Plato (/ˈ pleɪ toʊ/;[a][1] Greek: Πλάτων[a] Plátōn, pronounced [plá.

tɔː n] in Classical Attic; 428/427 or

424/423[b] – 348/347 BC) was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens,
the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the
development of philosophy, especially the Western tradition.[2] Unlike nearly all of his philosophical
contemporaries, Plato's entire work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years.[3] Others believe
that the oldest extant manuscript dates to around AD 895, 1100 years after Plato's death. This makes it difficult
to know exactly what Plato wrote.[4][5]

Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle, Plato laid the very foundations
of Western philosophy and science.[6] Alfred North Whitehead once noted: "the safest general
characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato."[7] In
addition to being a foundational figure for Western science, philosophy, and mathematics, Plato has also often
been cited as one of the founders of Western religion and spirituality.[8]

Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy. Plato appears to have been
the founder of Western political philosophy, with his Republic, and Laws among other dialogues, providing
some of the earliest extant treatments of political questions from a philosophical perspective. Plato's own most
decisive philosophical influences are usually thought to have been
Socrates, Parmenides, Heraclitus and Pythagoras, although few of his predecessors' works remain extant and
much of what we know about these figures today derives from Plato himself.[9]

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes Plato as "...one of the most dazzling writers in the Western
literary tradition and one of the most penetrating, wide-ranging, and influential authors in the history of
philosophy. ... He was not the first thinker or writer to whom the word “philosopher” should be applied. But he
was so self-conscious about how philosophy should be conceived, and what its scope and ambitions properly are,
and he so transformed the intellectual currents with which he grappled, that the subject of philosophy, as it is
often conceived—a rigorous and systematic examination of ethical, political, metaphysical,
and epistemologicalissues, armed with a distinctive method—can be called his invention. Few other authors in
the history of Western philosophy approximate him in depth and range: perhaps only Aristotle (who studied with
him), Aquinas and Kant would be generally agreed to be of the same rank."
Aristotle (/ˈ ærɪ ˌ stɒtəl/;[3] Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs, pronounced [aristotélɛː s]; 384–322 BC)[4] was
an ancient Greek philosopherand scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery
of Classical Greece. Along with Plato, Aristotle is considered the "Father of Western Philosophy", which inherited
almost its entire lexicon from his teachings, including problems and methods of inquiry, so influencing almost any form
of knowledge known to the modern world.

His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, whereafter Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian.[5] At
seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens[6] and remained there until the age of
thirty-seven (c. 347 BC). His writings cover many subjects – including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic,
ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, politics and government – and constitute
the first comprehensive system of Western philosophy. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request
of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC.[7]

Teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library
in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books, which were written
on papyrus scrolls.[8] The fact that Aristotle was a pupil of Plato contributed to his former views of Platonism, but,
following Plato's death, Aristotle immersed himself in empirical studies and shifted from Platonism
to empiricism.[9] He believed all peoples' concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception.
Aristotle's views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works.

Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late
Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the
Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations, such as on
the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works
contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal
logic.
In metaphysics, Aristotelianism profoundly influenced Jewish and Islamic philosophical and theological thought during
the Middle Ages and continues to influence Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and
the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim scholars, and has
been revered as "The First Teacher" (Arabic: ‫)المعلم األول‬.

His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of
Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant
treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"[10] – it is thought that only around a
third of his original output has survived.

Thomas Hobbes (/hɒbz/; 5 April 1588 – 4 December 1679), in some older texts Thomas Hobbes
of Malmesbury,[2] was an English philosopher who is considered one of the founders of
modern political philosophy.[3][4] Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book Leviathan, which
established the social contract theory that has served as the foundation for most later Western
political philosophy.[5] In addition to political philosophy, Hobbes also contributed to a diverse
array of other fields, including history, jurisprudence, geometry,
the physics of gases, theology, ethics, and general philosophy.

Though on rational grounds a champion of absolutism for the sovereign, Hobbes also developed
some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural
equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction
between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be
"representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law that
leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.[6] His understanding of
humans as being matter and motion, obeying the same physical laws as other matter and motion,
remains influential; and his account of human nature as self-interested cooperation, and of
political communities as being based upon a "social contract" remains one of the major topics of
political philosophy.
John Locke FRS (/lɒk/; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher and
physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and
commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism".[1][2][3] Considered one of the first of the
British empiricists, following the tradition of Sir Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social
contract theory. His work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political
philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, many Scottish
Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical
republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of
Independence.[4]
Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and
the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as David Hume, Rousseau,
and Immanuel Kant. Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness.
He postulated that, at birth, the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa. Contrary
to Cartesian philosophy based on pre-existing concepts, he maintained that we are born
without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived
from sense perception.[5] This is now known as empiricism. An example of Locke's belief in
empiricism can be seen in his quote, "whatever I write, as soon as I discover it not to be true, my
hand shall be the forwardest to throw it into the fire." This shows the ideology of science in his
observations in that something must be capable of being tested repeatedly and that nothing is
exempt from being disproven. Challenging the work of others, Locke is said to have established
the method of introspection, or observing the emotions and behaviours of one’s self.[6]
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (/ruː ˈ soʊ /;[1] French: [ʒ ɑɑʒ ak ʁ uso];
28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Francophone Genevan philosopher,
writer, and composer of the 18th century. His political
philosophy influenced the Enlightenment in France and across Europe,
as well as aspects of the French Revolution and the overall development
of modern political and educational thought.
Rousseau's novel Emile, or On Education is a treatise on the education
of the whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novelJulie, or the
New Heloise was of importance to the development of
pre-romanticism[2] and romanticism in fiction.[3] Rousseau's
autobiographical writings—his Confessions, which initiated the modern
autobiography, and his Reveries of a Solitary Walker—exemplified the
late 18th-century movement known as the Age of Sensibility, and
featured an increased focus on subjectivity and introspection that later
characterized modern writing. His Discourse on Inequality and The
Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought.
During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most
popular of the philosophes among members of the Jacobin Club. He
was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794, 16
years after his death.
Adam Smith FRSA (16 June 1723 NS (5 June 1723 OS) – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish
economist, philosopher and author as well as a moral philosopher, a pioneer of political
economy and a key figure during the Scottish Enlightenment era.[1] Smith is best known
for two classic works: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)
and The Theory of Moral Sentiments(1759). The former, usually abbreviated as The Wealth
of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics.[2]

Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford,
where he was one of the first students to benefit from scholarships set up by fellow
Scot, John Snell. After graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures
at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish
Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy and
during this time wrote and published The Theory of Moral Sentiments. In his later life, he
took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other
intellectual leaders of his day.

Smith laid the foundations of classical free market economic theory. The Wealth of
Nations was a precursor to the modern academic discipline of economics. In this and other
works, he developed the concept of division of labour and expounded upon how rational
self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity. Smith was controversial in his
own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirised by Tory writers in
the moralising tradition of William Hogarth and Jonathan Swift. In 2005, The Wealth of
Nations was named among the 100 Best Scottish Books of all time.[3] The minor
planet 12838 Adamsmith was named in his memory.[4]
David Ricardo (18 April 1772 – 11 September 1823) was a
British political economist, one of the most influential of
the classical economists along with Thomas Malthus, Karl
Marx, Adam Smith and James Mill.[2][3]
John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873) was a British philosopher, political economist and
civil servant. One of the most influential thinkers in the history of liberalism, he contributed
widely to social theory, political theory and political economy. Dubbed "the most influential
English-speaking philosopher of the nineteenth century",[6] Mill's conception of liberty justified
the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state and social control.[7]

Mill was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by his predecessor Jeremy
Bentham. He contributed to the investigation of scientific methodology, though his knowledge
of the topic was based on the writings of others, notably William Whewell, John
Herschel and Auguste Comte, and research carried out for Mill by Alexander Bain. Mill engaged
in written debate with Whewell.[8]

A member of the Liberal Party, he was also the first Member of Parliament to call for women's
suffrage.[9]

Karl Marx[6] (/mɑː rks/;[7] German: [ˈ kaɐɐl ˈ maɐɐks]; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a
German philosopher, economist, historian, political theorist, sociologist, journalist and revolutionary socialist.
Born in Trier to a middle-class family, Marx later studied political economy and Hegelian philosophy. As an adult, Marx
became stateless and spent much of his life in London, where he continued to develop his thought in collaboration with
German thinker Friedrich Engels and published various works. His two most well-known are the 1848 pamphlet The
Communist Manifesto and the three-volume Das Kapital. His work has since influenced subsequent intellectual, economic and
political history.

Marx's theories about society, economics and politics—collectively understood as Marxism—hold that human societies
develop through class struggle. In capitalism, this manifests itself in the conflict between the ruling classes (known as
the bourgeoisie) that control the means of production and working classes (known as the proletariat) that enable these
means by selling their labour power in return for wages.[8] Employing a critical approach known as historical materialism,
Marx predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its
self-destruction and replacement by a new system: socialism. For Marx, class antagonisms under capitalism, owing in part to its
instability and crisis-prone nature, would eventuate the working class' development of class consciousness, leading to their
conquest of political power and eventually the establishment of a classless, communist society constituted by a free
association of producers.[9] Marx actively pressed for its implementation, arguing that the working class should carry
out organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism and bring about socio-economic emancipation.[10]

Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and his work has been both lauded
and criticised.[11]His work in economics laid the basis for much of the current understanding of labour and its relation
to capital, and subsequent economic thought.[12][13][14][15] Many intellectuals, labour unions, artists and political parties
worldwide have been influenced by Marx's work, with many modifying or adapting his ideas. Marx is typically cited as one of
the principal architects of modern social science.[16][17]

Alfred Marshall (26 July 1842 – 13 July 1924) was one of the most
influential economists of his time. His book, Principles of Economics (1890),
was the dominant economic textbook in England for many years. It brings the
ideas of supply and demand, marginal utility, and costs of production into a
coherent whole. He is known as one of the founders of neoclassical
economics.[1]Although Marshall took economics to a more mathematically
rigorous level, he did not want mathematics to overshadow economics and
thus make economics irrelevant to the layman.
John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes[2] CB FBA (/keɪ nz/ KAYNZ; 5 June 1883 – 21 April 1946), was a British economist
whose ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of macroeconomics and the economic policies of governments.
He built on and greatly refined earlier work on the causes of business cycles, and was one of the most influential economists of
the 20th century and the founder of modern macroeconomics theory.[3][4][5][6] His ideas are the basis for the school of
thought known as Keynesian economics, and its various offshoots.

During the Great Depression of the 1930s, Keynes spearheaded a revolution in economic thinking, challenging the ideas
of neoclassical economics that held that free markets would, in the short to medium term, automatically provide full
employment, as long as workers were flexible in their wage demands. He instead argued that aggregate demand determined
the overall level of economic activity and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of
high unemployment. Keynes advocated the use of fiscal and monetary policies to mitigate the adverse effects of
economic recessions and depressions. Keynes's magnum opus, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, was
published in 1936.

The leading Western economies adopted Keynes's policy recommendations before the outbreak of World War II, and in the
two decades following Keynes's death in 1946, almost all capitalist governments had done so. Keynes's influence waned in the
1970s, partly as a result of the stagflation that plagued the Anglo-American economies during that decade, and partly because
of criticism of Keynesian policies by Milton Friedman and other monetarists.[7] He and other economists had disputed the
ability of government to regulate the business cycle favourably with fiscal policy.[8]

The advent of the global financial crisis of 2007–2008 caused a resurgence in Keynesian thought. Keynesian economics
provided the theoretical underpinning for economic policies undertaken in response to the crisis by President Barack
Obama of the United States, Prime Minister Gordon Brown of the United Kingdom, and other heads of governments.[9]

When Time magazine included Keynes among its Most Important People of the Century in 1999, it said that "his radical idea
that governments should spend money they don't have may have saved capitalism."[10] The Economist has described Keynes
as "Britain's most famous 20th-century economist."[11] In addition to being an economist, Keynes was also a civil servant, a
director of the Bank of England, and a part of the Bloomsbury Group of intellectuals.[12]