2016 - 2017
3. If the time constant of an alcohol thermometer is found to be 5.0 s, how long must
you wait in order to get a reliable temperature reading after the thermometer is
put in contact with a body?
Objectives
Introduction
Theory
Two objects of different initial temperatures are in thermoal contact when the warmer
object cools and the cooler object warms up upon contact. Eventually, there comes a
point when no more changes occur and their temperatures become equal. The two objects
are then said to be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Suppose we now have three objects, A, B and C. If objects A and B are put into contact
with object C but not with each other, and each achieve thermal equilibrium with C,
then objects A and B are also in thermal equilibrium. This phenomena is according
to the zeroth law of thermodynamics. Objects A, B and C are said to have the same
temperature.
Temperature Measurement 1
Physics 73.1 2nd Semester A.Y. 2016 - 2017
Heat from a hotter object will transfer to the colder object until they both reach a
common temperature that is different from their original temperatures. When a ther-
mometer is placed in thermal contact with a hot object, what we actually measure is the
temperature of the thermometer itself. The act of putting an object into conatct with
a thermometer changes the temperature of the object. It is therefore necessary that the
transfer of heat to or from the thermal sensor is minimal such that it does not change
the temperature of the object significantly. We have to wait until thermal equilibrium is
reached before we can obtain a reliable temperature reading and it takes time to achieve
this. How fast a thermal sensor achieves thermal equilibrium with a body depends on
the thermal time constant τ of the sensor.
Consider a temperature sensor that has a reading T (t) at any time t. Initially, the
sensor has a temperature T (t = 0) = Ti and is placed in contact with an object that is
maintained at a constant temperature. After a sufficient time, the temperature sensor
would have a final reading Tf . The difference between Tf and T (t) is
If the sensor is a first-order linear device, the rate of change of ∆T can be assumed to be
proportional to the difference of Ti and Tf
d∆T
= −k∆T (2)
dt
where k is a positive constant. The negative sign here implies that the rate of change
of ∆T decreases in time. If we let k = 1/τ , where τ has units of time, Equation (2)
becomes
d∆T ∆T
=− . (3)
dt τ
As time approaches infinity, the exponential term vanishes and we are left with T (t →
∞) = Tf , which is the final temperature. When t = τ , Equation (3) becomes
After one time constant, the temperature sensor will have a reading equal to its initial
reading plus 63.2% of its final and initial temperature difference, ∆T0 = Tf − Ti . The
temperature T (t) for any time t after a few multiples of τ are shown in Table 1.
Temperature Measurement 2
Physics 73.1 2nd Semester A.Y. 2016 - 2017
Table 1: Temperature readings for times corresponding to the first five thermal time
constants.
t T (t)
τ Ti + 0.632∆T0
2τ Ti + 0.864∆T0
3τ Ti + 0.950∆T0
4τ Ti + 0.982∆T0
5τ Ti + 0.993∆T0
The thermal time constant of a particular temperature sensor, therefore, can be used
to specify how long one must wait to get a reliable temperature reading. Depending on
the accuracy required, it is common engineering practice to wait for at least 95% to 99%
of the increase/decrease of the temperature difference, or three to five time constants
before recording the output of a temperature sensor. Waiting for longer times would only
yield a small change in temperature, and may lead to more prominent errors from heat
transfer of the system to the environment.
The derivation of the thermal time constant assumes that the sensor reacts linearly
with temperature. For some materials, however, this is not true. A material with a linear
thermometric property has identical responses to heating and cooling—its cooling and
heating time constants are the same.
Temperature Sensor
Temperature can be felt but cannot be measured directly. Instead we observe the reaction
of materials to heat and cold and measure their degree of reaction. For example, metals
expand when heated. We can then measure how much the expansion is and equate
it to a certain temperature. These and other measurable reactions to heat are called
thermometric properties and they are exploited in the temperature sensors we will use in
this experiment.
Glass Thermometer
Most substances expand when heated. Alcohol in the capillary of glass thermometers
expand linearly with increasing temperature. In essence, a glass thermometer with a
Celsius (Centigrade) scale is made as follows. A thin glass tube is evacuated and half of
it is filled with colored alcohol (mercury is toxic and hard to procure). The tube is sealed
then one of its ends is dipped in ice.
The level of the liquid is marked and labelled 0◦ C. The same end is dipped in boiling
water then, after waiting for the liquid to stop expanding, the level of the liquid is marked
and labelled 100◦ C. Since the expansion of the liquid is linear with temperature, the space
between the two marks is divided into 100 equally-spaced divisions.
In accordance with the zeroth law of thermodynamics, if the thermometer is placed
in thermal contact with a body and the length of the liquid inside the capillary reaches
the same level as that marked for 100◦ C then that object is at 100◦ C.
Temperature Measurement 3
Physics 73.1 2nd Semester A.Y. 2016 - 2017
Thermocouple
When two wires made from different metals are welded together and exposed to a hot or
cold region, electrical current will flow through the wire. This phenomenon is called the
Seebeck effect and is exploited by temperature sensors known as thermocouples. When
connected to a calibrated read-out device, the system becomes a digital thermometer.
Thermistor
A semiconductor is a material with properties between that of a conductor and an insu-
lator. When heated, it becomes more conducting. Its resistance varies nonlinearly with
temperature such that when a constant current is passed through it, the voltage across it
will vary. If used in this manner, the semiconductor device is known as a thermistor. The
stainless steel temperature probe to be used in this experiment has a thermistor inside
it.
Materials
• Alcohol thermometer
• Stove
• Casserole
• 250 mL Beaker
• Mittens
• Ice
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Physics 73.1 2nd Semester A.Y. 2016 - 2017
Procedure
CAUTION:
• Steam from boiling water reaches 100◦ C. To protect your hand from scalding, use
mittens when holding sensors near steam sources.
Heating Process
1. Fill a casserole with water up to 3/4 full and let the water boil. Keep the water
boiling throughout the activity.
3. Take the alcohol thermometer and dip it in hot water. When the temperature stops
increasing, record the final temperature as Tf in Table W1.
4. Dip the alcohol thermometer in the ice bath. Wait for the temperature reading to
stop decreasing then record it as Ti .
6. With initial temperature Ti , dip the alcohol thermometer in the boiling water then
measure the time it takes for the temperature reading to reach the calculated T (τ ).
Record this measured time in Table W1.
Cooling Process
1. Take the alcohol thermometer and dip it in the ice bath. When the temperature
stops decreasing, record the final temperature as Tf in Table W2.
2. Dip the alcohol thermometer in the hot water. Wait for the temperature reading
to stop increasing then record it as Ti .
4. With initial temperature Ti , dip the alcohol thermometer in the ice bath then
measure the time it takes for the temperature reading to reach the calculated T (τ ).
Record this measured time in Table W2.
Repeat the heating and cooling process procedures for the thermocouple and thermistor.
Record your data in Table W3-W6.
Temperature Measurement 5
Physics 73.1 2nd Semester A.Y. 2016 - 2017
Bibliography
[1] Paul A. Tipler and Gene Mosca. Physics for Scientists and Engineers - With Modern
Physics, Chapter 17, Sixth Edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, England, 2008.
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Physics 73.1 2nd Semester A.Y. 2016 - 2017
Data Sheet
Alcohol Thermometer
Thermocouple
Thermistor
Questions
1. Which of the sensors is the most linear? Explain your answer by comparing their
time constants for heating and cooling.
2. When you have a fever, you usually use a thermometer to measure your tempera-
ture. What is the minimum time needed to get a reliable temperature reading after
placing each sensor from storage (at room temperature) to your armpit?
3. Will the thermal time constant remain the same if the initial temperature varies?
Design an experiment to check your hypothesis.