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01-05-01 -

Harmonics
 Why we speak about “sinusoid”?

V(t) = V0 + Σ Vnsin(nωt + φn)

Every signal could be considered as the sum of several

sinusoids, appropriately chosen, with amplitude V,
frequency f = w/2p, and phase j.
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 First + third harmonic  square wave

1a

3a
1a + 3a
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The spectrum
 Where harmonics come from?

Non linear loads …

 Low-energy lightings
 Fluorescent lamps
 Computers
 UPS´s
 Induction ovens
 Home electronics
 Rectifiers
 Welding equipment
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 Example of line current distortion due to a variable speed drive

3a = 2%
5a = 24%
7a = 3%
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 Capacitors for power factor corrections !!!
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…. They don’t generate harmonics, but can amplify them…..

 Harmonic problem

….. In presence of
harmonics the
current increases:

In= In1 + In3 + …

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 Harmonics

• Total harmonic distortion (THD) or distortion factor - The ratio of the

root-mean-square of the harmonic content to the root-mean-square value of
the fundamental quantity, expressed as a percent of the fundamental.

sum of the squares of amplitudes of all harmonics

THD  DF  *100%
square of amplitude of fundamental

• Total demand distortion (TDD) - The root-sum-square harmonic current

distortion, in percent of the maximum demand load current (15 or 30 min
demand).
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 Harmonic requirements
IEC 61000-2-4 IEEE Std 519
Total Harmonic Voltage Distortion: Total Harmonic Voltage Distortion:
 Class I (Light) 5% Ind THD
 Class II (Medium) 8% - 69 kV 3.0 5.0 %
 Class III (Heavy) 10 %
69 - 161kV 1.5 2.5 %
IEC 61000-2-4 also includes:
161kV - 1.0 1.5 %
 Individual odd/even harmonics
 IEEE Std 519 also includes
 Interharmonics requirements on Harmonic
 Voltage changes, voltage dips, Current Distortion, depending on
short-time interruptions, voltage Voltage Level, Load Current vs.
unbalance, power frequency Short Circuit Power Ratio and
deviations frequency.
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 Problems due to harmonics
 Harmonic Voltage Distortion
 Increased heating in motors
and other electromagnetic
equipment
 Noisy operation of
electromagnetic equipment
 Malfunction of sensitive
electronics
 Nuisance tripping of electronic
circuit breakers
 Equipment downtime
 Premature component failures
 Failed transformers, motors
and capacitors
 Compliance with codes or
specifications
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 Harmonic Current Distortion —
 Added heating in transformers
and cables, reduces available
capacity
 May stimulate a resonance
condition
 Excessive voltage
 Overheating of PF correction
capacitors
 Tripping of PF protection
equipment
 Shutdown / damage to
electronic equipment
 May cause telephone or
electronic interference
 Harmonics — A System Issue!
 Harmonics produced by an individual load are only important to
the extent that they represent a significant portion of the total
connected load (Harmonics are expressed as a percentage)
 Linear loads help reduce system harmonic levels (percentages)
 TDD (Total Demand Distortion) equals the THD (Total Harmonic Distortion)
of the nonlinear load multiplied by the ratio of nonlinear load to
the total (demand) load:
NL
TDD  THDNL 
TL
Where TDD = TDD of the system
THDNL = THD of the nonlinear loads
NL = kVA of nonlinear load
TL = kVA of total load
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(nonlinear + linear)
 The neutral current
 In a triphase system, the neutral current is the vectorial sum
of the three line currents
 With a single phase load, the vectorial couldn’t be zero and
there’s a current on the neutral
 With harmonics (the third particularly), the neutral current can
be higher than phases’.
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 Harmonics

 Amplitude decreases with harmonic order

 Amplitude decrease in percentage in case of overcurrent
 In short-circuit, harmonics are negligible
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 PQF: ABB solution
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 Filtering outcome example
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 I vantaggi dei filtri PQF
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 Thermo-magnetic protections

• Bimetal is sensitive to the true rms value.

In the presence of high THD, a reduction in the tripping threshold referred to the
current true rms value is possible due to the anomalous heating of the adjacent
massive conductive parts. This reduction does not generally exceed 5%.
• The magnetic protection tends to have higher threshold values. High peak factors can
modify this behaviour: in general, an increment of the tolerance band is possible as a
function of the wave form.
• As a rule, the effect of the lower effectiveness of the magnetic element does not cause
changes in the protection characteristics of the device owing to a reduction of the
harmonic contribution when the overload current increases.
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 Standards (Electronic protections)
• IEC 60947-2 Ed.2.2:
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Part 2: Circuit-breakers
Annex F: Additional tests for circuit-breakers with electronic over-current protection.
Sub-clause F.4.1.: Immunity tests - Harmonic currents.

For releases sensitive to rms value, non-tripping and tripping verifications (respectively at
0.9 Ir and at 2 Ir ) are required with waveform of currents formed by:
- fundamental component + 3rd harmonic (I3  72%-88% I1, peak factor Kp 1.8-2.2)
- fundamental component + 5th harmonic (I5  45%-55% I1, peak factor Kp 1.7-2.1)
- fundamental component +3rd+5th+7thharmonic (conduction time over a half period < 21%
of the period, I3>60% I1, I5>14% I1, I7>7% I1, peak factor Kp  2.1)
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 Electronic protections
Network • Current transformers and toroids.
The activating threshold of the self-supplied release, referred to the true current
rms value, is not substantially modified.
Sensors • Voltage transformers
Transducers In the area of the measured frequencies, their behaviour is linear.
• HW Filters
HW filters are low-pass filters, with cut frequency cf and order n as a function of
HW Filters
the signal and of the sensor type
A/D Converters
• A/D Convertes
they have a fundamental importance
Conditioning
SW Filter Aoutput
Calculation
Comparison Digital
conditioning
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Ainpu
t
 Electronic Protection – OVERLOAD (L)
Network

Sensors
Transducers

HW Filters
A/D Converters
• The protections against overcurrent (L) measure up to Ar (2..6 In) the
Conditioning r.m.s value.
SW Filter Up to this value, when there aren’t harmonics with remarkable magnitude
Calculation higher than 17th –19th (>1 kHz), the error due to the harmonic pollution
Comparison falls within the standards tolerances (ref. new-generation releases with
auxiliary supply).
For values higher than Ar an error is surely introduced as a function of the
Action relation between the real peak factor Kp and the standard peak factor Kstd,
Signalling even if this error can be usually neglected according to the considered
hypotheses.
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 Electronic protection – SHORTCIRCUIT (S-I)
Network The delayed protections against short circuit (S) have a behaiour
depending on the release type:
• Releases on moulded case CBs or ‘basic’ releases (e.g. PR111) derive
Sensors the current value by using the standard peak value Kstd. As a
Transducers consequence, a not-negligible error is possible in case of settings in
areas where the harmonic contribution is still relevant (low thresholds),
both as regards the threshold as well as the tripping times.
HW Filters
• For new-generation releases (e.g. PR221-PR112-PR113) is valid what
A/D Converters
already said about the protections against overcurrent L.

Conditioning • The instantaneous protections against short circuit (I) derive the current
SW Filter values by using the standard peak value Kstd. As a consequence, a not-
Calculation negligible error is possible on the tripping threshold value in case of
Comparison settings in areas where the harmonic contribution is still relevant (low
thresholds).
Anyway, their behaviour is more predictable in comparison with analogous
Action thermo-magnetic protections.
Signalling
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 Electronic protection – RESIDUAL CUR. (RC-G)
Network • Protections against earth fault (RC) measure the true rms value, but they
are affected by the HW filter (e.g. cf=250-350 Hz). Anyway this effect is
mitigated by the reduced harmonic pollution present in this type of fault in
Sensors the standard utilization field of this protection.
Transducers
7
RC transfer function
6
HW Filters
5

Iscatto/Idn
A/D Converters Idn=30mA
4 Idn=1A

3
Conditioning
2
SW Filter
Calculation 1
Comparison 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 [Hz]

Action • A higher value is surely possible, both for the threshold level as well as for
Signalling the tripping time in releases calculating the earth fault current (G) on the
base of form factor (releases for moulded case CBs, ‘basic’ releases),
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applied not to single currents measured but to their sum.

 Electronic protection – others
Network
• Protections based on the measure of frequency present an error which
strongly depends on the real wave form of the voltage, on which anyway
Sensors the effect of the harmonic pollution is usually less relevant.
Transducers
• Protections based on the measure of active power, by operating in a field
where the real effective values can be calculated, present errors which
HW Filters are usually included between the standard tolerances; anyway, some
A/D Converters problems could arise from the calculation of the reactive power, when this
is directly derived through an algebraic operation from sample values of
the primary values measured.
Conditioning
SW Filter
Calculation
Comparison

Action
Signalling
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