ADSR

Abbreviation for Attack, Decay, Sustain, and Release. These are the four parameters found on a basic synthesizer
envelope generator. An envelope generator is sometimes called a transient generator and is traditionally used to
control the loudness envelope of sounds, though some modern designs allow for far greater flexibility. The Attack,
Decay, and Release parameters are rate or time controls. Sustain is a level control. When a key is pressed, the
envelope generator will begin to rise to its full level at the rate set by the attack parameter, upon reaching peak
level it will begin to fall at the rate set by the decay parameter to the level set by the sustain control. The envelope
will remain at the sustain level as long as the key is held down. Whenever a key is released, it will return to zero at
the rate set by the release parameter.
Aftertouch
Aftertouch is MIDI data sent when pressure is applied to a keyboard after the key has been struck, and while it is
being held down or sustained. Aftertouch is often routed to control vibrato, volume, and other parameters. There
are two types: The most common is Channel Aftertouch (also known as Channel Pressure, Mono Aftertouch, and
Mono Pressure) which looks at the keys being held, and transmits only the highest aftertouch value among them.
Less common is Polyphonic Aftertouch, which allows each key being held to transmit a separate, independent
aftertouch value. While polyphonic aftertouch can be extremely expressive, it can also be difficult for the unskilled
to control, and can result in the transmission a great deal of unnecessary MIDI data, eating bandwidth and slowing
MIDI response time.
Analog
Literally, an analog is a replica or representation of something. Examples: In audio signals, changes in voltage are
used to represent changes in sound pressure. On vinyl records, groove depth is an analog for sound pressure
levels. On magnetic tape recorders, changes in magnetism are an analog for changes in sound pressure. Note that
in all these examples, the signal analog is a continuous representation, as opposed to the quantized, or discrete
"stepped" representation created by digital devices (see also WFTD "Quantization Error"). Since analogs rely on
physical measurements, the accuracy of the representation will be limited only by the precision of available
measuring techniques (not taking in account the characteristics of various storage media, transducers, etc.).
Binary

Literally means consisting of two parts. A binary numbering system is made up entirely of only two values, usually
zero (0) and one (1). This type of numbering system has been widely used in digital computers and other types of
digital computing equipment over the years. The binary numbering system is easy to deploy electronically because
the system only needs to differentiate two values — the 1 or the 0, which in the analog world can be represented
by a ‘high’ voltage and a ‘low’ voltage. In a binary numbering system it can take many digits to represent our
normal base 10 numbers. There are generally a fixed number of bits (8, 16, 24, etc.), which determine the size of
the numbers that can be represented. The way it works is that each binary number as you move to the left
represents a value double the number just to the right of it. A four bit binary number works as follows:

Bit 4      Bit 3       Bit 2     Bit 1

8x         4x          2x        1x

So, the 4 bit binary number 0001 = 1; 0010 = 2; 0011 = 3; 0100 = 4; 0101 = 5; 0110 = 6; 0111 = 7; 1000 = 8; 1001
= 9, and so on.

Channel Voice Messages

The most basic commands in MIDI are the Channel Voice Messages. These messages communicate the most
often used performance events sent from one instrument to another over any of the 16 MIDI channels. MIDI is
capable of transmitting and reproducing nearly every subtle nuance that even an advanced musician can perform.
Yet the hardware and commands used to do this are surprisingly simple. A MIDI channel voice message consists
of a Status Byte followed by one or two Data Bytes. Status messages describe the kind of information being sent.
They tell the other instruments whether the event that just occurred was a key press, pitch wheel movement, or
another type of performance action. When the action occurs, this is always the first code number sent by a MIDI
instrument. The status message contains something called "channel information" within it. Data messages follow
status messages with the actual values for the event. For example, if a status message indicates a key has been
pressed (called a Note On message), then the following data messages indicated which key was pressed, and the
velocity with which it was struck. So a Note On message has one status message followed by two data messages.
The various status messages in MIDI each have a specific number of data messages that follow them, depending
on the type of information being sent. Status and data bytes can be distinguished in MIDI by the value of the code
number. The range of available numbers is split in half. Numbers from 128 to 255 are always status messages.
Numbers from 0 to 127 are data.
Continuous Controller
 In MIDI terms, a continuous controller (CC) is a MIDI message capable of transmitting a range of values, usually 0-
127. The MIDI Spec makes 128 different continuous controllers available for each MIDI channel, although some of
these have been pre-assigned to other functions. CC's are commonly used for things like MIDI controlling volume
(#7), pan (#10), data slider position (#6), mod wheel (#1) and other variable parameters.

Use of continuous controllers in performance and sequencing can be a major factor in adding life to MIDI music -
but beware, over-use of CC messages can result in MIDI log-jam, where the amount of data being sent is more
than the bandwidth of MIDI can support. (Most sequencers support commands for "thinning" CC data if this
becomes an issue)

Interestingly, pitchbend is technically NOT a continuous controller. Because of the greater resolution wide bends
require (to prevent "stair-stepping"), pitchbend has been assigned its own dedicated MIDI message type...

Data Bytes
These define the content of a MIDI message. The first data byte will represent either the note or the controller
number, while the second data byte represents either the note velocity or the controller value
Daisy Chain
A wiring scheme in which, for example, device A is wired to device B, device B is wired to device C, etc. All
devices may receive identical signals or, in some instances, each device in the chain may modify one or more
signals before passing them on. Common Daisy Chain examples would be MIDI devices connected together
utilizing their THRU connections; SCSI connections with the last device terminated; certain computer network
schemes; reference clock for digital studio devices; etc.
Decimation
The process of dropping samples from a stream of oversampled digital audio data. Typically decimation is
employed to lower the density of the data to a point where it can be more conveniently stored. For example, in a
44.1 kHz sample for CD, the original sample/recording may have been done with 64 times oversampling, which
results in an effective sample rate of just over 2.8 MHz, but decimation can reduce this data back to what is
effectively a 44.1 kHz rate. This is important because there are many benefits for taking the original samples at
higher rates that are not lost when the data is thinned out later. Of course, some would argue that we're throwing
away perfectly good data, hence the increased popularity of higher sample storage rates (96 kHz, 192 kHz, etc.).
Digital
In a general sense digital refers to information or data that is stored or communicated as a sequence of discrete
values, rather than some scale across a continual set of values (analog). A digital system may use any (or several)
of many different numbering schemes, including decimal (base 10), octal (base 8), and hexadecimal (base 16), but
for the most part we associate the binary (base 2) numbering system with digital as it is the most commonly used
numbering system in digital hardware such as computers and other logic based systems. For our purposes, digital
refers to the representation of a varying physical property such as sound or light waves (as in digital audio or
video), by means of a series of numerical values (in binary, ones and zeroes). These digits are grouped together in
"words" to represent parts (intervals) of the complex character of the audio or video material.
Envelope
In sound and synthesis, the envelope is the variation that a sound exhibits over time - basically how a sound starts,
continues and disappears. It is comprised of concepts such as attack and decay, but other sonic distinctions such
as transient and sustain may also be applied in some circumstances. Pitch, timbre, and harmonic content (which is
basically timbre) can also change over time and in some cases are considered part of the overall envelope making
up a sound.
General MIDI Lite
A variation of the General MIDI specification that has been approved and adopted by the MIDI Manufacturers
Association to accommodate a new generation of new tone generators found in mobile telephones and other
handheld devices. The General MIDI Lite device specification is intended for equipment that does not have the
capability to support the full feature set defined in General MIDI 1.0, with the understanding that reduced
performance parameters may be necessary in some mobile applications. The most apparent feature of GM Lite is
its limit of 16-note polyphony, compared to GM 1's 24-note maximum and GM 2's 32-note specification. In addition,
GM Lite recognizes a reduced set of 7 control change messages plus pitch bend (in contrast to GM 2's 20-plus
controllers). GM Lite supports the GM 1 instrument and percussion sound sets. A list of the significant
specifications for GM Lite appears below. GM Lite is one of two recent variations of the MIDI specification for
mobile devices. The second, SP-MIDI, is designed to address the varying polyphony capabilities encountered in
different cell phones and handheld devices. General MIDI Lite Specification 16 simultaneous notes 16 MIDI
Channels - Simultaneous Melodic Instruments = up to 15 - Simultaneous Percussion Kits = 1 (Channel 10)
SUPPORTED CONTROL CHANGE MESSAGES - Modulation Depth (cc#1) - Channel Volume (cc#7) - Pan
(cc#10) - Expression (cc#11) - Data Entry (cc#6/38) - Hold1 (Pedal) (cc#64) - Pitch Bend - All Sound Off, All Notes
Off, Reset All Controllers
Hexadecimal
 Hexadecimal, or Hex for short, is a numbering system based on counts of 16 - as opposed to decimal (the system
most of us are most familiar with), which is based on counts of 10, or binary, which is based on counts of 2 (ones
and zeros). The Hex characters range from 0 through F in the following order: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, A, B, C, D,
E, F, where A represents our decimal "10," B "11," and so on.

The hexadecimal numbering system is commonly used as a handy way to describe computer data because it can
represent every byte as a simple two digit value. For example, the binary numbers (or byte) 01101001 can be
quickly seen in hex as 5D (in decimal this value would be 105). "Quickly" in the above context is a relative term; it
does take a little practice to be able to "see" it. In order to be able to recognize when hex numbers are written they
are usually accompanied by the dollar sign ($) or the letter "H" (or small "h") immediately before or after. So the
hex number above might be written $5D. MIDI is a data protocol that relies heavily on hex values for user input.
Though these days most of the nuts and bolts of MIDI are well hidden from users, you will still see some hex
values in many MIDI implementation charts that accompany most MIDI gear, and in some of the deeper MIDI
sequencing programs.

LFO
Abbreviation for Low Frequency Oscillator. An oscillator primarily used as a modulator for other things. Low
frequency oscillators may or may not operate exclusively below 20 Hz (the lower limit of typical human hearing),
but by definition they are not designed to be used as sound generating elements, even though they can be in some
synthesizers. When you bring in modulation (vibrato) in a keyboard, or a chorus in an effects processor you are
using an LFO to generate the waveform that produces the variance. In synthesizers and more advanced effects
units LFO's can often be routed to many different parameters (often simultaneously). They can sometimes
generate different waveforms (sine, sawtooth, square, random, etc.) for different types of modulation effects.
Loop Recording
Loop recording is a mode that can be entered in many current DAWs where a particular section of a track is
recorded repeatedly in a loop. When the end of the selected passage is reached, the recording automatically
jumps back to the beginning of the selection and records the new take as a different file. This allows multiple takes
to be recorded and the best one can be used in the final version or compiled into a composite track.
Lowpass Filter
A filter specifically designed to remove frequencies above the cutoff frequency, and allow those below to pass
unprocessed is called a lowpass filter. The effect of a lowpass filter is to turn down high frequencies. Common
examples include the "treble" controls on many lower end radios and stereos, the passive "tone" controls often
found on electric guitars and basses, hi-cut filters on consoles, and of course, this type of filter is found on many
synthesizers
LSB
Abbreviation for Least Significant Bit. The least significant bit of any digital word is the one that, when changed,
has the least affect on the overall mathematical value of the word. When looking at a word as a binary series of
one's and zero's (1001001) it is the right most digit, or bit.

LSB also stands for Lower Side Band, which is a term denoting the sideband produced by the difference
frequencies when one signal is modulated by another as in FM synthesis or broadcast transmissions.

The result of one signal or waveform being modulated by another (or others). When a signal is either frequency
modulated (FM) or amplitude modulated (AM) by another signal sum and difference frequencies are produced that
appear with the signal. These are known as sidebands. The Upper Sidebands (USB), which are the result of
adding the signals together, and Lower Sidebands (LSB), which are the result of subtracting them. Sidebands are
a phenomenon that occur in FM and AM radio stations, but they are most relevant to us because they

Metronome
A device used to mark time by means of regularly recurring ticks or flashes at adjustable intervals. They are
commonly used by musicians to establish a consistent tempo that can be followed when performing musical parts.
Early designs were mechanical, using a swinging pendulum that generated a 'click' sound at the bottom of the
motion. Many musicians still prefer these due to the visual cues supplied by the swinging arm. A good one has a
very natural motion that gives the player a nice 'feel' for the tempo, which makes it easy to anticipate or lag behind
the beat a little bit as desired. Many modern designs are electronic and range from very simple little ticking boxes
to elaborate visual displays. Some are even capable of counting out loud, "One, Two, Three, Four," etc.
MIDI Implementation Chart
MIDI implementation refers to the specific MIDI messages and signals a piece of gear can recognize; a MIDI
implementation chart is therefore a listing of the messages a particular device can transmit and recognize. This
can be very useful when attempting to determine if a device can send and/or receive various types of channel or
system messages. Normally found in the back of the device's manual, its MIDI implementation chart will consist of
a list of available MIDI messages, whether the device incorporates those messages, and any special notes or
 limitations on how it deals with those messages. For example, the chart will list the MIDI channels and modes, note
numbers, and continuous controllers the device can respond to. Support for aftertouch, velocity, pitch bend (often
with bit resolution), and program change will be indicated. Also listed will be recognition of system exclusive,
system real time (clock commands), system common (song position, song select, etc.) and aux messages (local
on/off, all notes off, active sensing, and so on).
MIDI Thru

Short for MIDI Through. The MIDI through is a connection available on many MIDI devices. It's purpose is to
pass on (or through) an exact copy of the data present at the MIDI In of the device. This is distinct from a
MIDI out, which can sometimes pass on a copy of the input, but usually has other information on it
generated by the device in question. MIDI Thru allows many MIDI devices to have their MIDI connections
daisy chained together all being driven by a common source or controller, which makes building complex
systems much easier.

MIDI Merger

A device that merges MIDI data from two or more sources. MIDI mergers are more than just electrical
combiners (or "Y" cables); they must carefully keep the MIDI bytes of data in tact, which means they
somewhat intelligently look at the information passing to ensure they don't disrupt the continuity. Some MIDI
mergers enable the user to give priority to one port so timing critical data - such as MIDI clock data - can
pass through with minimal delay.

MIDI Port

The MIDI connections of a MIDI compatible device. A 'Multiport', or MIDI Patch bay in the context of a MIDI
Interface, is a device with multiple MIDI output sockets, each capable of carrying data relating to a different
set of 16 MIDI channels. Multiports are the only means of exceeding the limitations imposed by 16 MIDI
channels.

Mod Wheel

A mod wheel (diminutive for Modulation Wheel) is a controller found on keyboards such as MIDI controllers
and synthesizers, which takes its shape in the form of a wheel mounted perpendicular to the surface of the
keyboard. The wheel itself is imbedded in the surface such that only the top half protrudes. The mod wheel
is used to add expression or to modulate (change) various elements of a synthesized sound or sample. One
typical use is to modulate an LFO in order to produce vibrato. Another would be to control the speed of rotary
speaker emulation. There are many other applications as well depending upon the architecture of the
instrument being controlled. In order to create such effects, mod wheels send continuous controller
messages (CC), which send the movements of the wheel as well as knobs, sliders, pedals etc. (See WFTD
MIDI Control Change) For example, your synth's modulation wheel or lever will almost always send CC1
messages. Each CC has a possible range of 0-127, so when you move the mod wheel down to its rest
position, it should send a CC1 with a value of 0, and when you push it up to its highest point it should send a
CC1 with a value of 127. CC values are not smooth, they're stepped, that is, a standard mod wheel can
send a value of 56 or a value of 57, but it can't send 56.329 or 57.1. Depending on what sound parameter
CC1 is controlling, you may hear a slightly grainy, stair-stepped effect (See Zipper Noise) when you move the
mod wheel while holding a note.

Monophonic

In music this is the opposite of polyphonic and means playing only one note at a time. Many old (and some
new) synthesizers are monophonic in that they can only play one note at a time. There are also a number of
acoustic instruments that are monophonic.

In electronics or audio monophonic indicates only one channel of audio, as opposed to two (stereo) or quad
(four).
MSB

Contrary to LSB, MSB is an abbreviation for Most Significant Bit. This is the bit of any digital word that has the
most impact on its mathematical value. This bit is at the opposite end of the word (usually the left end) from
the LSB.

Multitimbral
A synthesizer or sampler is multitimbral if it is capable of producing more than one type of sound or timbre
(pronounced tam bur) at a time. Usually this is described as the number of "parts" a unit can play at once.
For example, a Kurzweil K2500 is 16-part multitimbral, meaning it can produce 16 different sounds at once
(a sound being defined as a single patch or preset; part one might be piano, part two strings, part three
trombone, part four flute, and so on. Generally these parts are assigned to different MIDI channels for
independent control). This is distinct from the amount of polyphony, or number of actual notes the unit can
simultaneously generate. Using the K2500 example again, a 16-part multitimbral K2500 can produce up to
48 notes of polyphony distributed dynamically across those 16 multitimbral parts.
Omni Mode

In MIDI keyboards this refers to a mode where an instrument will respond to MIDI coming in on any MIDI
channel. The term is actually somewhat vague to properly represent a true mode of MIDI operation (see
WFTD: MIDI Mode), but was used mostly in the early days of MIDI where the simple concept that an
instrument would respond (or not) to data on any channel was important. Today when this term is used it is
generally implied that MIDI Mode #1 is being discussed.

Pitch Bend

A special MIDI control message specifically designed to produce a change in pitch in response to the
movement of a pitch bend wheel or lever. Pitch bend data can be recorded and edited, just like any other
MIDI controller data, even though it isn't part of the Controller message group. Behind the scenes, at a bits
and bytes level, pitch bend messages are actually fairly complex and appear to break a lot of the
conventional rules of MIDI data protocol. Pitch bend messages were designed to be able to hold and
transmit a lot more data than most MIDI messages primarily because it can take a lot of data to produce a
truly smooth (as in unquantized) bending of pitch over a potentially broad range. If pitch bend messages
were handled like most other continuous controller messages you would often hear a noticeable stair-
stepping quality to the bends. Without going into too much detail, pitch bend messages have a conventional
status byte, which is followed by two data bytes. Some MIDI instruments makes use of only one of these,
while others use both, so the data is formatted in a specific way so all instruments are able to communicate
and discern the intended amount of pitch bend desired from one platform to another. Fortunately all of this
madness goes on behind the scenes for the most part. Most software sequencers deal with it behind the
scenes. An exception would be older sequencers that may show all of this data in an event list view. In those
cases editing pitch bend data can get pretty challenging and requires a deeper understanding of the
subtleties. Another element to consider is that a lot of complex pitch bend data can potentially cause some
MIDI log jam problems, especially when there is a lot of other controller and/or MIDI clock or MTC data on the
same cable

Polyphonic

When discussing musical instruments, the ability to play more than one note simultaneously. All instruments
have a finite number of notes they can produce at one time. For example, a six string guitar has a maximum
of 6-note polyphony. A synthesizer might be 32-note polyphonic, and so on. The more notes of polyphony
an instrument can produce, the more capable it is of playing complex arrangements and chords. If the
polyphony of the instrument is exceeded, it must "steal" the notes it needs from others that are already
sounding. For example, a synthesizer might steal the last note requested from the first one hit; the first note
stops, and the new one begins to sound. Some synths and samplers use sophisticated algorithms for voice
stealing, others allow you to pre-allocate a given number of voices to a particular MIDI channel, and so on.
Compare "polyphonic" to "multitimbral" in the WFTD archive.
Program Change
Also known as Patch Change, a type of MIDI message used for sending data to devices to cause them to
change to a new program. Program Changes messages are channelized so they will only affect a device on
a specific MIDI channel. These commands are used in all sorts of MIDI applications ranging from simply
changing patches on a synth or reverb to controlling lighting systems. Software sequencers that appear to
have the programs of your keyboard in them by name are in fact using program change commands that are
known to pull up those programs in your keyboard.
Punch In

A process where the onset of recording on one or more tracks in the midst of an already existing recording
can be precisely (a relative term) controlled by the user. For instance, a mistaken word or phrase by an
announcer or singer can be corrected by listening to the playback and punching in at the exact moment with
the performer correcting the part. In the earlier days of recording punch-ins required considerable skill by the
engineer. Many tape machines of the day had subtle differences and inconsistencies in punch in behavior
and speed, and don't forget, engineers were often punching in on nearly complete tracks containing
otherwise good performances. Stress ran very high during many a punch in those days. Nowadays
machines can be set up to automatically punch in and out at specified times, and those times can be
rehearsed in advance. And better yet, we have so many tracks and virtual tracks at our disposal these days
that punching in is rarely even necessary. We just record a whole new take on a different track and "comp"
them together later.

Quantization

The division of a continuous event (such as an analog signal) into a series of discrete steps. To quantize or
quantify something. In digital audio recording this takes the form of "sampling" (another word for quantizing)
the analog signal a specified number of times per second (sampling rate) with each sample made up of some
known amount of information (how many bits, or bit depth - i.e. 16-bit, 24-bit, etc.). In MIDI it pertains to the
timing resolution of a sequencer or drum machine and is measured in Pulses Per Quarter Note (PPQN). For
example, a 480 PPQN sequencer has greater timing resolution than a 96 PPQN sequencer. Also in MIDI the
verb quantize means to perform an operation to the MIDI data that will bring notes closer to a specified grid
of acceptable timing values. For example, you could quantize a performance where someone played
inconsistently to make all of their note events land on even quarter notes. Over-quantization results when
such correction is so extreme that the resulting sequence becomes stiff or robotic sounding.

Slave
Our common sense understanding of the word slave pretty much clues us in to how it is used in audio/video
production. The specific literal definition we are concerned with is; a machine or component controlled by
another machine or component. When two devices are synchronized to one another it is necessary to have
one be the master and the other the slave. The slave unit responds to commands or information from the
master and is thus controlled by it. This is the basic principle behind all synchronization in audio and video.
For example, if a computer system is following an analog tape machine (or video deck) it can be said to be
"slaved" to it.
Standard MIDI File (SMF)
A standardized file format for saving MIDI sequences independent of the platform they were created on.
Standard MIDI Files allow musicians with completely different types of computers or sequencers to
exchange MIDI sequences. There are two types, Type 0 (single track), and Type 1 (multitrack). Each type
contains the same information, but on a Type 0 all MIDI channels are combined into one track (MIDI channel
assignments and other information are not lost) while on a Type 1 each track is kept separate.
SMPTE

An acronym (pronounced SIM-tee) for the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. SMPTE,
much like AES (see WFTD archive AES), IEC, and other organizations, provide a coherent place for keeping
professionals (in this case television and film audio engineers) up to date with current information as well as
formalizing and documenting necessary standards from time to time. It was SMPTE who devised the classical
method of measuring intermodulation distortion, but one of their most noteworthy achievements is the
formalization and standardization of SMPTE Time Code.
Status Byte

MIDI messages can be broken into two constituent parts: data bytes and status bytes. The status byte is the
portion of a MIDI message that defines the type of information being sent. They contain a MIDI channel, to
specifically direct the information, and a code that tells the device listening on that channel what type of data
is about to follow. This prepares the device to receive any one of the following eight fundamental types of
MIDI data messages: Note Off, Note On, Polyphonic Aftertouch, Control Change (a.k.a. continuous controller),
Program Change, Channel Aftertouch, or System. The final type, system, refers broadly to system common,
system real time, or system exclusive commands - these are not addressed to individual MIDI channels and
the data bits normally used to specify MIDI channel are instead used to further specify the system message.
Status bytes are usually followed by one or more data bytes that provide the actual information to be
implemented. Referenced words from today's WFTD: MIDI, Byte, MIDI Channel, Note, Polyphonic,
Aftertouch, Continuous Controller, Program Change, System Common, System, Real Time, and System
Exclusive.

System Common Message

A type of MIDI message designed to be used across an entire MIDI system, just like System Exclusive and
System Real Time messages are. System common messages are intended for all devices reached by a
transmitter. They contain things like MTC (MIDI Time Code), MIDI Clock, Song Position Pointer, Song Select,
and Tuning Requests among others.

System Exclusive
One of the categories of MIDI messages, System Exclusive (Sys Ex) is data intended for, and understood
by, only one particular piece of gear. Normally, this data is used to communicate with and control
parameters specific to that item. For example, all of the proprietary data in a Roland D-110 synthesizer
representing RAM patches might be sent as a "sys ex dump" to a computer librarian. When the computer
sends this data back out over MIDI, the only device recognizing and responding to it will be a D-110, all
other synths and MIDI devices will ignore it. Other uses for sys ex? MIDI control of parameters not
supported by continuous controllers, remote patch editing, patch bank select, and more - uses depend on,
and can be tailored for, each specific piece of MIDI gear - that's the beauty of sys ex!
System Real Time

One of the MIDI System messages (another is System Exclusive). System real time messages are a set of
messages that serve as uniform timing information for the synchronization of MIDI equipment. They are
sometimes just referred to as Real Time Messages. Because of the timing-critical nature, a system real-time
byte can be inserted into the middle of any multi-byte MIDI message. System real-time messages include
MIDI clock, start, stop, continue, active sensing, and system reset.

Tick

In MIDI sequencing, a tick is a division of time. The timing resolution of a MIDI sequencer (and MIDI itself) is
sometimes measured in PPQN (Pulses Per Quarter Note). For example, a particular software sequencer may
be set to have a timing resolution of 480 PPQN, which means there are 480 subdivisions of time, or pulses,
per each quarter note. Each of these pulses is commonly referred to as a tick. So, in the sequencer
mentioned above, moving a note forward or backward in time by one tick means you have moved it by
1/480th of a quarter note. 240 ticks would make up an eighth note in this example. In most cases the tick is
the smallest division of time accessible to the user, and in some cases the resolution available inside the
sequencer is greater than its output capabilities, though this is greatly dependant on other elements in a
system.

USB

An abbreviation for Universal Serial Bus. USB is an emerging standard for interconnecting PCs with peripheral
devices. The USB standard was developed by Compaq, DEC, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, and Northern
 Telecom to provide an intelligent serial bus for low to mid-speed peripherals. The USB standard allows new
peripherals to be configured automatically upon attachment without the need to reboot or run setups. USB
will also allow up to 127 devices to run simultaneously on a computer with the capability to perform
isochronous data transfers, which can be assigned to meet specific bandwidth targets to support audio and/or
phone and data conversations. There is not enough bandwidth, however, to do video as FireWire does. USB
is a real boon to the Windows based PC community because it all but eliminates frustrating set up issues
historically encountered when new peripherals must be connected. Further, as a standard it reduces the
overall cost and confusion of getting devices connected to any computer.

Not only is USB a new standard for interfacing computer hardware, but it also stands for Upper Side Band.
This is the name given to the by-product of the new signal created when modulating a signal with another
signal, as happens in broadcast and FM synthesis. The Upper Side Band is the result of summing the two
signals together.

VCA Group

A feature found on many high end live mixing boards. A VCA group provides the same type of control over
signal levels that a mute group provides for muting. Basically, VCA groups allow the sound engineer to
control the volumes of several independent sources through one control fader without having to route them
all through a common subgroup. It is called a VCA group because Voltage Controlled Amplifiers are used. In
fact every controllable channel in the desk has its volume controlled by a VCA (as opposed to audio passing
through a resistive fader) in order for this to work. Some more modern (and expensive) designs have
employed a motorized fader scheme (also known as Moving Fader), but these sometimes aren't referred to
as VCA groups since there may no longer VCA's involved (see the Technical Tip of the Day from
04/09/2002 for more background on that).

VCF

Abbreviation for Voltage Controlled Filter. The VCF is to filtering what the VCA is to amplifiers. Actually many
filters are amplifiers where the gain of the amp is manipulated by other components such that certain
frequencies are filtered out of the final output. And this is exactly what a VCF is. The user has control over
the cutoff frequency of the filter and whether it is low pass, hi pass, or band pass. More advanced designs
allow you to add resonance and/or vary the Q of the filter.

VCO

Abbreviation for Voltage Controlled Oscillator. It is an oscillator whose pitch (or frequency) is controlled by an
input voltage. In a keyboard, for example, pressing different keys produce different voltages, which then drive
the oscillator circuit to produce specific pitches (notes). Modern (digital) keyboards don't work this way
anymore, but back in the days of analog synthesizers it was all done with voltage. A lot of the old stuff was
one volt per octave. So if it took one volt to go from a low C to the C an octave higher, it took an additional
volt to reach the next C up, and so on.

Velocity
In MIDI terms, velocity is how fast a key is moved by the player. There are actually two types: "Attack"
velocity (normally referred to simply as "velocity") is how fast the key is struck, while release velocity refers
to how fast the player lets go of the key at the end of a note. Velocity is often routed to control the volume of
a note, how fast of an attack a note might have, or how bright a sound might be. Release velocity is
commonly used to set the amount of time a note hangs or rings on after being released.