Requirements for Cut Flower Storage

Booklet No. 571

Flower Gardening: FGS - 38
Contents
Preface
I. Introduction
II. Design of Cut Flower Packing Area
III. Packing Material and Stand
IV. Cool Storage
V. Construction of a Cool Store
VI. Indigenous Cool Store
VII. Accessory Units
VIII. Bulb Storage
IX. Other Facilities

Preface
Flowers are in great demand and are valued mainly for their aesthetic value. So
holding them till appropriate time for their marketing involve some special techniques of
storage. Most of the Indian farmers lack in knowledge about proper storage techniques and
do not follow proper methods in holding the cut flowers. As a result they do not get the
expected price for their flowers and their business is likely to become non-viable. This
booklet gives few simple and effective methods for holding the flowers for better marketing.

Dr. K. T. Chandy, Agricultural & Environmental Education

I. Introduction
Whatever be the types of flowers handled, the storage and holding place requires
certain specific features. These features are governed by three functions: production,
harvesting and marketing of flowers. Hence the buildings and facilities for storage also
should be designed for these purposes and also for grading, storage and pacing which are
carried out under a roof. Few flower growing and holdings places have suitably designed
layout of buildings and other facilities, although much money may have been spent on
structures like greenhouses. At least one third of the labour cost happens in grading and
packing and often the work must be completed within a specific time to meet the transport
or marketing requirements.
The tools, equipments and chemicals required for various operations should be kept
separately. Facilities are needed for reducing dust, mud and damage to the harvested crop
while at the same time improving the efficiency of work and movement within the holding
place. The term 'shed' often is referred to the packing area and may be constructed in a
cheaper way. From this flow diagram (Figure 1) it is clear that the two functions that require
maximum space are the storage and orting. The marketing containers may also occupy a
considerable amount of space.

Cut flower marketing is a fast developing business and obviously today's technology
may be obsolete tomorrow. Hence one who wants to build a holding or storage place for
flowers have to go for more details about flower storage. He also should observe some of
the already existing cut flower stores and study the details of construction, operation and
maintenance. This booklet intends only to introduce the subject to the reader.

II. Design of Cut Flower Packing Area

Taking into account various functions shown in figure 1 the packing area should have
the following details: A solid concrete floor finished in hard surface. This should slope
slightly to a drain on to one side or towards a comer. Door ways in a packing area should be
wide enough to take vehicles and arrangements for quick loading and unloading also should
be planned. Sliding doors are preferable as they can be quickly opened and closed.
Buildings for packing should be kept cool and a temperature range of minimum of
12°C and a maximum of 18°C is maintained. Heating may be required in winter. Fan heating
may be better method as this circulates the air and dries up excess moisture which tends to
accumulate on the floor. In summer adequate ventilation without draughts can keep the
area cool. The roof should be insulated with suitable material to maintain an even
temperature at all times of the year.
Windows should preferably be on the south or east side of the storing and packing
house to allow sufficient light without buildup of the heat. Besides there should be artificial
lighting and running water. Use of troughs on wheels, in which flowers are placed as they
are harvested, allowing them to be moved in and out of a cool storage and the packing area
is recommended. Whatever be the container used one should ensure that the flowers do not
get pressed each other and get damaged. Containers that make the flowers stand up may
be the best for maintaining the freshness of the flowers. Usually flower preservatives such
as Chrysal VB or solution K or M is added to the water in which it is kept. There are other
chemicals too available in the market which one has to become familiar. In addition to
improving flower life this reduces the need for frequent change of water: If the flowers are
placed on a surface for packing and handling, it should be smooth and washable. Wooden
frames fixed in slanting position and different heights may be more convenient Several
designs are possible for flower holding.

III. Packing Material and Stand

The flowers must be protected during transport and handling. They are better placed
in containers, or they may be made into bunches held in wraps. Occasionally flowers are
delivered to the auctioners in standing upright position in some containers which are
collected back when empty.
Flowers and foliages are packed most1y in cardboard or wooden containers or
specially made cut flower boxes or cartons. But these are bulky and if retunable extra freight
charge is involved.
All flowers especially bulb flowers like narcissus and gladiolus require sorting and
grading at the holding place. Only the fresh good flowers are bundled. The lower leaves if
any must be stripped off and roses should be dethorned. These operations are best done
separately prior to the actual packing. Large flowers and stems are bunched in fives or tens.
These are usually held together with one or more rubber bands. Plastic tape tying machines
are occasionally used for large stems like gladioli. Different types of flowers require different
methods of handling and the holders far flowers may be of different designs.
The actual packing stands should be designed to hold one box and a certain quantity
of flowers. If the packer works sitting down, the table height should be 71 cms. with a
horrizontal knee clearance of 46 cms. Chairs should have the following dimensions: height
43-45 cm depth 38-42 cm, with 40 cm approximately back rest angle 95°-105°. The
recommended height for a bench where a person is standing is 25 cm below the forearms
when held horizontally. The worker should stand upright and not lean forward while
working. A bent back when working is very harmful both to the spine and to internal organs.
When packing it is helpful if the box is tilted slightly towards the packer. So the packing
stands are made accordingly. In short packing area is arranged in such a way the work is
done smoothly and fast.
Orchids require extremely careful packing. The simpler method of sliding each stem
into a polythene tube (Whizpacker), reduces packing materials. But each bloom still needs to
be examined before it is packed whatever be the packing methods followed. Packing inside
cones of plastic is an efficient and attractive method of presenting flowers. Plastics which
are like inverted bags should be perforated to prevent moisture condensation, or the plastic
may be inflated so that the leaves do not rest directly on the sides of the plastic bag.

IV. Cool Storage

A cool store is a cool chamber which is essential to any efficient flower handling
place; whether it be at the level of producer, distributor or retailer. Control of temperature
below 10°C is the major factor in ensuring their longer life of flowers. For the producer, a
cool store can be used for at least five important purposes, these are: (1) condition and
removal of field heat, (2) regulation of market surplus, (3) treating of plant material, (4)
control of bulb flowering and (5) restriction to floral material. These are explained in brief.
1. Conditioning and removal of field heat
Flower tissues due to their metabolic activities produce heat. Although this is reduced
by transpiration, ill some flowers stomata are absent and they do not transpire. Therefore
they heat up, particularly if held in bulk. In hot weather, flowers in boxes will often be at a
higher temperature than the surrounding air. Even during sunny weather in winter, flower
temperatures can be higher in protected structures (boxes, holders or wraps) than the air
inside or outdoors. Leaf actively respiring and transpiring material, such as roses and
pittosporum, will generate more heat than almost leafless or small leaved stems like those of
carnations or thryptomene. However, floral products in general produce much less heat than
fruits or vegetables contained in the same unit area. It is necessary to reduce the
temperature to at least 10°C in order to slow down metabolic activity in flowers.
2. Regulation of market supplies
The main auction of flowers may be held once in a week. So the crop harvested
must be held till the auction day. Without a cool chamber much of this produce would be
unsuitable for the market, especially in summer, e.g. gladioli and sweet peas.
 Under normal circumstances it is necessary to pack flowers on Sunday or holidays for
delivery on the Monday morning. This either requires payment to staff of double time or an
interruption of the manage's free day. Flowers picked earlier in the week and packed on
Saturday can be cool stored and dispatched late on Sunday for the following day's market.
During festival times there is a strong demand for flowers of all kinds. It is not
possible to regulate the cropping purely to supply these occasions, although production can
be planned for peak harvest at those times. By careful harvesting and cool storage, flower
supplies can be increased during festival times. Temperature range of 3-5°C are required for
storing the flowers for more days than the usual.
It has been found the carnations, gladioli and Chrysanthemums can be cut in bud,
cool stored for periods up to three weeks, and then marketed either in bud or opened prior
to marketing. If this technique is practiced it is essential that the flowers are opened in
preservative or nutritive solutions at approximately 20o C temperature.
3. Treatment of planting material
A cool store can be very useful for regulating the planting materials of young plants
and bulbs, or for holding up a supply of propagating material. Frequently, sufficient
unrooted or rooted cuttings of a specific cultivar of carnations, Chrysanthemum or a similarly
propagated plant may not be available at anyone time; the cuttings can be collected and
either stored unrooted, then rooted at one time, or rooted and stored for concurrent, or
sequential planting. It has been found that cuttings of chrysanthemum root more rapidly
after storage than those collected directly from the plant straight. Similarly, roots of plants
like gypsophila can be cool stored until planting conditions are suitable. Bud wood of roses
can be stored until the rootstocks are ready for budding. In general all this material must be
stored at 0.5 -1.0°C as the metabolic activity must be reduced to a minimum. The dormant
roots require adequate chilling for satisfactory subsequent growth and flowering. Storing
sometimes in cool chamber improves rooting and sprouting of bulbs and cuttings.
4. Controlling bulb Dowering
Under specific crops, such as iris, narcissus tulip etc. the methods of preparing the
bulbs to advance the flowering etc. are given. In all cases these are carried out soon after
the harvesting of bulbs in midsummer and involves their dry storage at relatively low
temperatures for a specific period to advance flowering. The temperature and the specific
period of storage required for each plant is different. One has to know it for each flower.
5. Restriction to Doral material
Along with flowers, foliage or planting material fruits or vegetables should never be
stored. Because, when near maturity and particularly when over mature, fruits, will produce
ethylene which greatly hastens the senescence or death of cut flowers. Carnations are
susceptible to even very low levels of (one part per billion) of ethylene, while ripe products
can develop bacterial or fungal moulds. In fact, the high humidity maintained in a cool store
is conducive to the development of this fungus. Pay great attention to cleanliness. Fallen
leaves, over mature stems and broken flower heads must be regularly removed, so that the
stored products remain fresh and free of infection.
 When infected material is found it should be destroyed. The store should be
disinfected with a two per cent solution of formaldehyde and aired until the fumes have
dispersed. Alternative sources of ethylene are internal combustion fumes . from petrol or
diesel engines, and also rubbish fires, especially if polyethylene (polythene) film is burnt
near the store.
V. Construction of a Cool Store
It is essential that flowers are cooled at a low temperature and kept without being
damaged by drying out. A few flowers such as daffodils, tulips or gladioli can be stored out
of water for 24 hours (dry storage) and will recover; but most are better kept in water,
preferably in nutritive solutions. However, when packed, flowers can be satisfactorily stored
for at least two days as their bulk transpiration limits desiccation. When carrying out long
term storage of packed foliage it is essential that the material be completely enclosed in
thinner polythene film, in order to retain moisture around the leaves. In fact there is usually
a moisture film on the polythene, and even the foliage, when it is in store and until it is
unpacked. Recently several 0-:01 storage systems have been designed which maintain a
very high humidity which reduces the moisture loss from the produce.
Cool storage equipment comprises of two major types: (1) an insulated structure to
maintain an even temperature, and the machinery to cool the plant material and to keep it
at a low temperature.

1. Structure
Cool stores are best constructed within another building in order to minimize
temperature change by external air movement. Prefabricated panels surfaced with laminates
and filled with an inner core of insulating material may be used to build the store. Any non
conducting or poorly conducting material can be used for construction of the store.
The temperature loss occur through the floor and the ceiling. Normally the floor is
concrete, and this is insulated from the ground itself, using a polythene sheet. The doors
must fit tightly, as they act both as a temperature and pressure seal. The compressor unit is
sometimes mounted on the roof of the store. If so the roof must be strong enough to
support the compressor unit. If fitted on the roof the unit should be supported on a separate
frame, so that it can be serviced, and even removed without affecting the store itself. The
slight movement of working machinery can also affect the air and vapour seals of the store
itself. It is better, if the unit is fixed i at the ground level adjacent to the store.
Flowers that have large bulk but low weight neither retain nor generate as much
heat as others produce. They can be cooled slowly and will remain at a low temperature
without a great energy input. Never allow a blast of cold air to blow over flowers and
foliage, due to the desiccating effect. Ensure a large evaporating surface and an adequately
powered compressor unit for the cool chamber. An air movement not exceeding 0.5 meters
per second is recommended in the cool chamber.

2. Interior design
 The interior of the store must be designed for easy access, fast loading and
unloading of the flowers, whether packed or unpacked Most small type of stores have a
central alley with shelves on both sides. Frequently, buckets of flowers have to be lifted onto
these shelves. An alternative to this is to have fixed shelves on one side, and removable
shelves on the other, so that the buckets can be placed on the floor on trolleys rolled in and
the packed boxes placed on the shelves.
The doors of small cool stores usually open outwards and are situated above the
external floor level. Consequently, anyone entering the store must step up and wheeled
transport is inhibited If possible, access should be made for trolleys to load it from the store.
So the floor of the store should be in level with the sill and a slight ramp should slope
towards the outside floor for safety purposes, so that people do not trip over it In larger
walk-in stores, the floors of both store and packing area are at the same level and the base
of the door runs along the floor. The construction of cool chambers can be done in many
ways depending on bearing local factors. One. has to spend time to decide on a plan that
what is suitable for his own place and enterprise. It is advisable to include provision for
future expansion. Whatever be the design create a suitable congenial temperature and
humidity inside the cool chamber.

VI. Indigenous Cool Store

The main feature of a cool store is to maintain a temperature around 10°C to
preserve the freshness of flowers for few days before they are being marketed. At the same
time sufficient humidity and oxygen content, and aeration also has to be maintained in the
cool store at optimum level. This can be achieved to a great extend in an indigenously
fabricated cool store also.
The cool store is similar to that of the cool chamber constructed for village level
holding of vegetable and fruits. The basic principles in the construction of cool chamber/
store is to make a room with bricks jointed with cement The roof is made of concrete and
strong so that one or two layers of bricks can be placed on the roof. It is also made leak
proof. The whole room is constructed under a shed or shade. The first step is to cut off
direct sunlight falling on the cool chamber. That reduces the temperature drastically. Next
some sort of additional cooling device is fixed. The room should have facilities for
ventillation at the top of the walls and aeration at the bottom. These consists of small
openings (gaps between bricks) which can be closed, or partially open as per need. The
walls and the roof of this room is maintained in wet condition by sprinkling water on the roof
which will flow down through the wall to a channel running around at the base of the wall.
The channel leads into a small tank into which water is collected. Using half a horse power
motor pump and perforated hose pipes fixed on the top of the roof water from this tank can
be pumped up and sprinkled on the roof. The sprinkled water flows down from the roof
through the walls to the tank. With a regulated steady water flow and air we can reduce the
temperature down to 10-150 centigrade.
To facilitate air flow an inlet fan at the bottom and exhaust fan at the top can be
fitted. The incoming air can be cooled first by making. It pass through a wet honey combed
back wall arranged in the honey comb structure. This honey combed wall can be built by
the side of the room. The honey combed structure can be increased and zig-zaging so that
for the air to pass through the wet bricks, takes more time and gets more? cooled. By this
double cooling effect happens. Further cooling is possible by placing ice slabs inside the
chamber at strategic 4 places. Keep the ice slabs at lower level if air circulation is
maintained from bottom to upwards. But if the air circulation is cut off or reduced to the
minimum then keep the slabs at higher levels. The cool air settles downward. The water
dripping from the ice slabs and from sprinkling should be diverted to the channel leading to
the water tank mentioned already. The cool air comes down while the hot air goes up. More
details about the construction should be planned in details depending on the situation of the
place and the resources available. What is given here is only the fundamentals of the
construction of indigenous cool chamber. The shelf arrangements inside the room could be
the same way as in any cool chamber. For the shade any perennial creeper can be grown
over a pandal above the cool chamber.

VII. Accessory Units

Besides the storage and working areas for flower cut flower holding may require
some accessory units like (1) pesticides (sprays for pest and disease control, (2) herbicides,
(3) machinery, (4 ) fertilizers, (materials for weed control), (5) general equipments such as
stakes, wire, hand tools, wet weather clothing etc. and the washing and cleaning place.

I. Pesticides
Pesticides may be fungicides, bactericides or insecticides used in flower cultivation
and storage. It is essential that pesticides are stored in locked cupboards, and that there are
washing facilities immediately available. Protective clothing is also essential. Suitable
measuring and weighing equipments, clearly marked for liquid measures and an accurate
weighing machines should be part of the store and packing units. Such instruments should
not be used for measuring or weighing any other thing.
The pesticide store, and the bench where the material is placed, must be well lit as
spraying is often carried out in the early morning or in the evening when there is less wind.
While applying the therapeutants protective measures like gloves, masks, over coats etc.
should be used. Chemical should not come into contact with body.
They should be stored separately from other chemicals like weedicides, fertilizers,
etc. The sprayers and other equipments used for different type of chemicals. A true storage
for pesticides will have dressing room, sprayer and equipment room, actual storage room for
pesticides and preparation room. Room need not be actual room but just a facility.

2. Herbicides
Herbicides or weedicides must be stored separately from therapeutants, preferably in
a completely different area so the two can not be confused. Generally, herbicides are less
toxic to mammals than many therapeutants so need not be locked away. They should,
however, be kept out of the reach of children, while paraquat having high mamalian toxicity,
should certainly be locked away. The measuring equipment used for herbicides must be
entirely separate from that used for therapeutants, so that no contamination occurs.
Herbicide room also should have dressing place, equipment place, storage and preparation
place. Same equipments and protective clothes should not be used for pesticide and
weedicides application. However what is possible and actual done depends on the owner.

3. Machinery storage
All machines and tools must be kept safe. Any tool, whether plough, hoe or
secateurs, will soon rust and deteriorate if left exposed to the weather. After use, any
working parts such as those found in rotary hoes or mower blades fertilizer distributors or
even hand tools, should be washed and cleaned well before being placed in store. After
being washed they are greased and prepared for further use. Even when a machine has not
completed a job and will be used the following day, it should be cleaned and covered for
overnight storage. Preferably, one person on the property should be made responsible for
the care, maintenance and repair of machinery.
It is essential to hold spares of small, easily replaced parts such as spark plugs,
filters, spray tap washers, nozzles, etc. When a spray nozzle blocks it is quicker, easier and
safer to replace the nozzle and clear it at leisure, rather than try to do this in the field with
the possibility of losing an essential part and getting covered with spray material.
The type and number of mechanic's tools a grower accumulates will depend on the
quantity and regularity of machinery use, the finance available and the grower's technical
ability. A simple well-lit work bench fitted with an engineer's vice, and a range of hand tools
will often serve as a small workshop. Small spares can be held in glass or clear plastic jars
labelled with the part name, size and manufacturer's part number. Penetrating oil in aerosol
form makes many jobs a great deal easier. Machinery manual placed in a plastic bag should
be held in the drawer of the work bench.
On many smaller holdings, it is better to hire agricultural contractors for occational
work such as ploughing or even fencing and invest money in machinery such as sprayers,
rotary hoes or mowers which will be used repeatedly and must be immediately available
when required. Every holding should have at least one knapsack sprayer, with different
complete nozzles, so that small outbreaks of pest and diseases can be dealt with as soon as
identified, and so that weeds around buildings and plantings can be readily cleared

4. Fertilizers
There should be a separate store for fertilizers because they are chemicals and can
react with other agro chemicals like pesticides weedicides etc. Some fertilizers get spoiled
under humid conditions while others may corode the cement floor or degenerate in the
course of time.

5. General equipments
It is highly advisable to have a separate storing place for the general type of
equipments such as spades, pick axe, rakes, hoe, khurpi, baskets, cutting knifes, hand sows,
hammer, etc. Well kept equipments last long and working with them will be easier.
6. Washing and cleaning
The washing and cleaning of pesticide, weedicide equipments and protective
clothings should not be done in a common place. Otherwise it can create serious health
problems to human beings as well as animals. The empty containers of pesticides and
weedicides should be burned and burried safely.

VIII. Bulb Storage

Many important outdoor flower crops (narcissi gladioli, etc) and some glass house
flowers such as freesias are produced from storage organs, called bulbs or corms. Apart
from anemones -which are usually discarded at the end of the crop the bulbs or corns are
lifted, cleaned sorted, stored and replanted after one or more years. An area under cover is
essential for the effective handling of dry bulbs. There are three separate activities in bulb
handling:
1. cleaning, grading and discarding unhealthy stock,
2. dipping in, or dusting with, insecticides and fungicides and possibly also hot water
treatment, and
3. storage of bulbs from the field, storage of graded bulbs, and packing those which are to
be sold.
The bulbs need fresh air and oxygen supply to keep itself alive. Hence the actual
storage area needs to be well ventilated. Most commonly grown flower bulbs require a dry
atmosphere and a temperature below 200 centigrade for storage. Often, a simple structure
will be sufficient. Store should be semi dark and cool but with lot of air circulation. Bulbs are
usually stored on fixed racks or in special bulb trays. The bulbs are better stored in dry sand
placed in trays. The sand provides good micro climate for storing the bulbs. Humidity should
be very low.
The storage area due to high circulation of air may be too draughty and
uncomfortable for people handling bulbs, particularly gladioli in the autumn. For carrying
.out various operations. It is better to have a separate well lit area with good seating
arrangements and convenient washing facilities. The floor should be hard and dry so that it
can be regularly swept clean easily. The bulb handling is a dusty work due to the dry soil,
dried roots, foliage or bulb scales which accumulate in the sorting area. This requires the
regular removal of debris which should be discarded well away from both storage and
growing areas. The removal of debris is an important hygienic practice since many diseases
such as basal rot (Fusarium oxysporum Fnarcissl) in narcissus, stem and bulb eel worm,
(Ditylenchus dipsacl) in many bulbs, and botrytis of gladiolus (Bottrytis gladiolorum) persist
in the debris, and on discarded infected plant material.
In the case of large amount of storage, specific bulb cleaning and grading equipment
are used. Before deciding on which equipment to use, a visit to the efficiently run
Horticultural centres is highly recommended. This is very useful from the financial and an
organizational point of view. The installation of a machine frequently requires modifications
of an already established routine. A machine is employed in such a manner that it fits into a
pattern of further purchases and developments; expansion takes place in an orderly
manner.

IX. Other Facilities

In addition to the care and attention given to crops and equipment, adequate
facilities must be provided to the workers. Work has to be carries out in all types of weather
conditions and often under difficult conditions and at odd (night) times. Horticultural
workers are unusually loyal and tolerate conditions under which industrial operators would
refuse to work, or would report their grievances to a trade union. However one should not
exploit their good will and tolerant nature.
Where ever, staff are employed in a commercial cut flower storage, there should be
a clean toilet provided running water (warm water in winter) and hand drying facilities.
Provide canteen facilities for taking refreshments and meals. cleanliness in all these places is
very important.
A further room or a place is needed for cleaning and storing water proof and
protective clothing and rubber boots and should have a provision for the changing of
clothing, etc.
A separate office may be planned for firms which have many florist customers.
However, a specific area should be allocated for the preparation of dispatch notes and
invoices. Where appropriate, this area should be separate from the general accounting
section. The number and kind of facilities required depends on the volume of the transaction
and the area coverage. Greater the volume of transaction and wider the coverage more will
be the labourers and the hours of work. Correspondingly we need to create the facilities.

%%%%%%%%%%%
 TABLE 403.3
REQUIRED OUTDOOR VENTILATION AIR

ESTIMATED
MAXIMUM
OCCUPANT LOAD, OUTDOOR AIR [Cubic
PERSONS PER feet per minute (cfm)
OCCUPANCY 1,000 SQUARE per person] UNLESS
CLASSIFICATION FEETa NOTEDe

Correctional facilities
Cells
without plumbing fixtures 20 20
with plumbing fixturesg, h 20 20
Dining halls 100 15
Guard stations 40 15

Dry cleaners, laundries

Coin-operated dry cleaner 20 15
Coin-operated laundries 20 15
Commercial dry cleaner 30 30
Commercial laundry 10 25
Storage, pick up 30 35

Education
Auditoriums 150 15
Classrooms 50 15
Corridors - 0.10 cfm/ft2
Laboratories 30 20
Libraries 20 15
Locker roomsh - 0.50 cfm/ft2
Music rooms 50 15
Smoking loungesb,g 70 60
Training shops 30 20

Food and beverage service

Bars, cocktail lounges 100 30
Cafeteria, fast food 100 20
Dining rooms 70 20
Kitchens (cooking)f,g 20 15

Hospitals, nursing and

convalescent homes
Autopsy roomsb - 0.50 cfm/ft2
Medical procedure rooms 20 15
Operating rooms 20 30
Patient rooms 10 25
Physical therapy 20 15
Recovery and ICU 20 15

Hotels, motels, resorts and

dormitories 120 15
Assembly rooms - 35
Bathroomsg, h - 30 cfm per room
Bedrooms 50 20
Conference rooms 20 15
Dormitory sleeping areas 120 30
Gambling casinos - 30 cfm per room
Living rooms 30 15
Lobbies

Offices
Conference rooms 50 20
Office spaces 7 20
Reception areas 60 15
Telecommunication centers
and data entry 60 20

(continued)

TABLE 403.3-continued REQUIRED OUTDOOR VENTILATION AIR

ESTIMATED
MAXIMUM
OCCUPANT LOAD, OUTDOOR AIR (Cubic
PERSONS PER feet per minute (cfm)
OCCUPANCY 1,000 SQUARE per person)
CLASSIFICATION FEETa UNLESS NOTEDe

Private dwellings, single

and multiple

Garages, common for - 1.5 cfm/ft2

multiple unitsb
Garages, separate for - 100 cfm per car
each dwelling

Kitchensg - 100 cfm intermittent or 25

cfm continuous

Living areasc Based upon number 0.35 air changes per houra
of bedrooms. first or 15 cfm per person,
bedroom: 2; each whichever is greater
additional bedroom:
1

Toilet rooms and - Mechanical exhaust capacity

bathroomsg, h of 50 cfm intermittent or 20
cfm continuous

Public spaces
Corridors and utilities - 0.05 cfm/ft2
Elevator carg - 1.00 cfm/ft2
Locker roomsh 0.5 cfm/ft2
Shower rooms 50 cfm
(per shower head)g,h intermittent or 20
cfm continuous
Smoking loungesb,g 70 60
Toilet roomsg,h 50cfm per water
closet or urinal

Retail stores, sales floors

and 0.30 cfm/ft2
showroom floors - 0.20 cfm/ft2
Basement and street - 0.20 cfm/ft2
Dressing rooms - 0.15 cfm/ft2
Malls and arcades - 60
Shipping and receiving 70 0.15 cfm/ft2
Smoking loungesb - 0.20 cfm/ft2
Storage rooms - 0.05 cfm/ft2
Upper floors -
Warehouses

Specialty shops 1.5 cfm/ft2

Automotive motor- fuel- - 15
dispensing stations 25 25
Barber 25 0.30 cfm/ft2
Beauty - 2.0 cfm/ft2
Clothiers, furniture 15
Embalming roomb 8 15
Florists 8
Hardware, drugs, fabrics

(continued)

TABLE 403.3-continued REQUIRED OUTDOOR VENTILATION AIR

ESTIMATED
MAXIMUM
OCCUPANT LOAD, OUTDOOR AIR (Cubic
PERSONS PER feet per minute (cfm)
OCCUPANCY 1,000 SQUARE per person)
CLASSIFICATION FEETa UNLESS NOTEDe

Specialty shops-continued

- 50 cfm intermittent or 20
cfm continuous per station
Nail salonb, i

Pet Shops - 1.00 cfm/ft2

Reducing salons 20 15

Supermarkets 8 15

Sports and amusement

Ballrooms and discos 100 25
Bowling alleys (seating areas) 70 25
Game rooms 70 25
Ice arenas - 0.50 cfm/ft2
Playing floors (gymnasiums) 30 20
Spectator areas 150 15
Swimming pools (pool and
deck - 0.50 cfm/ft2
area)

Storage
Repair garages, enclosed - 1.5 cfm/ft2
parking garagesd - 0.05 cfm/ft2
 Warehouses

Theaters
Auditoriums 150 15
Lobbies 150 20
Stages, studios 70 15
Ticket booths 60 20

Transportation
Platforms 100 15
Vehicles 150 15
Waiting rooms 100 15

Workrooms
Bank vaults 5 15
Darkrooms - 0.50 cfm/ft2
Duplicating, printing - 0.50 cfm/ft2
Meat processingc 10 15
Pharmacy 20 15
Photo studios 10 15

For SI: 1 cubic foot per minute = 0.0004719m3/s, 1 ton = 908 kg, 1 cubic foot per minute
per square foot = 0.00508m3/(s m2), °C = [(°F) -32]/1.8, 1 square foot = 0.0929m2.
a. Based upon net floor area.
b. Mechanical exhaust required and the recirculation of air from such spaces as permitted by
Section 403.2.1 is prohibited (see Section 403.2.1, Items 1 and 3).
c. Spaces unheated or maintained below 50°F are not covered by these requirements unless
the occupancy is continuous.
d. Ventilation systems in enclosed parking garages shall comply with Section 404.
e. Where the ventilation rate is expressed in cfm/ft2, such rate is based upon cubic feet per
minute per square foot of the floor area being ventilated.
f. The sum of the outdoor and transfer air from adjacent spaces shall be sufficient to provide
an exhaust rate of not less than 1.5 cfm/ft2.
g. Transfer air permitted in accordance with Section 403.2.2.
h. Mechanical exhaust is required and recirculation is prohibited except that recirculation
shall be permitted where the resulting supply air stream consists of not more than 10
percent air recirculated from these spaces (see Section 403.2.1, Items 2 and 4).
i. The required exhaust system shall capture the contaminants and odors at their source.
Harvesting and Handling Cut Flowers

Many farmers and gardeners grow cut flowers for retail garden centers, roadside stands,
farmers markets and farm shares in Massachusetts. Proper harvesting and care of flowers
after harvest are important to maximize the vase life and ensure a high quality product. Below
are some tips for proper harvest and care of cut flowers.
Maximizing the vase life of cut flowers is dependent on pre-harvest procedures too. Long
before harvest, plant cultivar selection should be considered for postharvest longevity to
provide the best possible cultivars for cutting.
The weather conditions and plant environment also affects the postharvest longevity. For
example, heavy rainfall can splash soil onto plant stems causing a greater risk for microbial
contamination and blocked stems after harvest. It is also important that plants are not water-
stress prior to harvesting flowers. Plants should be healthy and properly watered before
cutting flowers so that the cell walls are turgid.
Flower Maturity Stage to Harvest
It is important to know the optimum stage of harvesting for each plant species to ensure the
quality of flowers after harvest. For maximum vase life of cut flowers, harvest flowers daily
at their proper stage of development. Harvesting too early or too late significantly reduces the
vase life of the flowers. If harvested after the optimum stage, the developing flowers use the
carbohydrates that will be used for the development of smaller flower buds, thus, slowing
down the growth of other flowers.
Each plant species has a minimum harvest maturity stage in which flowers can be harvested
without affecting their postharvest quality. Flowers of some plant species can be harvested at
the bud stage with no reduction in quality and vase life. For other plant species, disorders
such as bent neck, improper development of pigmentation, or abnormal opening of the buds
can result when flowers are harvested when they are too immature. If flowers are to be stored
or shipped long distances, then they are usually harvested at an earlier stage.
General guidelines for harvesting:

 Spike type flowers: Harvest when one-fourth to one-half of the individual florets are
open.
 Daisy type flowers: Harvest when fully open.

A chart containing a list of commonly grown cut flowers and optimal development stage is
available from the fact sheet “The Care and Handling of Cut Flowers (link is external)”,
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension.
Prior to Harvest
Prior to harvesting:

 Plants should be healthy and turgid.

 White plastic buckets and cutting tools (knives or shears) should be cleaned and
sanitized. Avoid stacking buckets if the outside is not as clean as the inside.
 Cutting tools should be sharp. Dull cutting tools can result in crushed stems that
reduces water uptake.

Buckets should be cleaned and disinfected regularly. Dirt harbors bacteria which clogs the
stems of cut flowers. Wash buckets thoroughly using a low-suds biodegradable detergent,
rinse in clean water, and give a final rinse with a solution containing 1 ml (0.2 tsp) Clorox
(5% hypochlorite) per liter (about a quart) of water, preferably every time the bucket is used.
Note that dirt can be easily seen in white buckets vs dark colored buckets.

 All buckets for harvesting should contain clean water.

Many growers also add a biocide to the water. Biocides are chemicals that prevent the growth
of bacteria, yeasts fungi and other microorganisms and are commercially available.
Microorganisms and the substances that they produce can plug the xylem (water conducting
tissue) of the plant, thus blocking the uptake of water. Researchers have shown that there is a
strong inverse relationship between the number of microbes in the water and the Iongevity of
cut flowers.
Common biocides are calcium or sodium hypochlorite (bleach), aluminium sulphate, and
salts of 8-ydroxyquinoline. Regular household bleach is very short-lived (+/- 4 hours)
compared to commercially available slow-release chlorine tablets (about 2-3 days). Many
growers use slow release chlorine tablets (Dichloro-s-Triazinetrione Hydrated) in the water at
time of harvest. It is important to follow the company‟s recommendation for the correct
dilution rate of the biocide for the specific flowers.
In addition to biocides, the pH of the water should be acidified to 3.0 – 5.5 as researchers
have demonstrated that flowers absorb more water in acidic solutions than those at higher pH
levels. Chemicals such as citric acid, 8- hydroxyquinoline citrate, or aluminum sulfate are
generally used to lower the pH of the water. The amount of chemical needed will depend on
the alkalinity of the water. Alkalinity is a measurement of the amount of calcium and
magnesium carbonates in the water. Water with high alkalinity is highly buffered and will
require more chemicals to lower the pH. The pH and the alkalinity of the water source should
be analyzed to determine the proper amount of chemical needed to lower the pH to the
desirable level. Water testing can be done through a public or private laboratory. High levels
of sodium (Na), fluoride (F) or sulfate (SO4) can be toxic. Avoid using chemical water
softeners in any stage of cut flower storage.
Companies that sell biocides, acidifiers and preservatives for fresh cut flowers include:
Chrysal: https://www.chrysal.com/en-us (link is external)
Floralife: https://www.floralife.com/en (link is external)
Organic Flower Post Harvest Care
Biocides and preservatives are generally not approved for certified organic production.
Organic growers are advised to check with their certifying agent. It is important that certified
organic flower growers practice excellent sanitation and harvest at the proper stage of
development to ensure maximum vase life for flowers.
Harvesting

 Harvest in the morning or evening.

 Remove foliage on stems that will be below water.
 Slant cuts will keep stems from lying flat on the bucket bottom and increase water
uptake.
 Never lay flowers on the ground or dirty surface.
 Disinfect cutting tools frequently, or at least 2 times each day.
 Grade and bunch flowers immediately after harvest.
 Bring flowers into the shade and place in clean buckets of clean warm water
(acidified) and a biocide.
 Avoid over-filing containers with flowers

Flowers should be harvested in the morning (after dew has dried) or evening, not during the
heat of the day. Ideally, flowers should be harvested in the morning when temperatures are
low and plant water content is high. Make cuts to the plant to obtain long, sturdy stems.
Remove the foliage on the stems that will be below the water which will decay and encourage
bacterial growth. Some flowers such as sunflowers benefit from removal of most or all of
their foliage. Also, for some flowers, side shoots on the main stem are often removed at the
time of harvest. Stems can be cut on a slant or straight (square). Slant cuts will keep stems
from lying flat on the bucket bottom and increase water uptake.
Flowers are often graded and bunched immediately after harvest and before placing them in
water. This practice reduces handling steps and minimizes mechanical damages that often
occur on the flowers and leaves. If grading and bunching cannot be done immediately, then
flowers should be placed in clean buckets containing clean warm water (acidified) and a
biocide. Warm, acidic water reduces air bubbles. Avoid over-filling the containers with
flowers to prevent bruising and tangling. The depth of the water in the buckets should be
deep enough to cover the bottoms of the stems, usually 1-6 inches depending on the size of
the stems and buckets.
During harvest, some growers place buckets at the end of the rows where they place flowers
as they cut. Flowers should never be placed directly on the ground or laid on dirty surfaces
where they can collect dirt and contaminate the stems and buckets. Flowers and foliage stems
should always be kept clean. In addition to clean buckets, cutting tools should be regularly
disinfected. Some growers place a bucket containing disinfectant solution and clippers at the
end of the row to encourage harvesters to easily exchange used tools for clean ones as they
finish a row.
It is best to harvest small quantities at time and bring them into a cool area and place them
into the prepared buckets. Buckets placed under portable tents or patio umbrellas work well
to create shady areas and reduce heat in the field. A shady area lowers the temperature,
reduces water loss and respiration rate of the flowers, and therefore increases the postharvest
life and quality of the flowers.
After Harvest Care

 Move flowers to a cool area.

 Recut stems under water.
 Place flower in solutions depending on the need of the flowers.

After harvesting, flowers are then moved to a cool area where stems can be recut and placed
in solutions depending on the specific need of the flowers. Once harvested, flowers continue
to transpire and will wilt rapidly. Most flowers will fully recover from wilting if recut and
placed in a warm, rehydration solution. Stems are recut by removing about an inch of the end
of stems under water prior to placing them in their solution. This helps prevent air bubbles in
the water conducting tissue. Air bubbles reduce the uptake of solutions.
Always treat flowers before they are sleeved to hasten uptake into the stem.
Importance of Cool Temperatures and High Relative Humidity
Proper temperature management is an important factor for maintaining the quality and vase
life of cut flowers. As storage temperatures increase, respiration and water loss increases and
wilting occurs. It is important to cool harvested flowers to remove field heat.
For convenience only, flowers to be sold on that same day can be placed outdoors. Those
intended for market at another time should be moved to a cooler as soon as possible with
temperatures as close to 33F (most flowers), 41-43F (some flowers such as zinnias and
gerberas) or 50F (chilling sensitive flowers) in order to best preserve quality. The best
practice is to harvest flowers at their optimum stage and store them at the lowest possible
temperature you can provide without causing freezing or chilling injury.
 For sales in retail garden centers and farm stands, all handling and sales should be
conducted in a shady area (as cool as possible).

Generally, the lower the temperatures, the longer the flowers last. Most flowers will retain
their quality if stored at temperatures near the freezing point (33F). Others, such as those
originating from subtropical and tropical regions, develop chilling injury if stored at
temperatures below 50F. Symptoms vary depending on plant species and may include
darkening or water-soaking of the petals and death of flowers. Flowers such as anthurium,
bird-of-paradise, heliconia, certain orchids, as well as others that are susceptible to chilling
injury are best stored at temperatures above 50F.
Relative Humidity is another factor that affects uptake of solution. There were several
recommendations in the literature for suggested relative humidity ranging from 75% to 99%.
High relative humidity reduces transpiration and keeps flowers from drying out.
Water Quality, Hydrating Solutions
Buckets and water used for cut flowers should be clean, buckets disinfected regularly and
biocides (unless organic) be added to the solution. Replace the solution often to avoid
allowing the solution to become cloudy, which indicates of the presence of high counts of
microbes. Dirty water contains bacteria that will prevent uptake of water.
Another important factor is the specific ions contained in the water. Water quality that is
good for human consumption may not be good for cut flowers. For example, fluoride in
fluoridated municipal water is very toxic to flowers such as gerbera, gladiolus, and freesia
and significantly reduces the vase life of these flowers. Water softeners and water containing
high levels of sodium and iron are also toxic to some flowers and should not be used.
Supplying Food
Once harvested, cut flowers are typically placed in a low light or dark environment where
photosynthesis is at a minimum. Photosynthesis is a biological process forming
carbohydrates (from CO, and H2O in the presence of light), and carbohydrates are needed for
the cut flowers to continue to develop. Much of the carbohydrates needed come from starch
and sugars stored in the stem, leaves, and petals but the levels may not be adequate.
In addition to clean, acidified water with a biocide, a continuous supply of food (sugars) is
needed by some flowers for maximum postharvest life of the cut flowers. Water and the
addition of preservatives to the solution will result in the best performance of many flowers.
Numerous brands and mixtures of floral preservatives and flower care products are
commercially available and each is formulated for a different purpose. The basic types of
flower care products include:

 Hydration solutions
 Holding Solutions
 Anti-ethylene treatments
 Specialized care solutions

Hydrating solutions: After harvest, hydrating solutions are used to facilitate water uptake
and restore the turgor of wilted flowers. Hydrating solutions are usually warm water (110F)
with a biocide (such as slow release chlorine tablets), acidified to pH 3.5 to 5.0 with citric
acid and include a wetting agent. Hydrating solutions are used immediately after harvest and
are usually used for a short time, for example four hours. Some growers use hydrating
solutions in the field to help prevent flowers from wilting and to restore wilted flowers.
Examples of wilt sensitive flowers include veronica, asters and zinnias.
Holding solutions: In addition to a biocide and acidified water, holding solutions also
contain a carbohydrate source (sugar) to encourage bud opening and flower longevity.
Holding solutions are usually used after the hydrating solution for several hours for up to two
days.
Depending on the intended use of the preservative, the concentration of each ingredient may
vary. For example, a preservative formulated for hard water will contain more citric acid or
other acidifiers than the general purpose formula. Many, but not all cut flowers benefit from a
solution containing 1 to 2% of sugars and a dilute biocide.
Vase solutions: (also call flower preservatives) often contain higher concentrations of
carbohydrates than holding solutions and are used by the consumer.

 If no commercial preservative is added to the water, it is at least necessary to use

clean buckets and clean water.

The next level of improving postharvest care would be to include a biocide such as a solution
of 50 ppm bleach (mix three quarter teaspoon of bleach to 1 gallon of water) or preferable
slow release chlorine tablets and an acidifier to acidify the water to pH 3.5 to 5.0. Always test
the solution on a few stems before placing all flowers in the bleach solution, as some species
develop phytotoxicity from the treatment.
Examples of Flowers in Postharvest Solutions
Flowers vary in their need for postharvest solutions. For example research at North Carolina
State University (NCSU) showed that Eucomois „Sparkling Burgandy‟ had the longest vase
life, up to 43 days in just plain water. The vase life was reduced to 34 days when using
holding preservatives; and the use of hydration solution resulted in a reduced vase life of 19
days; and the use of both hydration and holding solutions resulted in the shortest vase life of
11 days.
Of 14 cultivars of sunflowers tested, most had a vase life using floral preservatives of 8-11
days. The cultivars „Sunny‟, „Terra Cotta‟ and „Sunbright‟ lasted 14 days. Sunflowers
„Solara‟, Sunrich Orange‟ and „Premium Lemon‟ had vase lifes of 10-12 days when stems
were first placed in hydrating solution, then holding solution.
The vase life for Hydrangea „Limelight‟ averaged 11 days, minimum vase life was six days.
Treatments did not make a difference in the study.
Lysianthus „ABC Lavender‟ treated with both hydrator and holding solution had the longest
vase life of 14-16 days and shortest vase life occurred with stems treated only with water
(vase life 5 days) and seven days when a preservative was used.
Ethylene
Ethylene, an odorless and colorless gas, is a natural plant growth hormone that affects many
physiological processes ranging from seed germination to senescence of plants. Flowers
generate ethylene as part of the normal aging process. Ethlene is also produced by ripening
fruits and vegetables, exhaust fumes, industrial smoke, tobacco smoke and micro-organisms.
To maximize vase life of flowers, it is important avoid storing flowers with fruits and
vegetables.
Certain cut flowers are very sensitive to ethylene and very small amounts (levels as low as
twenty parts per billion) can be very harmful. This level of ethylene is common in
supermarkets and in the atmosphere of large cities. Responses to exogenous ethylene vary
with species, and include abscission, abnormal development of the flower buds, failure of the
buds to open and death of the flowers.

 Common ethylene sensitive flowers are delphinium, Asiatic lilies, snapdragons,

aconitum and sweet peas.

In addition to cut flowers, some cut herbs that are being used as cut flowers are also sensitive
to ethylene. Marjoram, mint, parsley and oregano showed leaf yellowing and leaf abscission
when exposed to ethylene while sage, thyme, basil and rosemary were minimally affected.
(Smith, 2015). It is thus important that flowers and greens used for cut flowers that are
sensitive to ethylene be handled in areas devoid of ethylene contamination.
Commercial treatment products to prevent the effects of ethylene by susceptible flowers
include silver thiosulfate (STS) and 1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP).
Flowers that respond to STS pulse treatments include aconitum, agapanthus, anemone,
alstromeria, asiatic lilies, astilbe, campanula, carnation, delphinium, dendrobium, eremerus,
freesia, gerbera, gladiolus, goldenrod, gypsophila, kniphofia, phlox, physostegia, roses,
scabiosa, snapdragon, stock, sweet pea, and sweet william (Prince and Tayama, 1988).
STS solutions require special care in disposal and STS is not registered for use in MA.
1-MCP is used as a gas and is registered for use in MA under the trade names Ethylbloc and
Ethylbloc Sachet (2016). See the product labels for more information.
Typically, accumulation of ethylene is minimal in well-ventilated areas, making these spaces
suitable for the handling of flowers. However, if flowers are handled in a closed environment,
then, it is important to minimize contamination.
Maintaining Straight Stems
Flower stems naturally bend away from gravity and this phenomenon is called geotropism.
Flowers such as gladiolus, snapdragon, gerbera, tulip, and anemone bend upward when
placed horizontally. This bending of the stem away from gravity results in curved stems when
they are later placed in a vertical position. These flowers should be handled upright whenever
possible.
Mechanical Damage
Mechanical damage to the leaves and flowers reduces the aesthetic value of the flowers and
bruised petals and leaves are more prone to infection with disease organisms and ethylene
production. The quality of cut flowers is best maintained with gentle and minimal handling.
Botrytis
Cut flowers are susceptible to the fungus disease botrytis, which will cause flowers to turn
black and decay. Botrytis has ranges of temperature and relative humidity that are necessary
for spore germination, infection and disease development. Spore germination and infection
depends on a film of moisture for 8 to 12 hours, relative humidity of 93% or greater, and
temperatures between 55-65F with colonization of plant tissues occurring at temperatures up
to 70F.
Management: Botrytis can be managed by proper environmental management. To prevent
botrytis, avoid harvesting and storing wet flowers. Also, avoid moving flowers directly from
cool to warm rooms which results in water droplets forming (condensation) on flowers,
leaves and stems. Maintain dry floors in areas where flowers are processed. Do not dump
buckets of water or hose down floors. Wet floors will increase relative humidity and increase
the risk for botrytis infection.
2016
References and Resources
Armitage, A. 1991. Know when to cut specialty cuts. Greenhouse Grower 9(3):80. (March).
Armitage A.M. and J.M. Laushman. 2003. Specialty Cut Flowers. Second Edition. Timber
Press.
Carlson A., C. Martins, J. Dole, I. McCall. 2014. Postharvest Treatment of Specialty Cut
Flowers. The Cut Flower Quarterly 27(1). (Winter, 2015)
Dole J.M. and M.A. Schnelle. The Care and Handling of Cut Flowers. Oklahoma
Cooperative Extension Service. Fact Sheet:
http://pods.dasnr.okstate.edu/docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-1115/HLA-6426web.pdf (link
is external)
Gast K. 1997. Postharvest Handling of Fresh Cut Flowers and Plant Material. Kansas State
University
https://ag.umass.edu/sites/agcenter/files/pdf-doc-ppt/mf2261.pdf
Han S.S. 1993 Handling Cut Flowers in Roadside Stands. Floral Notes 4.
Han, S.S. 1993. Basics of Handling Cut Flowers. Floral Notes 5:8-9.
Harvest Care Tips for 10 Heat Loving Summer Blooms (Grower's experience)
http://www.floretflowers.com/2015/07/harvest-care-tips-for-10-heat-loving-summer-blooms/
(link is external)
Nell T.A., R.T. Leonard, and A.J. Macnish 2006. Taking the Mystery out of Flower Care
Solutions. Florist Review Magazine.
https://www.floristsreview.com/main/june2006/featurestory.html (link is external)
Prince, T.A. and H.K. Tayama. 1988. Preservatives and fresh cut-flower longevity. Bull.
Ohio Flor. Assoc. 706:34.
Reid, M.S. Cut Flowers and Greens. University of California-Davis.
Schroeder, Kurt. 2006. The Cold Hard Facts. The Cut Flower Quarterly. 18(4):18.
Smith, Gay. 2015. Flower Trends Change Every Year, Kind of. The Cut Flower Quarterly.
27(4):10-11
Smith, Gay. 2005. Postharvest Success Depend on Preharvest Practices. The Cut Flower
Quarterly. 17(1): 45,47
Smith, Gay. 2006. Summer Flower Care. The Cut Flower Quarterly. 18(3): 16-17.
The Three C‟s - - A check list for Optimal Postharvest Handling of Cut Flowers and Foliage.
Nov. 1997. Perishables Handling Quarterly Issue No. 92 .
http://ucanr.edu/datastoreFiles/234-77.pdf (link is external)

Last Updated:
Aug 4, 2016
Topics:
Commercial Horticulture
Commercial Horticulture topics:
Crops
Flowers
Small-scale postharvest handling practices - A manual for horticultural crops -
3rd edition

Table of Contents

POSTHARVEST HORTICULTURE SERIES NO. 8 - March, 1995

Lisa Kitinoja and Adel A. Kader

DEPARTMENT OF POMOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA - DAVIS, CALIFORNIA

95616

© 1995 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA - DAVIS, CALIFORNIA

The copyright of this publication is vested in the UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA - DAVIS,

CALIFORNIA. Applications for permissions to reproduce this publication, in whole or in part,
by any method or process, should be addressed, with a statement of purpose and extend of
the reproduction desired, to UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA - DAVIS, CALIFORNIA.

This electronic document has been scanned using optical character recognition (OCR)
software and careful manual recorrection. Even if the quality of digitalisation is high, the FAO
declines all responsibility for any discrepancies that may exist between the present
document and its original printed version.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments

Introduction the manual

Postharvest handling steps for a typical commodity

Principal causes of postharvest losses and poor quality
Resources for quality assurance and export marketing

Section 1: Harvesting and preparation for market

Maturity standards
Harvesting practices
Harvesting containers
Harvesting tools
Field packing
Transport to the packinghouse

Section 2: Curing root, tuber and bulb crops

Field curing
Curing with heated air
Bulk systems for curing onions
Emergency curing

Section 3: Packinghouse operations

General operations
Dumping
Washing
Waxing
Sorting
Sizing
Fruit packing line

Section 4: Packing and packaging materials

Packing practices
Packing containers
Packaging practices
Labeling
Modularization of containers
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
Unit loads

Section 5: Decay and insect control

Chemical controls
Controlled/modified atmosphere treatments
Heat treatments

Section 6: Temperature and relative humidity control

Room cooling
Forced-air cooling
Hydro-cooling
Evaporative cooling
Night air ventilation
Chilling injury
Use of ice
Alternative methods of cooling
Increasing relative humidity

Section 7: Storage of horticultural crops

Recommended storage temperatures

Compatibility groups for storage of fruits, vegetables and floral crops
Storage practices
Storage structures
Dried and bulb crops
Root and tuber crops
Potatoes
Controlled atmosphere (C.A.) storage
Relative perishability and storage life of fresh horticultural crops

Section 8: Transportation of horticultural crops

Open vehicles
Refrigerated trailers
Stacking patterns/handstacked
Stacking patterns/pallet and slip sheet loads
Bracing the load

Section 9: Handling at destination

Unloading
Storage temperatures
Sorting/repacking
Ripening
Display

Section 10: Processing of horticultural crops

Processing equipment
Preparation for processing
Solar drying
Forced-air dehydrators
Oil-burning dehydrators
Electric dehydrators
Oven drying
Drying flowers
Extraction of essential oils from aromatic plants
Canning
Juicing
Other methods of processing

General references

Appendix A: Manufacturers and suppliers of postharvest technology materials and

equipment for small-scale horticultural handlers

Appendix B: Addresses, telephone and fax numbers of manufacturers and suppliers