the removal percentage of total soluble solid and
of the pericarp and testa and the color imparted to the juice.
aleurone layer or bran involving 3. Early bearing tendency and rapid
the polishing process attainment of peak production.
• Milling recovery – is expressed 4. Regularity of fruit bearing.
as the ratio of milled/clean rice 5. Resistance to soil-borne diseases.
over raw rice (palay); should be 6. Satisfactory yields
62% - 68% or more B. Plantation Crops
Types of milling machines: • It should be based on the yielding
1. kiskisan – one pass mill (Engelberg mill) ability, earliness and regularity of
2. improved village type – 2 passes fruiting, resistance to pest and
3. cono rice mill – multi pass rice milling disease, quality of the processed
machine product and other factors the are
4. modern rice mill – with separate dehuller unique to the species.
and involves 4 stages of the Average yield in tons per ha. of
whitening process common fruit crops
5. micromill – household model Mango : 8-10 tons

Papaya : 15-20 tons Tolerant to rust and wider in

Rambutan : 4 tons adoptability, derived coffee like “Kapeng
Banana : 20-50 tons Barako” has strong taste and flavor.
Calamansi : 2-3 tons Cacao
Durian : 3-4 tons Criollo
Pili : 1-2 tons Seed of superior quality, trees
Average yield per ha. of common are susceptible to pest and diseases.
plantation crops Forastero
Coconut :1,200 to 1,5000 Seed of lower quality, trees are
nuts every 45 days hardy and high yielding, resistant to pod
Coffee :1 ton borer.
Cacao :600 to 700 pods per year Trinitario
Varieties of some fruit and plantation Introduced from Trinidad, a cross
crops between Criollo and Forestero, trees are
Species Cultivar resistant to pod borer.
Description 2. Preparation of planting Materials
Pineapple and Seedling Care
Smooth Cayenne -Fruits and plantation crops can be
Fruit at 2.3-3.6 kg. cylindrical; propagated by seeds and asexual
leaves non spiny: used for canning and means.
fresh fruit market A. Use of Seeds
Queen -It is the most practical way of
Fruit small at less than 1 propagation
kg; sweet -Rootstock for asexual propagation of
leaves spiny; grown for fruit crops are propagation through
fresh fruit. Commonly seeds
grown in Bicol. Fruit and Plantation Crops that
Mango Propagated by Seeds Commercially
Carabao Mangosteen
Excellent quality of fruit;aromatic, Atis
and much preferred in the export Guyabano
market. Guava
Pico Papaya
Fruit oblong, somewhat flattened Coconut
with distinct beak at the apex; fruit is Oil palm
sweet and aromatic Cacao
Katchamita Advantage of Growing trees from
Also known as Indian mango; Seeds
usually eaten when green mature. -Strong anchorage by the deeply
Durian entrenched root system, making the tree
Chanee resistant to strong winds.
Introduced from Thailand. The Disadvantages of Growing Trees
flesh or aril is yellowish; thick, creamy from Seeds
and very sweet, odor of fruit is not very -Plants take long time to bear fruit
strong -Plants tend to grow into large trees
-Plants are not true to type
Mon Thong Apomict or apomictict seeds – seeds
Introduced from Thailand, has that are not product of fertilization.
the same Characteristics of chanee Apomixis – the formation of seeds
Coffee without the union of male and female
Arabica gametes
Grows in 900 to 1800 m; Seed Classification of Perennial
susceptible to coffee rust, used for Crops
blending Recalcitrant Seeds – Moisture content
Robusta is initially high and loss by desiccation or
Tolerant to rust, lowland type, drying below critical level 20%
used for instant soluble coffee Orthodox Seeds – Seeds that can be
manufacturing dried and can be stored for a long time.
Liberica Scarification – the alteration of the hard
seed coat making it permeable.

Stratification – is the placement of splice grafting, except that the types of

seeds between layers of either cuts used vary.
moist, sand, soil, or sawdust at high or 5. Side Grafting – In this method of
low temperatures. grafting, the basal portion of a detached
Vernalization- Seed treatment to cold scion is joined at the side of the trunk of
temperature prior to germination. the stock.
Use of Asexually Propagated 6.Bark Grafting – This method is
Materials especially useful in grafting a detached
Advantages: scion on a stumped stock whose stem is
-The resulting plants are true to type much larger than that of the scion.
-Applicable for species that seeds are Budding
hard to germinate - is usually used instead of grafting if
-Trees are usually smaller and bear one wants to economize in the use of
fruits earlier scion materials, since each bud is
-Useful for species with distinct potentially a new plant.
maleness Types of Budding
Kinds of Vegetative Propagules: 1. Patch Budding – this type of budding
-Runners is usually used in species having a thick
-Slips bark which can be separated easily from
-Corms the wood.
-Root Cutting 2. Shield or T-budding – this is usually
-Leaf-bud cutting made on an actively developing stem
-Stem cutting whose bark can be readily separated
-Asexual materials from layerage, from the wood.
marcotting, graftage, budding. 3. Chip Budding – this method of
-Plantlets budding is used where the bark of the
Layerage stem adheres closely to its wood, which
- initiation of root in stem while it is still may occur naturally to some species or
attached to the parent plant, which arising from growing conditions.
supplies the nutrients and moisture Nursery Operation
while the roots of the plants are still Nursery – is the place where starting
forming plant materials are grown, cared for and
Marcotting or Air Layering maintained until the plants are ready for
- rooting of the selected shoot or branch transfer to the permanent site for
is encountered by wrapping a portion of commercial growing.
the stem with rooting medium with or Size and Age of Seedling at
without stem treatment. Transplanting
Graftage -in some species, transplanting is done
-is the general term used for when the seedling attain 30 cm in height
propagation methods whereby two plant or 4 leaves are fully developed
parts are joined in such a manner that Shade Management in Nursery
they will unite and continue their growth -25 to 50% partial shade
as one plant. -Shade maybe provided by natural
Types of Graftage shade trees or artificial structures and
1. Approach Grafting or Inarching – materials like nets, bamboo slats,
selected shoots of the desirable plant coconut frinds or plastics
are grafted with the stem of the stock 3. Plantation Establishment
grown in individual containers while the Areas where crops can be established:
scions are still connected with the - Fruits and plantation crops can be
mother plant. established on lands that are level to
2. Topworking – this method of grafting nearly level.
is usually used in changing the top of Land Clearing
established inferior plants into more - Plowing and harrowing can be done
desirable ones. whenever practical
3. Splice Grafting – In this method, the - It is very vital for ease in lay-outing
detached scion used is leafless, usually - In sloping areas, clearing of designate
with terminal leaf bud or well-developed spots on which individual trees will be
dormant bud. planted.
4. Cleft Grafting – a detached scion is Laying out of planting plan
directly grafted on top of the stock as in

a planting plan is necessary ad it will Recommended Fertilizer Guide for

serve as a permanent record of Orchards/Plantation
individual trees planted. (Please refer to Table below..)
Square or Rectangular Arrangement Application of Fertilizer
-fertilizer should be applied where there
Area of Farm ( in square meters) is the greatest concentration of feeder
No. of Plants= __________________________
S2 ( in square meters) rootsthe distance from the trunk
Where: depends on the canopy of the tree.
S2 refers to the square of 5. Methods of Fertilizer Application
planting distance and if the distances A. Broadcasting – It should be done
are different as in the rectangular within the canopy drip line and should
arrangement, the product (S1xS2) can be accompanied by cultivation to mix
be substituted. the fertilizer with soil
Quincunx or Diagonal System B. Application in Band or Trench –
Area of Farm (sq. m.) several holes or a trench is dug around
No. of Plants = _________ + L _ 1 W_1 the canopy drip line and fertilizer is
S2 S S applied and covered with soil.
Management Practices for Orchard and
Where: Plantation Crops
S2 = square of planting distance Orchard – is a plantation of fruit trees
(meters) of the main crop Water management
L= length dimension of the farm in - water management refers to application of
meters water at the proper time and removal of
W = width dimension of the farm in excess supply through proper drainage in
meters order to sustain crop productivity
Several system of irrigation may be

Triangular or hexagonal arrangement
employed for perennial crops.
Area (sq m) Area
No. of Plants = ______ __________x 1.15 a. Surface Irrigation – either by furrow or
S2 x 0.866 S2 basin irrigation.
Planting Distance and Density for b. Sprinkler Irrigation – this method of
Various Fruits and Plantation Crops irrigation uses either.
Crops Planting No. of 1.Lateral distribution or movable pipes-
plants/ha. each equipped with riser and sprinkler head.
distance (m) 2. Orchard sprinkler - small impact heads
Abaca 2.0 2,500 designed to cover spaces between adjacent
Banana 3.0-5.0 4,000-1,111 trees.
Cacao 3.0 1,111 c. Trickle Irrigation – water delivery is
Citrus 4.0-6.0 278-625 through small emitter openings which
Coconut 8.0 157 discharge small amounts of water directly to
Coffee 3.0 1,111 the area immediately surrounding each
Durian 8.0-10.0 100-157 plant.
Lanzones 4.0-6.0 278-625 d. Native system of irrigation – This
Mango 8.0-10.0 100-157 employs use of bamboo tubes or large
Papaya 3.0-4.0 625-1,111 plastic bottles with small perforations at the
Rambutan 6.0-8.0 157-278 bottom.
Planting/Transplanting
-the hole that has to made is just a little
larger than the size of the plastic bag.
-In heavy soils which are infertile, it is
best advised to make a bigger
hole.
High Density Planting of Fruit Crops
-use of hedgerows
-to attain high density, the seedling are
set at spacing several times
closer than the conventional one.
4. Soil Fertility Management
Determination of Fertilizer Needs
- deficiency of different nutrient
elements will show different symptoms.
- Leaf tissue analysis is an accurate
means of identifying the fertilizer needs
of the plant.

- in some plants retardation of growth is

Determination of Irrigation Schedules predominant
a. Irrigation schedules based on soil g. Feel of the Soil
water measurements - a physical examination of the soil can
- the level of soil water supply is give an idea of the need for water by
measured by gravimety, tensiometers, crops.
or electrical Drainage
resistance blocks. - as a part of water management, it is
necessary to remove excess water
Gravimetric measurements – samples during the wet season and prevent
are taken with a soil collecting water logging at the root zone of the
instrument like an auger or soil probe. plants especially in flat and under
Tensiometer – is device which drained areas.
measures the amount of force that the - To prevent drainage problems, laying
plant root exrts to remove moisture out of drainage canals in strategically
from the soil. located portions of the farm can be
b. Irrigation schedules based on made
evapotranspiration rates. Erosion Control
- evaporative devices can be installed - Soil erosion refers to the physical
in a centrally located place for daily removal of the surface soil by the action
reporting to farmers in an irrigation of water and, in the case of arid regions,
project. by wind.
c. Irrigation schedules based on - Common in areas with ruggedness of
calculations terrain, defective tillage practices, and
- knowledge of the field capacity, the absence of significant vegetative
permanent wilting percentage, cover to keep soil particles together.
bulk/specific gravity, effective depth of Erosion Control that can be Carried
rooting and all of which requires Out in the Plantation
measurements.
d. Temporary wilting a. Covercropping and Mulching –
- water stress occurs in plants, cells lose cover cropping involves the growing of
turgidity and plants show symptoms of creeping and bushy plants with dense
wilting vegetative growth under trees like citrus,
e. Color of Foliage cacao rubber and coconut.
- changes in the color of leaves may
also be a good indication of irrigation Mulching – is the laying out and
f. Rate of Plant Growth deposition of cut pants residues on bare
- if the growth of the crop is sluggish, space under trees.
water may not be enough

b. Contour Planting – it is a system of development of the lateral buds and

cultivation in which tillage is made grow into sturdy boughs.
across the slope following the Pruning is Practiced to Achieve
contour lines. Certain Objectives
- effective in checking 1. the To control the height, size and shape
downward flow of water and sheet of the crown.
erosion. 2. To remove diseased branches that
c. Bench Terracing – is a system of are fast-growing cluster of
creating series of flat strips along the “watersprouts” which develop at the
steep edges of slope which base of the trunk or long main branches
otherwise are subjected to severe which only compete for nutrition but
erosion. without any utility.
Wattling 3. To remove branches that are
- Long, flexible and sprouting branches undesirable situated like those that are
are laid horizontally on the top of one interlacing with another, closely angled
another in an interlacing manner around to the main trunk and growing
pegs driven through shallow trenches downward and drooping.
into the grounds 4. To remove inner branches to lessen
Fascines the density of the canopy and allow
- these consist of bundling sprouts filtration of sunlight for better fruiting as
brushwoods less than 3 mm long and in citrus and minimize the development
laying the bundles along narrow of diseases.
trenches in the contour. 5. To lessen the number of inner
Rockwalls branches so as to facilitate spraying and
- are made of large stones, rocks, and other operations
boulders, slightly embedded along the 6. To form hedge and ensure regular
contour of sloping farms to provide development of shoots and young
effective barriers to the downward leaves which are the main products of
movement of soil and water. commerce such as in tea
Pruning 7. To lessen the number of branches
- is a physical process of judicious and amount of foliage to induce fruiting
removal of plant parts like and increase the size of fruits as is done
growing points (or meristems), foliage in grapes and passion fruit.
and branches to attain some specific Training
purpose. - training is the use of trellis or trellising.
- it may result to overall reduction in - Grape, passion fruit are the most
height, general configuration and common perennial crops that
total photosynthetic area of plant. needs training.
- total yield of the plant may be Propping
reduced but the quality - is a must in commercial banana
and size of the plantations catering to the export
marketable fruits may be market.
enhanced . - this prevents fruit losses from bunch
Bonsai fall due to the heavy weight of the
- the art of growing miniature plants bunch, strong winds, and damages
appearing to be centuries old, depends brought about by corn borer and
on careful training and regulation of the nematodes.
plant nutrition. Girdling
Types of Pruning Based on the - the process that involves the physical
Nature of Making interruption of the flow of
and Cuts photosynthates from the leaves
1. Heading-back to the root system.
- the cuts are made at the terminal - can be done either by tying wires on
portion of the plant the stem, making cuts on the stem
capitalizes on what is known as “apical but without removal of the bark
dominance” (scorching)
2. Thinning-out - removal of a ring of bark on the trunk
- the complete removal of any number or branches (ringing)
of branches.
- the remaining branches retain their
apical dominance, suppresses the

Some of the Commonly Used 6. Post Production Technology

Chemical Regulators - all the practices and operations that
A. Auxins horticultural produce undergoes from
-on mango and citrus, IBA at 1,000 ppm harvest to consumption.
is used to strengthen union of stock and Postharvest handling – primary
scion. processing of fruits, flowers, and
- on black pepper, NAA at 100 ppm vegetables.
induces rooting in cuttings Primary processing – refers to product
B. Daminozide handling that will maket the product
- trade name (Alar 85) more suitable either to the
- Suppresses vegetative growth, manufacturers or consumers.
controls harvest quality and maturity of Secondary processing – refers to
fruits. product handling that results in a
C. Potassium nitrate product that cannot be subjected to
- a non-hormone, which can be applied another change.
as foliar spray to induce flowering in Climacteric
mangoes at 1 to 2% dilute solution - type of fruits exhibits a rise in
- this flower inducer technology on respiration when it starts to ripen which
Carabao mangoes was developed by declines slightly before, at as soon after
Dr. Ramon Barba. it ripe depending on the fruit.
D.Calcium carbide (carburo) - fruits can be pricked green mature and
- emits ethylene ripe after harvest.
- applied to the heart of ready to flower - Fruits have high amount of
pineapple plants, usually at 12 to 14 starch that can be converted into
months after planting. sugars.
- It can also hasten ripening to mango Non-climacteric
and banana -type of fruits that hardly no change in
E. Ethepon respiration after harvest.
- trade name (Ethrel) this group of fruits have no starch to be
- In robusta coffee at 500 to 1,250 ppm converted into sugars
as a single foliar spray at green maturity -picked ready to eat as there is no
stage of berries results in high further development of flavour after
proportion of ripe berries as high as harvest.
98% Degreening
- It prolongs the latex flow in rubber. -process of hastening the peel color
- It will induce fruiting in pineapple if change from green to orange or yellow
sprayed ay 25 to 1,200 ppm of citrus fruits which have attained full
6. Harvesting and Post-production, flavour and aroma.
Handling and Storage Vapor Pressure treatment
Harvesting - pressure exerted by water vapour in a
- harvesting at the right stage of given space or atmosphere
physiological maturity of fruits - mangoes exported for Japan will
and other products will ensure undergo into this treatment
the quality of the harvest. Aril
- Some fruits found in commercial stalls - the fleshy edible pulp adhering to
are sour or lack the desired quality seeds of fruits as in rambutan, durian
because they are harvested at the and lanzones
immature stage. Carotenoid
Maturity Indices of Various Fruit and - group of pigments to which lycopene
Plantation Crops and carotene belong based on the
Mango – 120 days from flowering similarity of their chemical structure.
Citrus – 5 to 6 months from flowering Commercial maturity of a commodity
Banana – 3 to 4 months from flowering - the stage of growth when a commodity
Pineapple – 11 to 12 months from has developed sufficient desirable
flowering characteristics to make it marketable or
Coconut – 11 to 12 months from desirable for its intended purpose.
flowering Curing
Coffee – 8 to 9 months from flowering -process of toughening and self-healing
Cacao – 5 to 6 months from flowering of bruises and skinned areas in root and
Abaca – 18 to 24 moths old tuber crops or the rapid closing of the

neck of bulb crops under favorable Tuxying

conditions. - is the separation of the strong
Dehaulming mechanical bundles from the weaker
-cutting or killing of potato vines a week fibrovascular bundles (e.g. abaca).
before harvesting Storage of Perishable Products
Fumigant The quality and shelf-life of fruits can be
- chemical which at required preserved through a number of ways,
temperature and pressure can exist in some simple and some costly to
the gaseous atae in sufficient undertake.
concentration to be lethal to a given 1. Evaporative cooling and prevention of
pest organism. moisture loss from fruits by
Grading providing a highly humid condition in the
- the process of classifying into groups immediate vicinity of fruits.
according to a set of recognized criteria Simple and practical ways of
of quality and size , each group bearing providing a humid condition for fruits
an accepted name and size in storage
grouping. 1. placement of chopped and moistened
Horticultural Maturity banana bracts in between spaces of
- commercial maturity fruits placed in crates or baskets.
Internal breaking of mango 2. sprinkling of water on the surface of
- white starchy area in the middle the fruit as is done with rambutan.
portion of the pulp near the seed of a 3. burying fruits in moistened clean
ripe fruit, sometimes with air pockets in sand, sawdust or coconut coir.
the middle of the starchy areas. 4. storing of fruits in a clay jar with water
Precooling at the bottom and fruits elevated on a
-Strictly, precooling means the rapid platform.
cooling (48 hr. or less) of a commodity 5. storing fruits inside a wet cloth tent
to a desired transit or storage which can be readily improvised.
temperature soon after harvesting 2. Refrigeration, either in shipment or
before it is stored or move in transit. storage of fresh fruits.
Shelf life - temperature is maintained at 10 to
-post-storage market life. 15°C, which slows down the respiration
Sorting process.
-the process of classifying of commodity 3. Controlled atmosphere storage.
into groups, designated by the person - in this process, the supply and level of
classifying the produce either according oxygen and carbon dioxide are
to a set criteria or whatever criteria he manipulated through the use of gas
may desire. generators and appropriate control
Standardization devices.
-the process of formulating and issuing 4. Modified atmosphere storage
grade standards in the country or - this uses the same principle of oxygen
industry. and carbon dioxide control to retard the
Vascular streaking respiration process in fruits.
-browning of tissues about a centimeter Primary Processing Methods of
below the peeled surface of a cassava Plantation Crops.
viewed cross-sectionally. 1. Abaca
Waxing - Topping or removal of crown leaves.
-is the application of a thin film of - Harvesting of the pseudostems or
surface coating to fruits and vegetables referred as “tumbling” with the use of a
-the coating may or may not be wax but sharp blade.
usually the term wax is used - Tuxying or separation of the bracts
synonymously with surface coatings or which contain the fibro-vascular bundles
protective skin coating. - Extraction of the fiber with the use of
Water Elimination “hagutan”
- refers to the drying of surface moisture - Cleaning of the fiber and drying
after washing or waxing or when - Grading and balling of fiber
commodities are harvested wet 2. Coffee
Topping There are two methods: wet process
- leafsheaths are removed in abaca and the dry process

Wet process
- Hand-picking of the ripe berries
- Soaking of berries to loosen the pulp
and separate the floaters or light berries
- Depulping of berries with a machine
- Fermentation for 2 to 3 days
- Washing the parchment coffee
- Drying for 24 to 48 hours to 12 to 16%
moisture
- Dehulling of parchment coffee in a
dehuller or kiskisan rice mill adjusted fro
the purpose
- Grading
Dry process
- Harvesting, Drying,Dehulling,Grading
3. Cacao
- Harvesting,Seed extraction from the
pod,Fermentation for 3 to 7 days and
allow products of fermentation to drain
out. Phenolic compounds are removed
by fermentation; bitterness of chocolate
is minimized and richness of butterfat is
enhanced by the process
- Drying of beans to 6 to 7 % moisture


(Notes: Please photocopy from GE

Reviewers on Bureau of Agricultural
Statistics-Volume of Production/Area of
Production of Various Crops)

SITE CHARACTERIZATION Soil Texture – refers to the relative

AND SELECTION proportion of clay, silt and sand. Soil
Introduction structure depends on the
There is a need to evaluate the kind and amount of clay in the
physical, biological and socio-economic soil.
conditions existing in the area, the  Clay works with organic matter to
options that are available in terms of hold water and nutrients, binds
crop species and the technological soil particles together; holds
inputs that will be required in growing more water and nutrients than
the crops. sandy soils; has higher cation
The initial step prior to actual exchange capacity than sandy
production constitute a planning phase soils
or the conduct of a feasibility study to  Medium textured soils like loam
decide on the location and crop and silt loam are best soils for
enterprises that will be set up. diversified upland crops. Paddy
The Farm Environment rice prefers poorly drained
 It consists of the natural, clayey soils
biophysical, social, economic Soil Depth – Effective soil depth refers
and political environment. to the thickness of the soil to layers
 Farming systems is equated to coarser than loamy fine
the environment and the type of sand, sand, gravels, stones,
farming systems to be adopted rocks or any impermeable layer or to
in a farm and is determined by depth to water table.
several factors that influence it  Soil Depth – Effective soil depth
The site characteristics and refers to the thickness of the soil
qualities of the area play an to layers coarser than loamy fine
important consideration in crop sand, sand, gravels, stones,
production and management. rocks or any impermeable layer
These characteristics include or to depth to water table.
topography/slope, effective soil Depth of surface soil:
depth, soil texture, available For Annuals – relatively shallow
moisture, water holding capacity, depths are all right
soil drainage, flooding hazard For perennials – greater depths
and natural soil fertility like pH, should be advantageous
organic matter, available P,  The thicker the effective soil
exchangeable K, cation depth, the more the volume of
exchange capacity, etc. soil that can be extracted of plant
nutrient and water
 The ideal soil for upland crops  Deeper soils are more
has a deep rooting zone and productive than shallow soils.
easily penetrable by air, water Crops can endure a longer
and roots. It has good water drought when they thrive on soils
holding capacity but drains having a higher water holding
excess water freely. It has a capacity.
balance supply of nutrients that Soil Drainage is the removal of water
cannot be easily washed away from the soil through surface run-off and
during rains. Paddy rice, e.g. by flow through the soil to
prefers level, deep, fertile and underground spaces
poorly drained soils that can be  Well-drained soil promote
flooded while the crop is favorable conditions for plant
growing. growth and microbial activity.
Effects of Soil Characteristics for  Drainage is important for crops
Crop Production that are sensitive to water
Slope – is the ratio of the vertical logging
distance over the horizontal distance  Factors affecting soils drainage:
both of the same linear unit slope, permeability, vegetation
multiplied by 100%. It influence and land use, and amount of
retention and movement of water, rainfall
movement of soil materials, soil Available Water & Water holding
depth and rate and amount of run-off Capacity:

 Available water is the water Flooding Hazard

content of a soil held between  Flooding occurs on areas
field capacity and permanent occupying low physiographic
wilting point expressed in positions along rivers and
percent streams, low alluvial terraces of
the coastal landscape
 Field capacity represents the  Prolonged deep flooding
maximum amount of water a soil prevents root respiration due to
can hold against normal absence of oxygen and deprives
drainage the plants of the essential soil
 Permanent wilting point is the nutrients
moisture of soil water when the Inherent Soil Fertility
plants start to wilt  Soil fertility refers to the status of
 Soil with poor drainage have the soil in terms of its ability to
limited agricultural use because provide the plants adequate
of wetness. These soils are not amount of nutrients in balance
suitable for upland crops unless proportion and on readily
adequately drained but they are available form necessary for
best for paddy rice. normal plant growth.
 It is related to pH, organic
 Medium textured soils hold the matter, CEC, available P,
most water in available form extractable K and base
 Coarse textured soil hold little saturation
water because of their low water a. Soil pH affects plant growth on
content at field capacity. its nutritional needs. It influences
 Fine clayey soils supply limited the rate of plant nutrient released
available water because they by weathering, the solubility of all
return large amount of water at materials in the soil and the
permanent wilting point. amount of nutrient ions kept on
Soil Erosion the CEC sites.
 The degree and amount of soil Organic matter content
erosion is mainly dependent on affects soils fertility in terms of CEC and
steepness and length of slope, nutrient supply. The higher the
climate, kind of soil, nature of organic matter content, the higher is the
land use and vegetative cover, CEC supply of available N, P and S.
and cultural and soil b. Available P – second most
management practices. Surface deficient nutrient in most soils; is
erosion occurs when the amount derived from mineralization of
of rainfall exceed to that of the organic matter. P availability is
infiltration capacity of the soils. related to soil pH. A pH range
 Soils with larger & steeper from 6.5 – 7.5 is usually best for
slopes are more susceptive to P availability.
sever soil erosion than soils with
lower shorter slopes & all other c. Exchangeable P - essentially
factors are equal. needed in large amount by
 Soil erosion is more severe on plants which comes mostly from
areas with more frequent and mineral solids. K is most
more intense alternate wet and available at pH 6 – 7.5.but in
dry periods than areas with leached soils, available K
uniform rainfall throughout the declines.
year.
 Sandy soils are more susceptible d. Percentage base saturation –
to erosion than clayey soils due refers to the percentage of CEC
to detachment and lack of occupied by basic cations such
binding materials. as Ca, Mg, K and Na measured
 Plowing and tilling across the at pH 7 or 8. Cations like H and
slopes tend to hasten soil Al are excluded because they
erosion to a great degree. are acid produced.

Biotic Factors (cereals, etc) whereas in the

a) Cropping patterns. These are uplands with high
temporal and spatial altitudes, vegetables are raised.
arrangement of crops in the field 3) Land Use Pattern – It depends on
which are based on type of the rainfall pattern of the area and the
climate and soil, availability of cropping patterns used
farm inputs and technical know such as that after one cropping,
how of the farmer. it is followed by a short fallow before
One cannot deviate much another cropping
unless the community as a whole, starts. Or the farm is fallowed to
changes the pattern. The risks from rest for a few months before another
pest damage is the field are greater if cropping starts.
planting is not synchronized with that of B. Climate Component
the community. 1) Rainfall Pattern – With upland farms
b) Varietal selection – The variety to usually rainfed, planting crops should be
be planted in the farm depends on its in timingwith good
adaptability, the preference or rain. A planting calendar based
purpose for planting it, its resistance to on rainfall pattern should be adopted to
pests and diseases, maturity fully utilize
indices, high yielding and good eating photosynthesis. The climate
quality. also influences cropping patterns as this
Information on yields of depends on the
best farms in the area must be obtained rainfall intensity and distribution
and used for upgrading operations. as it affects soil workability, crop
c) Insects & diseases – The growth and
prevalence of insects & disease must be development, and maturity
considered thus planting 2) Temperature – Plants have specific
synchronously is favorable and temperature requirements to grow
the variety should be resistant to vigorously at different
pests & diseases. Cavite, stages of growth. In the choice
Laguna, Batangas and nearby of crops, the growing season has to be
provinces should not be planted with considered which are
papaya due to prevalence of also influenced by atitude, altitude and
ringspot virus. slope of the place.
d) Weeds – There must be thorough 3) Typhoon/Drought Occurrence – In
land preparation before planting and areas where there are „typhoon belts‟,
there must be maximum utilization of the crops to be planted are
the land to prevent growth of weeds creeping species (sweet potato, etc) and
(increase plant density) the annuals so that these could be
e) Animals – Astray animals in the farm harvested with
affect production. However, draft less effect from strong winds or the
animals are beneficial to farmers. planting of drought tolerant crops.
There must be compatibility of the 4) Wind Velocity – Still air are
animal component to the crop beneficial to crops as this aids the
components. pollination process. But wind
velocity also cause soil
Physical Component erosion and therefore planting wind
A. Soil Component breaks are necessary.
1) Geography – The location of the 5) Solar radiation – Light intensity,
farm affects production. Farms near big duration and quality affects dry matter
municipalities/cities accumulation as this is
produce a variety of crops in a used for photosynthesis. Plants
small area (diversified) whereas those in have higher dry matter accumulation
the upland are at a under optimum
disadvantage due to lack of accessibility sunlight
to roads and markets.
2) Topography and elevation – The Economic Components
terrain or contour of the land affects 1) Off-farm income sources –
cropping patterns. Farm management involves
Lowlands are utilized for capital and the capital of
producing most likely annuals a farmer might not be enough

hence, he has to secure off-farm

income to augment his finances Socio-cultural Components
2) Labor market – There is shortage of 1) Organization and Leadership –
labor during “peak months” and labor is Formal and non-formal leaders help
expensive and if labor is members in understanding the
available, it is expensive and demand current pattern of resource
higher price. Therefore in the farm, distribution and these leaders would
operations should be done on mobilize the members to form
staggered basis such that labor is cooperatives and avail of and
available at off-seasons have access to support and technical
3) Market & Credit – In deciding assistance.
what to raise in the farm, the farmer has 2) Ethnicity and idiosyncrasies –
to the consider the demand (quantity Values, outcomes and traditions are
and quality) of the products at high price inherent to all people and this
based on customer preference; the affects farming system. Farmers
marketing outlets and the ROI. have to raise crops as handed
Supply and demand down traditions such as in Mt.
situations should be known so that Province, people raised
operations can be adjusted for vegetables and in Cebu, people raise
harvesting to coincide with the and eat corn
slack periods of supply when prices are 3) Aspirations and attitudes –
high. Also, the farmer has to develop Aspirations help farmers to strive more
storage and selling strategies to avoid for certain definite purpose – child‟s
risk. education or alleviate income. Farmers‟
 Credits are supplied by banks, attitude also limit production but if they
etc. or middlemen. Credits help are taking risk as opportunities then
farmers a lot but this may also tie they have to diversity their farms to
down their produce to lower have continuous cash flow, much
prices. On the other hand, food, wider host range of
capital for inputs and services pests and diseases and if one crop fails,
are readily available. there are still others to be harvested.
4) Transport facilities. Necessary for 4) Intellectual and technical
marketing of farm products as well as perspective
transport of supplies and inputs. Those who engaged in
Insufficient transport facilities in the farm farming are the middle age group and
results to slow turnover of are of low educational
outputs to cash, and may even attainment. They lack technical
result to wastage of produce. know how but with wider farming
5) Channels of market information experiences.
– Media and technicians inform farmers 5) Tradition, customs and beliefs
of the recent product demand and Whatever traditions,
prices of commodities in the market. customs and beliefs of the people
Farmers has to raise goods of influence the type of crops or animals
preference to consumers that raised. They have to follow on what
command high prices. they “believe” in terms of farming.
6) Landholding, inheritance pattern
and land tenure status – Available Bio-physical Features of Land and
land resources and farm distribution Crop Adaptation
affect crops grown and the farming 1. Submerged conditions during
system used. For land owners, most of the crop’s life cycle e.g. rice,
they can plant on extensive scale taro water chestnut (apulid) and
whereas others on small scale based Sesbania rostrata for green
on farm sizes. manuring.
 Land tenure status influences  Most crops are sensitive
production as there are to water logging
agreements and disagreements  Jute and sorghum can
between landlord and tenants. tolerate periodic
With fragmented holding, fields waterlogged conditions
may be of different soil types due  Corn can not tolerate
to complex management waterlogging and
practices sensitive to even short

period (36 hrs) of 8. Poor and stony soils are good for
waterlogging cashew and forage legumes. Kaong or
 Rambutan, papaya and sugar palm “Areca pinnata” can also
durian are very sensitive be grown in these areas.
to under-drainage or 9. Drought-prone areas are suited for
water-logged conditions sorghum, cashew, pineapple, sweet
 Mango can tolerate potato, pigeon pea, cowpea,
waterlogging for a certain mungbean, and napier.
period of time 10. Photoperiod or daylength.
 Sorjan – a system of Soybeans, winged beans, kenaf, coffee,
raising upland crops - pineapple, \chrysanthemum and
(vegetables & peanuts) in some rice varieties are photoperiod
raised beds along side sensitive responsive and will
submerged lowland rice flower when daylength has
2. Humid condition and where rainfall become shorter than 12 hours. Bulb
is more uniformly distributed which is formation is hastened by longer
suitable to all perennial crops such as days. In yams (ubi), long days
mangosteen (Mindanao) and abaca favor vine development and short days
(Mindanao, Easter Visayas hasten tuberization.
and Bicol peninsula). Mango Crops that have become dominant in
produce quality and tasty fruits in areas certain areas
where there is a dry spell.  La Union and Pangasinan -
3. Cool climate or mild climate in the tobacco, garlic
highlands of Mt. province, Mt Kanlaon  Quirino Prov, CagayanValley &
(Negros Island) and in Siquijor - peanut
Bukidnon-Lanao plateau are  Negros Tarlac-Pampanga and
suitable for vegetable species like Batangas – sugarcane
white potato, cabbage, peas,  Guimaras Island, Cebu & Central
carrots, head lettuce, Luzon – mango
asparagus,etc. The suitable fruit  Albay, Camarines Sur, Bicol –
species are litchi (lychee), longgan, Pili Nut
ponkan mandarin orange,  Cavite, Laguna, Bukidnon,
strawberry, grape and macademia nut. General Santos - pineapple
4. Coastal areas are suited for coconut,  Davao & Bukidnon – export
cashew, tamarind and talisay bananas
(Terminalia catappa) which is a source  Bicol, Samar, Leyte - abaca
of dye for clothing materials and nipa  Cagayan Valley & Mindanao -
palm (Nympha fruticans) can thrive well corn
in saline conditions. The limit of SUSTAINABLE CROP PRODUCTION
elevation for coconut is 600m above sea
level.
5. Partial shade is good for ginger, black AGRICULTURE – is an essential
pepper, vanilla, lanzones, rambutan, system designed for the production of
mangosteen, cacao, coffee, food, feed and fiber and using
banana, arrowroot, pachouli and many solar energy and other atmospheric,
other crops can be grown under coconut organic resources and sedimentary
trees, ipil-ipil and madre de resources; a thorough understanding of
cacao (G. sepium). the relationship between our
6. Low pH 4.3 – 5.0 as in Bukidnon is institutions, production systems, and
suitable for rubber, pineapple, cassava, natural resources, and the principles of
sweet potato and Stylosanthes ecology is necessary for the design and
humilis, a forage legumes that nodulate management of sustainable agriculture
at pH 4.0-4.5. Acid tolerant crop
varieties of corn have been SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
developed by CIMMYT,IPB-UPLB CONCEPT
and CMU; mungbean, peanut It includes a system of agricultural
and cowpea in IPB-UPLB and production that is resource conserving,
rice in IRRI and CIAT-Colombia. environmentally safe, and economically
7. Light-textured soils are good for viable. It must recognize human values,
rootcrops, asparagus, legumes and provide high-quality food and support
corn.

the family farm and rural communities of civilizations and their agricultural
as part of a healthy larger system practices.
3. Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925), founder
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE - of the biodynamic approach to
comes from two Greek words agriculture, was a highly trained scientist
“sustinere” which means from below and respected philosopher in his time,
and “tenere” – to hold – to keep in who later in his life came to prominence
existence or maintain, implies long term for his spiritual-scientific approach to
support or permanence. It describes knowledge called “anthroposophy.”
farming systems that are capable of 4. Alan Chadwick – the „Father of Bio-
maintaining productivity and usefulness intensive Gardening/Mini-farming”.
to society indefinitely and such system
must be resource-conserving, socially SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE - an
supportive, commercially competitive integrated system of plant and animal
and environmentally sound. production having site specific
applications that will, over the long term:
- is any practice, method, technique, - satisfy human food and fiber needs,
technology, philosophy or system of - enhance environmental quality and
production that makes agriculture natural resource base upon which
economically feasible, ecologically the agricultural economy depends.
sound, socially just and humane - make the most efficient use of non-
(equitable), culturally appropriate and renewable resources and on-farm
grounded on holistic science. resources and integrate, where
appropriate, natural biological cycles
- is a system that utilizes an and controls,
understanding of natural processes - sustain the economic viability of farm
along with the latest scientific advances operations, and
to create integrated, resource- - enhance the quality of life for
conserving farming systems. These farmers and society as a whole
systems will reduce environmental Sustainability – ability of a system to
degradation, are economically viable, maintain productivity in spite of a major
maintain a stable rural community and disturbance such as is caused by
provide a productive agriculture in both intense or large perturbation
the short and long term - capacity of a system to maintain output
at a level approximately equal to or
- refers to the ability of a farm to greater than its historical average, with
produce food indefinitely, without the approximation determined by its
causing irreversible damage to historical variability.
ecosystem health. The two key issues
are biophysical (long term effects of CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABLE
various practices on soil properties and AGRICULTURE
processes essential for crop The concept of “Sustainable
productivity) and socio-economic (the Agriculture” has been conceived
long term ability of farmers to obtain differently by different authorities.
inputs and manage resources such as
labor) In economic terms, the use of
NOTES: resources today should not reduce real
1. DA Secretary PROCESO J. incomes in the future. Sustainable
ALCALA is a former Representative of development encompasses several
2nd District of Quezon. He is considered aspects or dimensions.
as the 'Father of Organic Agriculture' in
the Philippines, being The World Conservation Union
the principal author of the Organic (1991) defines sustainable development
Agricultural Act of 2010 (RA 10068). as improving the quality of human life
2. Albert Howard. "The health of soil, while living within the carrying capacity
plant, animal and man is one and of supporting ecosystems.
indivisible." Sir Albert Howard (1873-
1947) is often referred to as the father of The World Commission on
modern Organic Agriculture. He noted Environment (1988) defined
the relationship between the rise and fall sustainable development as
development that meets the needs of

the present without compromising the system should provide the

ability of future generations to meet their food and other basic needs
own needs. of the farming household.
Therefore, sustainable  Socially just and equitable

development means protecting the – A socially just agricultural
natural resources needed for food system must address
production and fuels while expanding inequities. The system must
production to meet the needs of growing assure that resources and
population. It means more efficient use power are distributed
of arable lands and water supplies as equally so that basic needs
well as development and adoption of are met and human rights
improved agricultural practices and are assured. Equitable
technologies to increase yields. access to information,
market or other farm related
Sustainable agricultural resources especially land,
systems must maintain or enhance: should be provided to all
1) biological and economic irrespective of sex, social
productivity of crops standing, religion or ethnicity.
2) enhance the efficiency of use of
inputs  Culturally appropriate –
3) lesser adverse environmental Culturally appropriate
impacts both on and off the farm agricultural systems must
4) minimize adverse environmental give due consideration to
impacts on adjacent and cultural values, including
downstream environments religious beliefs and
5) minimize the magnitude and rate traditions in developing
of soil degradation and enhance agricultural systems, plans
soil quality and resilience so that and programs. Cultural roots
crop productivity can be are as important to
sustained with minimum adverse agriculture as plant roots. It
impacts on soils and is equally important that the
environment highest values apply to
6) enhance compatibility with social human interactions, since
and political conditions without strong communities
and vibrant cultures,
Therefore, agriculture is judge as agriculture will not flourish.
sustainable IF it is --
 Ecologically sound – from  Adaptable – Rural
Greek word for house “eco” communities are capable of
that implies the wisdom and adjusting to the constant
authority to manage in the changing conditions for
best interests of the farming: population growth,
household. Biological policies, market demand, etc.
diversity is essential to This involves not only the
achieve self-regulation and development of new,
stability. An ecologically appropriate technologies but
sound agriculture must focus also innovations in social and
on the maintenance and cultural terms.
enhancement of the natural
resource base. It should be  Grounded on holistic
resource efficient to conserve science – Agriculture based
precious resources and avoid on holistic science, as
systems toxicity. against reductionist
(conventional western
 Economically viable – It is science), gives importance to
essential to have a positive the interrelatedness of the
net return or at least a social, economic,
balance in terms of resource environmental, cultural and
expended and returned. At political aspects as much as
the very minimum, the to the biophysical aspects of

agriculture. It also considers 8. The incorporation of diversity of

the dynamic interactions natural resources and enterprises within
among on-farm, off-farm, the farm.
non-farm and farm 9. Increased self-reliance among
related activities, recognizing farmers, local and indigenous
that these activities communities.
complement each other. 10. Recognition of the role of women in
GOALS OF SUSTAINABLE development processes.
AGRICULTURE CHARACTERISTICSOF
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
The goals of developing 1. SA is flexible
sustainable farming methods are: - No defined et of practices, methods,
 long-term preservation or techniques/technologies or policies
improvement of soil fertility - recognizes local specificity
while maintaining the stability
of the system by shaping an 2. SA is experiential
almost natural ecosystem o does not impose a simple
 securing and improving model or package
nutrition in a largely o farmers and local
autonomous system and communities must be able to
achieving production surplus adapt and allowed to change
to meet other needs
 improve quality of life thru: 3. SA is participatory
1) economic development  farmers are active
2) food security participants
3) human development/people empowerment  incorporatesrecent
4) stable environment innovations originating from
According to Pretty (1996), sustainable scientists, farmers or both
agriculture is any production systems that  relies on continuous
systematically pursue the following goals: innovation by farmers and
local communities
1. A thorough incorporation of natural
processes such as nutrient cycling, 4. SA is proactive
nitrogen fixation and pest-predator  forward-looking
relationship for pest management. For  concern of short and long-
nutrient management, this involves term sustainability
recycling of nutrients, use of compost,  dynamic and innovative
green manure and other forms of
organic fertilizers. FEATURES/ATTRIBUTES/
2. Minimize/eliminate the use of external DIMENSIONS OF SA:
and non-renewable inputs such as
pesticides and synthetic, highly soluble 1. Continuously evolving
fertilizers that damage the environment o non-permanent
and pose damage to the farmers and o dynamic
the consumers‟ health. 2. Gender sensitive
3. Practice alternative crop and livestock 3. Ecologically sound and friendly
breeding and selection. Appropriate o environmentally/ecologic
and highly adapted plant varieties ally friendly farming
and animal breeds will be conserved, practices
multiplied and utilized. o dynamic relationship
4. Practice diversified and integrated between man and
farming system with special focus on environment
functional diversity in the farm. o improved standard of
5. Full participation of farmers and local, living for farmers without
indigenous people in all processes of negative effects on the
problem analysis, technology environment
development, adaptation and extension. 4. Culturally appropriate
6. A more equitable access to o culturally sensitive
productive resources and opportunities. o documentation,
7. A greater productive use of local validation, promotion and
knowledge, practices and resources.

use of indigenous and destroy the natural

knowledge system resource base
5. Economically viable  recognize location specificity of
o economically viable technologies, use of
system and practice appropriate and indigenous
6. Location specific technologies.
o appropriate/practical RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND
technology REGENERATION
7. Resource-based Resource conservation result to
o community-based stability of production systems. Some
management of methods that can be employed are:
resources  multiple cropping systems
o control of resources (multi-storey, intercropping,
o enhanced/protect what is relay cropping, etc)
available or remaining  cover cropping
o use of indigenous  organic residue management
technical knowledge  tillage practices – conservation
tillage
8. Social equity  in situ conservation as farmer-
o socially just and humane oriented approach to seed
o enhance community supply – collecting, evaluating,
participation and safeguarding, improving,
harmony multiplying and distributing
o socially acceptable indigenous genetic resources
o equitable in their place of origin
9. Holistic Approach
o holistic/integrated Productivity and stability of
o diversified farming Productions Systems
o location specific Increasing efficiency of farm resources:
o system with no leak  nutrient and fertilizer
management
10. Enhances human values
 efficient farm power
Focus for action in sustainable
 crop diversity and management
agricultural framework:
Sources of stability of production
 long term sustainability rather
systems:
than short tern benefits
 biological stability
 provide internal solutions to
 management stability
internal problems rather than
external solutions to internal  production stability
problems  economic stability
 emphasis on management
solutions to problems rather Sustainable Crop Management
than merely on technological for Lowlands and Uplands
solutions to the problems
A. Integrated Nutrient Management
 responsive to feedback, belief
Relative concentration of
in accountability and
nutrients in plant biomass, the soil
participatory, rather than
surface, upper soil water, lower soil
detachment
water and soil itself, determine the
 low rather than high external
productivity of the system.
input
Techniques in managing soil and
 emphasis on systems nutrients:
approach rather than on
 manure handling and
individual commodities and
improvement
monoculture
 composting
 relies on available indigenous
 vermicomposting
resources and self-reliance
rather than capital intensive  green manuring
 use of technologies that  use of mineral fertilizer
preserve and enrich the natural  MOET (Minus one
resource base rather than the element technology as in
use of technologies that exploit Leaf Color Chart)

3. economically desirable
Forms of Green Manuring: 4. environmentally acceptable
 improved fallow such as 5. politically advantageous
replanting natural fallow Basic Elements of IPM:
vegetation and green 1. natural control – maintenance of
manure crops population number or biomass with
 alleycropping certain upper and lower limits by the
 integrating trees into action of the whole environment,
croplands otherwise known as equilibrium position
 relay fallowing by sowing or balance of nature. Also defined as the
bush legumes among average population density of pest over
food crops a long period of time.
 live mulching 2. Sampling or monitoring –
 shaded green manures quantitative measures of pest density or
 azolla and blue-green amount of pest damage
algae 3. Control Action Threshold (CAT) –
Integrated nutrient cycling the pest density at which control
alternatives in lowland rice-based measures should be applied to prevent
farm --- an increasing pest population from
reaching ETL or economic damage
 use of bio fertilizers
4. pest biology-ecology – life history of
 planting of G. sepium
a pest in relation to the environment
(kakawate) around the home
SIX BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN IPM
lot and along the bunds
SYSTEM:
 rice straw 1. Acceptable pest levels. The
mulching/incorporation emphasis is on control, not eradication.
 raising of farm animals IPM holds that wiping out an entire pest
 bio-intensive gardening population is often impossible, and the
 fodder production attempt can be more costly,
 weed control using hand- environmentally unsafe, and all-round
pushed rotary weeder counterproductive than it is worth.
 rice-fish culture 2. Preventive cultural practices:
 rice-duck culture Selecting varieties best for local growing
 pig-duck-rice culture conditions, and maintaining healthy
B. Integrated Pest Management crops, is the first line of defense.
IPM – is a systems approach to reduce 3. Monitoring: Regular observation is
pest damage to tolerable levels through the consideration of IPM. Visual
a variety of techniques, including inspection, insect traps, and other
predators and parasites, genetically measurement methods are used to
resistant hosts, natural environmental monitor pest levels. Record keeping is
modifications and, when necessary and essential as is a thorough knowledge of
appropriate, chemical pesticides the behavior and reproductive cycles of
- a strategy or plan that utilizes various target pests.
tactics or management method (cultural 4. Mechanical controls: should a pest
practices, plant resistance, bio-control reach an unacceptable level,
and chemical control) in a harmonious mechanical methods are the first options
way to consider. They include simple hand-
- a natural way of maintaining balance in picking, erecting insect barriers, using
the environment traps, vacuuming, and tillage to disrupt
- a philosophy embodying a design and breeding.
evaluation for decision making in 5. Biological controls: Natural
managing ecosystems to maintain biological processes and materials can
population of pests below damaging provide control, with minimal
levels environmental impact, and often at low
- the best mix of pest control tactics for cost. The main focus is on promoting
a local pest problem as measured by beneficial insects that eat target pests.
the parameters of yield, profits, safety 6. Chemical controls: Considered as
and stability an IPM last resort, synthetic pesticides
Criterion: may be used when other controls fail or
1. technically feasible are deemed unlikely to prove effective.
2. practically feasible Biological insecticides, derived from

plants or naturally occurring treat fungal and

microorganisms (e.g. BT), also fit in this bacterial growth on tree
category. wounds; use as a
Examples of Biological Control: means of combating
 Bacillus thuringiensis – silver leaf disease
bacterial control of pest  Trichogramma chilonis –
insect populations such as predator of cotton bollworm
alfalfa caterpillar, bollworm,  Trichogramma
cabbage loppers, fruit tree evanescens –
roller parasitize eggs of corn
 Aluminum strips mixed with borers
vegetable mulch in vegetable  Trichogramma
fields reduced or prevent japonicum – biocontrol
aphid attack in cucumbers, against stemsborers
squash and watermelons  Metarrhizium – parasitize
 Build up of natural enemies stemborers and black bugs
by planting cover crops that  Diadegma – biocon
are nectar-producing plants against diamond back
and source of alternate hose moth
in and around fields Insectary plants – term used by
 Interplanting different crops organic farming movement to describe
to provide habitat diversity for plants that attract insects, such as:
buildup of natural enemies Cilantro, mustard( Brassica juncea),
and enhance biological marigold (Tagetes patula), dill, wild
control carrot, thyme, clovers, rosemary, mint,
 Destruction of crop daisy and chamomile
residues, deep plowing, Groups of Parasitic wasps that lay
crop rotation, use of eggs on or in the body of an insect
fertilizers, strip cropping, host:
irrigation and scheduled  Ichneumon flies – prey on
planting caterpillars of butterflies and
 Buildup of predators such moths
as:  Braconid wasps – attack
a. lady bugs – voracious caterpillars and other insects
predators of aphids,  Chalcid wasps – parasitize
mites, scale insects and eggs/larvae of greenfly,
small caterpillars whitefly, cabbage
b. hoverflies – bee or wasp-like that caterpillars,scale insects
hovers on plant and feed on greenfly, and strawberry totrix moth
spider mites and small caterpillars Natural Pest Control for Organic
c. dragonflies – Garden:
predators of mosquitoes *Basil – repels flies and mosquitoes
d. lacewigs, *garlic – deters Japanese beetles
centipedes, frogs and birds *marigold – discourages Mexican bean
Biological Control Agents: beetles, nematodes and others
 Encarsia formosa – small *peppermint – repels white cabbage
predatory chaclid wasp which butterfly
is parasitical on whitefly, a sap- *mint – deters white cabbage moth
feeding insect which can cause *rosemary – deters cabbage moth,
wilting and black sooty molds bean beetle and carrot fly
 Phtoseilus persimilis – can *Thyme – deters cabbage worms
control red spider mites Available IPM Technologies in
 Namaslug (Phasmarhabditis the Philippines:
hermaphrodita) – microscopic 1. Rice IPM – 600,000 hectares or
nematode that parasitize slugs, irrigated ricelands with farm sizes of 1.5
reproducing inside them and ha
killing them 2. IPM POT for corn production – use of
 Trichoderma virides – Trichogramma
a biocon agent of plant 3. IPM POT for vegetables – use of
disease against Dutch Diadegma on cabbage
Elm disease; used to
4. POT for coconut, cotton, sugarcane, economic activities and civic

papaya – ongoing development life
Agroecosystem Analysis (AESA) – Criteria for environmental
new procedure in farm management to sustainability of a farming system:
help farmers decide as to what type  Regeneration – using
of control is the most appropriate for the renewable resources efficiently
farm; way of assembling all factors and not permitting their
studies and placing them into a process use to exceed their long-term
for useful decision making rates of natural regeneration
- weekly monitoring of insect pests,  Sustainability – using non-
natural enemies, disease incidence, renewable resources efficiently
weed status, water/soil/weather, and limiting their use to levels
fertilization and the general conditions of that can offset by substitution
the crop by renewable resources or
- identifying changes and interactions in other forms of capital (e.g.
crops – to integrate different using fossil-based fertilizers)
components and processes in the  Assimilation – not allowing
ecosystem release of hazardous or
*Sustaining natural capital is pertinent polluting substances to the
to sustainability of intensive farming - - environment to exceed the
economic development does not just environment‟s assimilative
depend on financial capital – it capacity (e.g. preventing
ultimately relies on many other forms of excess nutrients entering water
“capital” ways)
Other Forms of Capital other than  Avoiding irreversibility –
financial capital: avoiding irreversible impacts of
 Natural capital – renewable human activities on
and non-renewable stocks of ecosystems (e.g. ensuring that
natural resources that support farming does not contribute
life and enable all social and to the extinction of a plant of
economic activities to animal species)
take place (rivers, lakes, Key Principles to promote
aquifers, soil, minerals, sustainable agriculture, a farm must
biodiversity and the earth‟s be:
atmosphere)  Environmentally sustainable –
 Economic capital – human- to maintain and enhance the
made means of production like natural capital on which faming
machinery and equipment as depends as well as other
well as infrastructures and ecosystems influenced by
assets farming
 Social capital – networks of
norms, values and
understanding that facilitate
cooperation and trust within
and between groups
 Human capital – knowledge,
skills, competencies and
attributes embodies in
individuals that are developed
through lifelong learning and
experience, including through
the formal education
system.
 Cultural capital – values,
histories and practices that link
a specific group of people
together
 Institutional capital – the
range of formal and informal
civic, political and legal
arrangements that underpin
 Socially beneficial – to resources available in the

enhance the quality of life for farm
Internal resources External resources
Sun Main source of energy Supplemented by fossil fuels

Water Rain & small irrigation system Large dams, centralized
distribution and deep wells
Nitrogen Fixed from air & recycled in soil organic Primarily from inorganic fertilizers
matter
Minerals Released from soil reserves & recycled Mined, processed & imported
Weed & pest Biological, cultural, mechanical & locally With pesticides & herbicides
control available chemicals
Energy Generated & collected on farm Dependence on fossil fuels
Mgt. By farms & community, gathered locally Some provided by input
Decisions & and regularly suppliers, researchers &
Information extensionists
Animals Integrated on farm Production at separate locations
Cropping Rotations and diversity monocropping
system
Varieties of Thrive with lower fertility & moisture Need high input levels to thrive
plants
Labor Greater work done by family living on Lower labor requirement & done
farm & hired labor by hired labor & mechanical
replacement of manual labor
Capital Initial source is family & community & Initial source is external
accumulation invested locally indebtedness or equity &
accumulation leaves community
people in rural communities  Cyclical – integrating
and beyond, while addressing natural processes such as
wider social and cultural nutrient recycling and soil
schemes regeneration into farming
 Economically viable – to practices and using the by-
ensure farmers have a secure products/wastes from
and rewarding livelihood farming as inputs into
These outcomes can be supported further production
through the development of farming  High value – producing
systems that are: high quality products from
 Knowledge intensive – a quality environment
investing in human  Diverse – developing and
knowledge to develop adapting farming systems
smart and productive so that they are appropriate
farming systems that are for the local environment,
less dependent on high social, cultural and
levels of material and economic condition
energy inputs  Resilient – developing the
 Innovative – capacity of people to learn
experimenting and making and adapt to changing
greater use of farmers‟ circumstances while
knowledge, in combination ensuring that natural
with appropriate capital is still maintained
technologies developed Comparison of internal and external
through research resources/processes for farming
 Resource efficient – using Decision making for the development
renewable and non- of a more sustainable farming system
renewable resources should be:
efficiently and making the  Systems thinking – taking an
most effective use of integrated approach that considers
natural processes and the interactions and relationships
among different elements. It is
necessary to address the underlying guide the decomposition process in

reasons that is behind unsustainable manure and compost
practices instead of just treating  Biointensive Gardening/Mini-farming
short-term symptoms – introduced by Alan Chadwick
 Futures thinking – maintaining a about the concepts and practices of
long-term perspective and double-dug method of making raised
anticipating risks and challenges to beds, intensive planting,
farming systems, including the future composting, companion cropping
implications of existing practices. and whole system synergy.
Past trends do not dictate destiny,  Biological farming/Ecological farming
so it is important to explore different – is a system of crop production in
visions for the future and to which the producer tries to minimize
constantly look for opportunities to the use of chemicals for control of
improve sustainability crop pests
 Participation – actively involving Carrying capacity – is the theoretical
farmers and other people in rural equilibrium population at which a
communities to develop more particular population in a particular
sustainable farming systems. It is environment will stabilize when its
also important to encourage supply of resources remains constant
individuals and organizations that
are part of broader food systems, - the maximum sustainable
and those affected by farming to population size, the maximum size that
take part in finding sustainable can be supported indefinitely into the
solutions future without degrading the
 Leadership – supporting good environment
participating through good
leadership. It is essential to help Holistic Management – is a decision
people see any issues and making process that enables people to
opportunities ahead and to make decisions that satisfy immediate
develop their capacity to seek out needs without jeopardizing their future
solutions. well-being or the well-being of future
 Biodiversity – is the sum total of all generations
the plants, animals, fungi and
microorganisms in the world or in a Integrated Farming Systems (IFS)
particular area, all of their individual and Integrated Food and Farming
variation and all the interactions Systems – included in this concept are
between them the goals of finding and adopting
 Agrobiodiversity – is the integrated and resource-efficient crop
fundamental feature of farming and livestock systems that maintain
systems which encompasses may productivity that are profitable and
types of biological resources tied to protect the environment.
agriculture such as genetic
resources, edible plants and crops, Natural farming – involves no tillage,
livestock, soil organisms, naturally no fertilizers, no pesticides, no weeding,
occurring insects, bacteria and fungi, no pruning and remarkably little labor by
agroecosystem components and careful timing of seeding and careful
types, and wild resources combinations of plants (polyculture). Its
practices focus on analyzing and
Agrobiodiversity includes not only a building soil through composting, green
wide variety of species but also many manuring, mulch and various
ways in which a farmer can exploit other soil management techniques,
biological diversity to produce and similar to organic farming.
manage crops, land, water, insects and
biota Kyusei Nature Farming – developed
 Biodynamic agriculture/biodymanic by Teruo Higa of Japan which means
farming – by spiritual insights of Dr. saving the world; employs technology
Rudolf Steiner that emphasizes on involving beneficial microorganisms and
many of the forces within living inoculants to increase the microbial
nature, identifying many of these diversity, health and yield of crops.
factors and describing specific
practices and preparations that
Organic farming – was first used by

Lord Northbourne; is a production
system which avoids or largely
exclude the use of synthetically
compounded fertilizers, pesticides,
growth regulators and livestock
additives
-is an ecological production
management system that promotes and
enhances biodiversity, biological cycles
and soil biological activity that minimizes
the use of off-farm inputs and on
management practices that restore,
maintain and enhance ecological
harmony
Permaculture – or permanent
agriculture was coined by Bill Mollison
in 1970 which is a unique design that
produce efficient low-maintenance
integration of plants, animals, people
and structure applied at the scale of a
home garden, all the way through to a
large farm
Precision farming/agriculture or
Prescription Farming or Site Specific
Management - a management strategy
that employs detailed site-specific
information to precisely manage
production inputs
- to know the soil and crop
characteristics unique to each part of
the field, and to optimize production
within small portions of the field that
uses computers, telecommunications
and global positioning systems or
(GPS), etc.
Regenerative Agriculture – to enhance

regeneration of renewable resources to
achieve a sustainable form of agriculture
LITERATURE CITED
1. ALFONSO-ALEJAR. 1999. Fundamentals of Plant Physiology. Plant Physiology Society of the

Philippines. Pasig, City, Metro Manila. 166
2. BALDWIN, Debr MARKEN, BILL & SUZANNE DEJOHN. 2010. CONTAINER GARDENING (2nd
Edit.). Wiley Publishing, Inc. Hoboken, NJ, USA. 347 pp.
3. BENDRE, ASHOK M. & ASHOK KUMAR. 2009-2010. A TEXTBOOK OF PRACTICAL BOTANY.
Rakesh Kumar Rrastogi for Rastogi. Captial Offset Press New Delhi, India Publications.339 pp.
4. CHOUDHARY, A. K. 2014. Crop Management, Integrated Farming and Pest Management
5. DAVIES, G. ____. Weed Management for Organic Farmers, Growers and Smallholders: A
complete Guide
6. DRIS, RAMDANE. 2004. Crop Management and Postharvest handling of Horticultural Products
Volume 6.
7. Green Empire. 2015. Licensure Examination in Agriculture Reviewer (Lecture and Review
Questions) for Crop Science. Green Empire Philippines with links in
www.facebook.com/greenempire/GE KnowledgeBank or at Twitter: @greenempireph
8. Mancuso, S. 2016. ADVANCES IN HORTICULTURAL SCIENCE. Department of Agri-Food
Production and Environmental. Sciences, University of Florence, Viale delle Idee, 30, 50019 Sesto
Fiorentino (FI), Italy.Phone +39-055-4574021-22, Fax +39-055-4574910, E-mail:
advances@dispaa.unifi.it
9. MARKEN, BILL & SUZANNE DEJOHN. 2010. CONTAINER GARDENING (2nd Edit.). Wiley
Publishing, Inc. Hoboken, NJ, USA. 347 pp.
10. RIMANDO, Tito J. 2011. Fundamentals of Crop Science. Department of Horticulture, UP Los
Banos, College, Laguna, Philippines. pp. 133-141
11. Singh, HP, Parthasarathy, VA and Nirmal Babu, K. 2011. Advances in Horticulture Biotechnology.
R e g e n e r a t i o n s y s t e m s. Volume I: Fruit Crops, Plantation Crops and Spices. Westville
Publishing House, New Delhi, India.
12. Hand-outs for the Philippine’s Department of Agriculture and BAR as well as related
sources info clippings
12.1. Aggressive agriculture program under the Duterte presidency
12.2. Altoveros, N.C. and Borromeo, T.H. 2008. Country Report On The State Of Plant Genetic
Resources For Food And Agriculture in the Philippines. Bureau of Plant Industry.
12.3. Bautista-Martin, R. 2012.The Philippine Sugar Industry. Challenges and Opportunities.
Sugar Regulatory Administration,Department of Agriculture,Philippines.
12.4. Briones, N. and Robles, A. 2005. Cutflower Production Practices in the Philippines: Some
Environmental Implications.The Philippine Agriculturists, Vol. 88. No.1, 122-134.c/o FAO
Regional Office for Asia & the Pacific (FAO RAP). Maliwan Mansion, 39, Phra Atit Road
Bangkok 10200, Thailand.
12.5. Johnson, G.I., Weinberger, K. and Wu, M. 2008. The Vegetable Industry in Tropical Asia:
The Philippines: An Overview of Production and Trade. AVRDC – The World Vegetable
Center, P.O. Box 42, Shanhua, Tainan 74199 TAIWAN
12.6. Jose, A. 2003. Financial Viability of Medicinal Plant Farming. Volume 15 No. 1
12.7. Lantican, F.2000. Ornamental Program Area Research Planning and Prioritization -
discussion paper series no. 2000-08
12.8. PCA. 2013.Outlook For The Coconut Industry Philippine Coconut Authority
12.9. PNS - BAFS 49 - Code Of Gap For Fresh Fruits And Vegetable Farming
12.10. Recide, R. O. 2009. Crop Statistics of the Philippines. bureau of Agriculture Statistics
Quezon City, Philippines.
12.11. SEPO. 2012. Philippine Agriculture Export At A Glance.
12.12. Sidhu, A. 2012. Jackfruit-Improvement in the Asia-Pacific Region: A Status Report. Asia-
Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI)
12.13. Situation Report on Selected Vegetables and Root Crops January-December 2008, Vol. 1,
Issue 1
12.14. United Nations Environment Programme. 2007. World Conservation Monitoring
Centre.DRAFT CONSULTATION PAPER: International Trade in Aquatic Ornamental
Species (Background document).
12.15. Usebio, J. and Anit, E. 2002. Durian Production in the Philippines.
12.16. Villanueva, J. 2013. Oil Palm Expansion in South East Asia: trends and implications for
local communities and indigenous peoples
13. Other Sources
RA 10068. Organic Agriculture Act of the Philippines
RA 8435. Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=derivation+of+word+agriculture&oq=DERIvation+of+AGRICULTURE
&aqs=chrome.1.69i57j0.11593j1j8&sourceid=chrome&ie=U
http://www.manilatimes.net/marcos-green-revolution/246377/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Fidel_Ramos
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Joseph_Estrada

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Crop Science

May 26-27, 2018

TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS (TOS)

1 Nature and Importance of Agriculture 9 9.00

2 Classification of Agricultural Crops 9 9.00

3 Nature and Composition of Plants 9 9.00

4 Plant Growth, Development and Reproduction 9 9.00

5 Factors Affecting Crop Production 15 15.00

6 Crop Improvement and Selection 16 16.00

7 Sustainable Crop Production 9 9.00

8 Site Characterization and Selection 9 9.00

9 Production Practices (Annuals/Perennials) 15 15.00

TOTAL 100 100.00

Crop Science Reviewer for Agriculturist Licensure Examination (ALE) Page 1

‘ NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE

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American germplasm collection. By 1968, distributed in all continents. However, its

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years as the principal cereal of Southeast 3. Muskmelon (reticulata group)- is

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enough to keep up with population Main crops consisted of rice, gabi,

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 New land policy 3 Ways on how 1985, with steady increases in

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distributed by the Department of joint ventures with private investors

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agricultural products.  Introduced Good Agricultural

Secretary Bernie History of the Department of Agriculture

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(DANR) took over the functions of

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(IRPP), an import-substitution Production Enhancement Program

Senen C. Bacani, appointed in Domingo F. Panganiban continued

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framework and platform for rural

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 It is the world's largest producer of

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 Rate of malnutrition among EXPORT – Total Agricultural products

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 Farming remains to be noble – 13 hrs) - -

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Today – 1B (out of 5.5 B)

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NORTH SOUTH importation of agricultural products that

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- EO 264 or the Reduction in tariff Agrobacterium tumefaciens ordinarilly

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Transformed with natural host resistance Antibiotic resistance (marker gene

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Genus d. companion crop – a crop planted

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3. Ornamentals. Ornamentals can be f. Medicinal and biocidal crops – are sources

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a. Herbaceous – succulent and has a PhilRice - Philippine Rice Research Institute

MAJOR INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH

NATIONAL COMMODITY RESEARCH

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