Complex Numbers
j 3 = j · j 2 = −j r
(B.3) y
j4 = j2 · j2 = 1 u
j5 = j · j4 = j
0 x Re
..
.
Figure B.1 Graphical representation
j n+4 = j n of a complex number.
A second way of representing the complex number z is by speci-
fying its magnitude r and the angle θ it makes with the real axis, as Fig.
B.1 shows. This is known as the polar form. It is given by
z = |z| θ = r θ (B.4)
where y
r= x2 + y2, θ = tan−1 (B.5a)
x
or
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ (B.5b)
that is,
z = x + jy = r θ = r cos θ + j r sin θ (B.6)
851
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852 APPENDIX B Complex Numbers
y
z = −x − jy, θ = 180◦ + tan−1 (3rd Quadrant)
x
(B.7)
y
z = x − jy, θ = 360◦ − tan−1 (4th Quadrant)
x
assuming that x and y are positive.
In the exponential form, z = re j θ so that dz/dθ = The third way of representing the complex z is the exponential form:
jre j θ = jz.
z = rej θ (B.8)
This is almost the same as the polar form, because we use the same
magnitude r and the angle θ.
The three forms of representing a complex number are summarized
as follows.
The first two forms are related by Eqs. (B.5) and (B.6). In Section B.3
we will derive Euler’s formula, which proves that the third form is also
equivalent to the first two.
E X A M P L E B . 1
Express the following complex numbers in polar and exponential form:
(a) z1 = 6 + j 8, (b) z2 = 6 − j 8, (c) z3 = −6 + j 8, (d) z4 = −6 − j 8.
Solution:
Notice that we have deliberately chosen these complex numbers to fall in
Im the four quadrants, as shown in Fig. B.2.
z3 z1
j8 (a) For z1 = 6 + j 8 (1st quadrant),
j6 8
r3 j4 r1 r1 = 62 + 82 = 10, θ1 = tan−1 = 53.13◦
u3 6
j2 u1 ◦
u4 Hence, the polar form is 10 53.13◦ and the exponential form is 10ej 53.13 .
(b) For z2 = 6 − j 8 (4th quadrant),
−8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 Re
−j2 u2 8
r2 = 62 + (−8)2 = 10, θ2 = 360◦ − tan−1 = 306.87◦
r4 −j4 r2 6
−j6 so that the polar form is 10 306.87◦ and the exponential form is
◦
z4 −j8 z2 10ej 306.87 . The angle θ2 may also be taken as −53.13◦ , as shown in
Fig. B.2, so that the polar form becomes 10 − 53.13◦ and the exponen-
◦
Figure B.2 For Example B.1. tial form becomes 10e−j 53.13 .
(c) For z3 = −6 + j 8 (2nd quadrant),
8
r3 = (−6)2 + 82 = 10, θ3 = 180◦ − tan−1 = 126.87◦
6
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APPENDIX B Complex Numbers 853
E X A M P L E B . 2
Convert the following complex numbers into rectangular form:
◦
(a) 12 − 60◦ , (b) −50 285◦ , (c) 8ej 10 , (d) 20e−j π/3 .
Solution:
(a) Using Eq. (B.6),
(c) Similarly,
◦
8ej 10 = 8 cos 10◦ + j 8 sin 10◦ = 7.878 + j 1.389
(d) Finally,
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854 APPENDIX B Complex Numbers
z∗ = x − jy = r − θ = re−j θ (B.11)
E X A M P L E B . 3
If A = 2 + j 5, B = 4 − j 6, find: (a) A∗ (A + B), (b) (A + B)/(A − B).
Solution:
(a) If A = 2 + j 5, then A∗ = 2 − j 5 and
A + B = (2 + 4) + j (5 − 6) = 6 − j
so that
A∗ (A + B) = (2 − j 5)(6 − j ) = 12 − j 2 − j 30 − 5 = 7 − j 32
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APPENDIX B Complex Numbers 855
(b) Similarly,
A − B = (2 − 4) + j (5 − −6) = −2 + j 11
Hence,
E X A M P L E B . 4
Evaluate:
◦
(2 + j 5)(8ej 10 ) j (3 − j 4)∗
(a) (b)
2 + j 4 + 2 − 40◦ (−1 + j 6)(2 + j )2
Solution:
(a) Since there are terms in polar and exponential forms, it may be best
to express all terms in polar form:
√
2 + j5 = 22 + 52 tan−1 5/2 = 5.385 68.2◦
◦
(2 + j 5)(8ej 10 ) = (5.385 68.2◦ )(8 10◦ ) = 43.08 78.2◦
2 + j4 + 2 − 40◦ = 2 + j 4 + 2 cos(−40◦ ) + j 2 sin(−40◦ )
= 3.532 + j 2.714 = 4.454 37.54◦
Thus,
43.08 78.2◦
◦
(2 + j 5)(8ej 10 )
= = 9.672 40.66◦
2 + j4 + 2 − 40◦ 4.454 37.54◦
(b) We can evaluate this in rectangular form, since all terms are in that
form. But
j (3 − j 4)∗ = j (3 + j 4) = −4 + j 3
(2 + j )2 = 4 + j 4 − 1 = 3 + j 4
(−1 + j 6)(2 + j )2 = (−1 + j 6)(3 + j 4) = −3 − 4j + j 18 − 24
= −27 + j 14
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856 APPENDIX B Complex Numbers
Hence,
j (3 − j 4)∗ −4 + j 3 (−4 + j 3)(−27 − j 14)
= =
(−1 + j 6)(2 + j ) 2 −27 + j 14 272 + 142
108 + j 56 − j 81 + 42
= = 0.1622 − j 0.027
925
x2 x3 x4
ex = 1 + x + + + + ··· (B.19)
2! 3! 4!
Replacing x by j θ gives
θ2 θ3 θ4
ej θ = 1 + j θ − −j + + ··· (B.20)
2! 3! 4!
Also,
θ2 θ4 θ6
cos θ = 1 − + − + ···
2! 4! 6!
(B.21)
θ3 θ5 θ7
sin θ = θ − + − + ···
3! 5! 7!
so that
θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5
cos θ + j sin θ = 1 + j θ − −j + +j − ··· (B.22)
2! 3! 4! 5!
Comparing Eqs. (B.20) and (B.22), we conclude that
and that
|ej θ | = cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
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APPENDIX B Complex Numbers 857
1 jθ
cos θ = (e + e−j θ ) (B.26)
2
1 jθ
sin θ = (e − e−j θ ) (B.27)
2j
zz∗ = x 2 + y 2 = r 2 (B.28)
√ √ √
z = x + jy = rej θ/2 = r θ/2 (B.29)
E X A M P L E B . 5
√
If A = 6 + j 8, find: (a) A, (b) A4 .
Solution:
(a) First, convert A to polar form:
8
r= 62 + 82 = 10, θ = tan−1 = 53.13◦ , A = 10 53.13◦
6
Then √ √
A= 10 53.13◦ /2 = 3.162 26.56◦
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858 APPENDIX B Complex Numbers
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Appendix C
Mathematical Formulas
sin(−x) = − sin x
cos(−x) = cos x
1 1
sec x = , csc x =
cos x sin x
sin x 1
tan x = , cot x =
cos x tan x
sin(x ± 90◦ ) = ± cos x
cos(x ± 90◦ ) = ∓ sin x
sin(x ± 180◦ ) = − sin x
cos(x ± 180◦ ) = − cos x
cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
a b c
= = (law of sines)
sin A sin B sin C
a = b + c − 2bc cos A
2 2 2
(law of cosines)
tan 1
(A − B) a−b
2
= (law of tangents)
tan 1
2
(A + B) a+b
859
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860 APPENDIX C Mathematical Formulas
1 x
sinh x = (e − e−x )
2
1 x
cosh x = (e + e−x )
2
sinh x
tanh x =
cosh x
1
coth x =
tanh x
1
csch x =
sinh x
1
sech x =
cosh x
sinh(x ± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y
cosh(x ± y) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y
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APPENDIX C Mathematical Formulas 861
C.4 Derivatives
If U = U (x), V = V (x), and a = constant,
d dU
(aU ) = a
dx dx
d dV dU
(U V ) = U +V
dx dx dx
dU dV
d U V −U
= dx dx
dx V V2
d
(aU n ) = naU n−1
dx
d U dU
(a ) = a U ln a
dx dx
d U dU
(e ) = eU
dx dx
d dU
(sin U ) = cos U
dx dx
d dU
(cos U ) = − sin U
dx dx
C.5 Indefinite Integrals
If U = U (x), V = V (x), and a = constant,
a dx = ax + C
U dV = U V − V dU (integration by parts)
U n+1
U n dU = + C, n = 1
n+1
dU
= ln U + C
U
aU
a U dU = + C, a > 0, a = 1
ln a
1 ax
eax dx = e +C
a
eax
xeax dx = (ax − 1) + C
a2
eax 2 2
x 2 eax dx = (a x − 2ax + 2) + C
a3
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862 APPENDIX C Mathematical Formulas
ln x dx = x ln x − x + C
1
sin ax dx = − cos ax + C
a
1
cos ax dx = sin ax + C
a
x sin 2ax
sin2 ax dx = − +C
2 4a
x sin 2ax
cos2 ax dx = + +C
2 4a
1
x sin ax dx = (sin ax − ax cos ax) + C
a2
1
x cos ax dx = (cos ax + ax sin ax) + C
a2
1
x 2 sin ax dx = (2ax sin ax + 2 cos ax − a 2 x 2 cos ax) + C
a3
1
x 2 cos ax dx = (2ax cos ax − 2 sin ax + a 2 x 2 sin ax) + C
a3
eax
eax sin bx dx = (a sin bx − b cos bx) + C
a2 + b2
eax
eax cos bx dx = (a cos bx + b sin bx) + C
a 2 + b2
dx 1 x
= tan−1 + C
a2 +x 2 a a
x 2 dx x
= x − a tan−1 + C
a +x
2 2 a
dx 1 x 1 −1 x
= 2 + tan +C
(a 2 + x 2 )2 2a x 2 + a2 a a
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