1.

Orthographic
Orthographic is depictions of objects where the principal axes or planes of the
object are also parallel with the projection plane, but these are better known as
multi-view projections. Furthermore, when the principal planes or axes of an
object in an orthographic projection are not parallel with the projection plane, but
are rather tilted to reveal multiple sides of the object, the projection is called an
axonometric projection. Sub-types of multi-view projection include plans,
elevations and sections. Sub-types of axonometric projection include isometric,
dimetric and trimetric projections.
Orthographic adalah penggambaran benda-benda di mana sumbu atau bidang
utama objek juga sejajar dengan bidang proyeksi dan lebih dikenal sebagai
proyeksi multi-view. Selanjutnya, ketika bidang utama atau sumbu suatu objek
dalam proyeksi ortografi tidak sejajar dengan bidang proyeksi, tetapi agak miring
untuk menjelaskan beberapa sisi objek, proyeksi tersebut disebut proyeksi
aksonometri. Sub-jenis proyeksi multi-view antara lain rencana, elevasi dan
bagian. Sub-jenis proyeksi aksonometri meliputi proyeksi isometrik, dimetrik,
dan trimetri.
2. Planimetric
Planimetric are prepared as a result of mapping surveys which he former depicts
natural and cultural features in the plan (X-Y) views only.
Planimetric disiapkan sebagai hasil dari survei pemetaan yang sebelumnya
menggambarkan fitur alam dan budaya dalam bentuk penggambaran (X-Y) saja.
3. Planimetric map
A map showing only the horizontal position of features on the Earth's surface
which show geographic objects, natural and cultural physical features, and entities
without topographic features such as roads, buildings, and water bodies that are
visible and identifiable on aerial photographs, but which can be compiled into map
features through photogrammetric or surveying procedures. A planimetrically
accurate map showing planimetric detail and other general features shows
accurate horizontal distances between features. Map features show roadway
feature details as roads, sidewalks, streets, highways and alleys including curb
 lines, edge of paved surfaces or edge of traveled way, and general feature details
as building footprints, reservoirs, tanks, docks, piers, airports, bridges, overpasses,
underpasses, railroads, parking lots, driveways, other impervious surfaces,
streams, lakes, drainage courses, holding basins, shorelines, other watercourses,
vegetation outlines, elevations, fence lines, drainage, and other similar
construction or terrain features.
Peta planimetrik adalah peta yang hanya menampilkan posisi horizontal dari
bentuk-bentuk di permukaan bumi yang menunjukkan objek geografis, bentuk
fisik alam dan budaya, dan tanpa fitur topografi seperti jalan, bangunan, dan badan
air yang terlihat dan dapat diidentifikasi melalui foto udara, tetapi dapat
dikompilasi menjadi fitur peta melalui prosedur fotogrametrik atau survei. Peta
planimetri yang akurat menunjukkan detail planimetrik dan bentuk umum lainnya
yang menunjukkan jarak horizontal dengan akurat. Peta planimetrik menunjukkan
rincian seperti, trotoar, jalanan, jalan raya dan gang termasuk pembatas jalan, jalan
beraspal atau tepi jalan serta detail fitur umum seperti trotoar, waduk, tangki,
dermaga, dermaga, bandara, jembatan, jalan layang, underpass, rel kereta api,
tempat parkir, jalan mengemudi, permukaan air seperti, sungai, danau, kursus
drainase, kolam penampungan, garis pantai, jalur air lainnya, jalur vegetasi, air
terjun, selokan, drainase, dan fitur konstruksi atau medan serupa lainnya.
4. Stereomodel
Stereomodel formed from a pair of overlapping photos. The floating mark, which
again consists of half-marks superimposed within the optics of the viewing
system, is placed on points whose ground positions are desired.
Stereomodel terbentuk dari sepasang foto yang tumpang tindih. Tanda
mengambang, yang terdiri dari setenga-tanda yang diletakkan di dalam sistem
penglihatan optik, ditempatkan pada titik-titik yang posisi dasarnya diinginkan.
5. Stereoplotters
Stereoscopic plotting instruments, also simply called stereoplotters, are devices
designed to provide accurate solutions for X, Y, and Z object space coordinates
of points from their corresponding image locations on overlapping pairs of photos.
The fact that the photos may contain varying amounts of tilt and have differing
flying heights is of no consequence, because these instruments rigorously account
for the position and orientation of the camera for each exposure. Stereoplotters are
used to take cross sections, record digital elevation models, compile topographic
maps, and generate other types of spatially related topographic information from
overlapping aerial photographs. Stereoplotters can be classified into four different
categories: (1) optical projection, (2) mechanical projection, (3) analytical, and (4)
digital or “softcopy” systems. A stereoplotter operator, preparing to measure or
map a stereomodel, must go through a three-stage orientation process consisting
of interior orientation, relative orientation, and absolute orientation. Interior
orientation ensures that thelight rays are geometrically correct, that is, angles
must be identical. Analytical photogrammetry generally involves the formation of
large, rather complex, systems of redundant equations, which are then solved
using the method of least squares. The concepts have existed for many years, but
it was not until the advent of computers that the procedures became practical. As
noted above, accuracies attainable using analytical photogrammetry very high and
are frequently expressed as a ratio of the flying height of the photography used.
Accuracies within about 110,000th to 115,000th of the flying height above ground
are routinely obtained in computed X, Y, and Z coordinates. Thus, for photos
taken from 6,000 ft above ground, coordinates accurate to within about to 0.6 ft
can be expected.
Instrumen perencanaan stereoskopik, atau yang juga biasa disebut stereoplotter,
adalah perangkat yang dirancang untuk memberikan solusi akurat koordinat X, Y,
dan Z dari titik-titik objek gambar lokasi yang sesuai pada pasangan foto yang
berbeda. Foto-foto itu mungkin berisi berbagai kemiringan dan memiliki
ketinggian terbang yang berbeda, karena instrumen ini secara ketat
memperhitungkan posisi dan orientasi kamera untuk setiap pemaparan.
Stereoplotters digunakan untuk mengambil bagian silang, merekam model elevasi
digital, menyusun peta topografi, dan menghasilkan jenis informasi topografi
terkait spasial lainnya dari foto udara yang berbeda. Stereoplotters dapat
diklasifikasikan ke dalam empat kategori: proyeksi optik, proyeksi mekanis,
analitis, dan sistem digital atau "softcopy". Operator stereoplotter, yang siap
 mengukur atau memetakan stereomodel, harus melalui tiga tahap proses orientasi
yang terdiri dari orientasi interior, orientasi relatif, dan orientasi absolut. Orientasi
interior memastikan bahwa sinar cahaya secara geometrik, yaitu sudut harus
identik. Fotogrametri analitis umumnya melibatkan pembentukan sistem
persamaan redundan yang besar dan agak kompleks, yang kemudian diselesaikan
menggunakan metode kuadrat terkecil. Konsep-konsep tersebut telah lama ada,
tetapi belum ada teknologi komputer yang memadai. Seperti disebutkan di atas,
fotogrametri analitis memiliki akurasi yang sangat tinggi dan sering dinyatakan
sebagai rasio tinggi terbang dari fotografi yang digunakan. Akurasi dalam sekitar
110.000 hingga 115.000 ketinggian terbang di atas tanah secara rutin diperoleh
dalam koordinat X, Y, dan Z yang dihitung. Jadi, untuk foto yang diambil dari
6.000 kaki di atas tanah, koordinat akurat hingga sekitar 0,6 kaki dapat diharapkan
6. Photogrammetric
Photogrammetry may be defined as the science, art, and technology of obtaining
reliable information from photographs. It encompasses two major areas of
specialization: metrical and interpretative. The first area is of principal interest to
those involved in surveying (geomatics), since it is applied in determining spatial
information including distances, elevations, areas, volumes, cross sections, and
data for compiling topographic maps from measurements made on photographs.
Aerial photographs (exposed from aircraft) are normally used, although in certain
special applications, terrestrial photos (taken from Earth-based cameras) are
employed. Interpretative photogrammetry involves recognizing objects from their
photographic images and judging their significance. Critical factors considered
in identifying objects are the shapes, sizes, patterns, shadows, tones, and textures
of their images. This area of photogrammetry was traditionally called
photographic interpretation because initially it relied on aerial photos. Now other
sensing and imaging devices such as multispectral scanners, thermal scanners,
radiometers, and side-looking airborne radar are used, which aid greatly in
interpretation. These instruments sense energy in wavelengths beyond those
which the human eye can see, or standard photographic films can record. They are
 often carried in aircraft as remote as satellites; hence the term, remote sensing, is
now generally applied to the interpretative area of photogrammetry.
Fotogrametri dapat didefinisikan sebagai ilmu, seni, dan teknologi untuk
memperoleh informasi dari foto-foto. Fotogrametri terdiri dari dua bidang
spesialisasi utama: metrik dan interpretatif. Bidang pertama mengenai
kepentingan utama mereka yang terlibat dalam survei (geomatika), karena
diterapkan untuk menentukan informasi spasial seperti jarak, ketinggian, area,
volume, penampang, dan data yang diperlukan untuk menyusun peta topografi
yang diperoleh dari pengukuran dari foto. Foto udara (dari pesawat) biasanya
digunakan, meskipun dalam aplikasi khusus tertentu, foto terestrial (diambil dari
kamera) digunakan. Fotogrametri interpretatif mengenali objek dari mereka
gambar foto dan menilai signifikansinya. Faktor kritis dipertimbangkan dalam
mengidentifikasi objek adalah bentuk, ukuran, pola, bayangan, nada, dan tekstur
gambar mereka. Bidang fotogrametri ini secara tradisional disebut penafsiran
fotografi karena awalnya bergantung pada foto udara. Sekarang perangkat
penginderaan dan pencitraan lain seperti pemindai multispektral, pemindai termal,
radiometer, dan radar udara tampak samping digunakan, yang sangat membantu
dalam penafsiran. Alat-alat ini megartikan energi dalam gelombang panjang tak
nampak, atau standar film fotografi standar yang dapat direkam. Mereka sering
dibawa dalam pesawat seperti satelit; maka istilah, penginderaan jauh, sekarang
umumnya diterapkan pada bidang interpretatif fotogrametri.
7. Raster
Raster format using grid cells (or pixels if the data are derived from images). Each
equal-sized cell (or pixel) is uniquely located by its row and column numbers and
is coded with a numerical value or code that corresponds to the properties of the
specific area it covers. In the raster format, a point would be indicated with a single
grid cell, a line would be depicted as a sequence (linear array) of adjacent grid
cells having the same code, and an area having common properties would be
shown as a group of identically coded contiguous cells. Therefore, it should be
appreciated that in general the raster method yields a coarser level of accuracy or
 definition of points, lines, and areas than the vector method. In the raster format,
the size of the individual cells defines the resolution, or precision, with which data
are represented. Smaller the area covered by each cell, the higher the resolution
for any given image.
Format raster menggunakan sel grid (atau piksel jika data yang diperoleh berasal
dari gambar). Setiap sel (atau piksel) secara unik terletak menurut nomor baris
dan kolomnya dan dikodekan dengan nilai atau kode numerik yang sesuai dengan
properti dari area spesifik yang dicakupnya. Dalam format raster, sebuah titik akan
ditunjukkan dengan sel grid tunggal, garis akan digambarkan sebagai sekuens
(larik linear) sel grid yang berdekatan yang memiliki kode yang sama, dan area
yang memiliki properti umum akan ditampilkan sebagai grup sel-sel berdekatan
yang dikodekan secara identik. Oleh karena itu, harus dipahami bahwa secara
umum metode raster menghasilkan tingkat akurasi kasar atau definisi titik, garis,
dan area dari pada metode vektor. Dalam format raster, ukuran sel-sel individual
menentukan resolusi, atau presisi, dengan mana data diwakili. Area yang lebih
kecil ditutupi oleh setiap sel, semakin tinggi resolusi untuk setiap gambar yang
diberikan.
8. Pixels
Pixels are usually tiny squares that represent the smallest elements into which a
digital image is divided. Continuous arrays ofpixels, arranged in rows and
columns, are used to enter data from aerial photos, orthophotos, satellite images,
etc. Assigning a numerical value to each pixel specifies the distributions of colors
or tones throughout the image. Pixel size can be varied and is usually specified by
the number of dots per inch (dpi). As an example, 100 dpi would correspond to
squares having dimensions of 1/100 in. on each side. Thus, 100 dpi yields 10,000
pixels per square inch.
Piksel biasanya berbentuk kotak kecil yang mewakili elemen terkecil da
gamlambar digital dibagi. Jajaran piksel, disusun dalam baris dan kolom,
digunakan untuk memasukkan data dari foto udara, orthophotos, citra satelit, dll.
Tetapan nilai numerik untuk setiap piksel menentukan distribusi warna atau nada
di seluruh gambar. Ukuran piksel dapat bervariasi dan biasanya ditentukan oleh
 jumlah titik per inci (dpi). Sebagai contoh, 100 dpi akan sama dengan kotak yang
memiliki dimensi 1/100 inci pada setiap sisi. Jadi, 100 dpi menghasilkan 10.000
piksel per inci persegi.
9. Analytical photogrammetry
Analytical photogrammetry involves the rigorous mathematical calculation of
ground coordinates of points using computers. Input data consists of camera
parameters (i.e., the lens focal olength, its distortion characteristics, and the
principal point location); observed photo coordinates of the images of all points
whose ground coordinates are to be determined, as well as those of a limited
number of welldistributed ground control points; and the ground coordinates of
the control points. The photo coordinates are measured with respect to the
coordinate system. Extremely precise instruments called comparators are used
and values are recorded to the nearest micrometer. Analytical photogrammetry
rigorously accounts for vertical photos and equal flying heights.
Fotogrametri analitis melibatkan perhitungan matematis koordinat titik-titik bumi
menggunakan komputer. Input data terdiri dari parameter kamera (yaitu, fokus
lensa olenght, karakteristik distorsi, dan lokasi titik utama); mengamati koordinat
foto dari gambar-gambar dari semua titik yang koordinat-koordinat tanahnya
harus ditentukan; titik-titik kontrol tanah yang terdistribusi secara terbatas; dan
koordinat-koordinat tanah dari titik-titik kontrol. Koordinat foto diukur dengan
memperhatikan sistem koordinat. Instrumen yang disebut comparator digunakan
dan hasilnya dicatat ke mikrometer terdekat. Fotogrametri analitis secara ketat
memperhitungkan variasi antara foto vertikal dengan ketinggian terbang,
10. Cadastral mapping
Cadastral mapping is mapping that specialises in the establishment and re-
establishment of real property boundaries. It is an important component of the
legal creation of properties. A cadastral surveyor must apply both the spatial-
measurement principles of general surveying and legal principles. A common use
of a survey is to determine a legal property boundary. The first stage in such a
survey, known as a resurvey, is to obtain copies of the deed description and all
other available documents from the owner. The deed description is that of the deed
and not a tax statement or other incomplete document. The surveyor should then
obtain copies of deed descriptions and maps of the adjoining properties, any
records from the municipality or county, utility maps, and any records of surveys.
Depending on which region the survey is located in, some or most of this
information may not be available or even exist. Whether the information exists or
not, a thorough search should be conducted so that no records are overlooked.
Copies of deeds usually can be located in the government recorder's office, and
maps or plats can usually be found at the recorder or surveyor's office. These
arrangements will vary state-to-state and survey-system-to-survey system, so
some familiarity may be needed. When all the records are assembled, the surveyor
examines the documents for errors, such as closure errors. When a metes and
bounds description is involved, the seniority of the deeds must be determined. The
title abstract usually gives the order of seniority for the deeds related to the tract
being surveyed and should be used if available. After this data is gathered and
analyzed the field survey may commence. The initial survey operations should be
concentrated on locating monuments. In urban regions, monuments should be
sought initially; but in the absence of monuments, property corners marked by
iron pins, metal survey markers, iron pipes, and other features possibly
establishing a line of possession should be located. When the approximate
positions for the boundaries of the property have been located, a traverse is run
around the property. While the control traverse is being run, ties should be
measured and all details relevant to the boundaries should be acquired. This
includes but is not limited to locating the property corners, monuments, fences,
hedge rows, walls, walks, and all buildings on the lot. The surveyor then takes this
collected data and compares it to the records which were received. When a
solution is reached, the chosen property corners (those that best fit all the data) are
coordinated, and ties by direction and distance are computed from the nearest
traverse point. Once this has been established the features on the lot can be drawn,
dimensions can be shown from these features to the boundary line, and a map or
plat is prepared for the client.
Pemetaan kadaster adalah pemetaan yang mengkhususkan diri dalam
pembentukan dan pembentukan kembali batas-batas properti. Pemetaan kadaster
adalah komponen penting dalam pembuatanproperti secara hukum. Surveyor
kadaster harus menerapkan prinsip-prinsip pengukuran spasial dari survei umum
dan prinsip-prinsip hukum. Penggunaan umum survei adalah untuk menentukan
batas hukum properti. Tahap pertama dalam survei ini adalah survei ulang untuk
mendapatkan salinan deskripsi akta dan semua dokumen lain yang tersedia dari
pemiliknya. Deskripsi akta adalah akta dan bukan pernyataan pajak atau dokumen
lainnya. Surveyor kemudian harus mendapatkan salinan uraian deskripsi dan peta
properti lain, setiap catatan dari kotamadya atau daerah, peta utilitas, dan setiap
catatan survei. Bergantung pada wilayah di mana survei itu berada, sebagian atau
sebagian besar informasi ini mungkin tersedia atau tidak tersedia. Apakah
informasi itu ada atau tidak, pencarian menyeluruh harus dilakukan sehingga tidak
ada catatan yang terlewatkan. Salinan akta biasanya dapat ditemukan di kantor
perekam pemerintah, dan peta atau papan pengumuman yang biasanya ditemukan
di kantor perekam atau surveyor. Pengaturan ini akan bervariasi dari negara-ke-
negara dan sistem survei-ke-survei, sehingga beberapa penyesuaian mungkin
diperlukan. Ketika semua catatan dirakit, surveyor memeriksa dokumen untuk
kesalahan, seperti kesalahan penutupan. Ketika deskripsi pengukuran dan batas
dilibatkan, senioritas dari perbuatan harus ditentukan. Judul abstrak biasanya
memberikan urutan senioritas untuk perbuatan yang terkait dengan traktat yang
disurvei dan harus digunakan jika tersedia. Setelah data ini dikumpulkan dan
dianalisis, survei lapangan dapat dimulai. Operasi survei awal harus dipusatkan
untuk menemukan monumen. Di daerah perkotaan, monumen harus dicari pada
awalnya; tetapi dengan tidak adanya monumen, sudut-sudut properti yang
ditandai dengan pin besi, penanda survei logam, pipa besi, dan fitur lain yang
mungkin membentuk garis kepemilikan harus ditempatkan. Ketika posisi
perkiraan untuk batas-batas properti telah ditemukan, sebuah traverse diletakkan
di sekitar properti. Sementara traverse yang telah diletakkan dijalankan, hubungan
hasil pengukuran dan semua rincian yang relevan dengan batas-batas harus
diperoleh. Hal ini juga termasuk dalam proses, tetapi tidak terbatas pada lokasi
sudut-sudut properti, monumen, pagar, garis pagar, dinding, jalan, dan semua
bangunan di tempat parkir. Surveyor kemudian mengambil data yang
dikumpulkan ini dan membandingkannya dengan catatan yang diterima. Ketika
solusi tercapai, sudut-sudut properti yang dipilih (yang paling sesuai dengan
semua data) dikoordinasikan, dan hubungan berdasarkan arah dan jarak dihitung
dari titik lintasan terdekat. Setelah ini ditetapkan, fitur-fitur pada lot dapat ditarik,
dimensi dapat ditunjukkan dari fitur-fitur ini ke garis batas, dan peta atau plat
disiapkan untuk klien.
 Orthophotos
As implied by their name, orthophotos are orthographic representations of the terrain in
picture form. They are derived from aerial photos in a process called differential rectification,
which removes scale variations and image displacements due to relief and tilt. Thus, the imaged
features are shown in their true planimetric positions. Instruments used for differential rectification
have varied considerably in their designs. The first-generation instruments were basically modified
stereoscopic plotters with either optical or mechanical projection. Optical projection instruments
derived an orthophoto by systematically scanning a stereomodel and photographing it in a series
of adjacent narrow strips. Rectification (removal of tilt) was accomplished by leveling the model
to ground control prior to scanning, and scale variations due to terrain relief were removed by
varying the projection distance during scanning. As the instrument automatically traversed back
and forth across the model, exposure was made through a narrow slit onto an orthonegative. An
operator, viewing the model in three dimensions, continually monitored the scans and adjusted the
projection distance to keep the exposure slit in contact with the stereomodel. Because the model
itself had uniform scale throughout, the resulting orthonegative (from which the orthophoto was
made) was also of uniform scale. Orthophoto systems based on modified mechanical projection
stereoplotters functioned in a similar fashion. These mechanical instruments are seldom used
today.
Contemporary orthophoto production is done using softcopy photogrammetric systems in
a procedure called digital image processing. These systems employ digital images may be obtained
either by using digital cameras or by scanning negatives obtained with film cameras. As noted
earlier, a digital image consists of a raster of tiny pixels, each of which is assigned a digital value
corresponding to its gray level, and each having its photo location given in terms of its row and
column within the raster. The digital image is input to the system’s computer, which uses analytical
photogrammetry equations to modify each pixel location according to the tilt in the photograph
and the scale at that point in the stereomodel. Through this process, all pixels are modified to
locations they would have on a truly vertical photo and all are brought to a common scale. The
modified pixels are then printed electronically to produce an orthophoto.
Orthophotos combine the advantages of both aerial photos and line maps. Like photos,
they show features by their actual images rather than as lines and symbols, thus making them more
easily interpreted and understood. Like maps, orthophotos show the features in their true
planimetric positions. Therefore true distances, angles, and areas can be scaled directly from them.
Orthophotomaps (maps produced from orthophotos) are used for a variety of applications,
including planning and engineering design. They have been particularly valuable in tax and
cadastral mapping, because the identification of property boundaries is greatly aided through visual
interpretation of fence lines, roads, and other evidence. Because they are in digital form, they are
also ideal for use as base maps and for analyses in geographic information systems. Orthophotos
can generally be prepared more rapidly and economically than line or symbol planimetric maps.
With their many significant advantages, orthophotos have superseded conventional maps for many
uses.