Radio antennas played a crucial role in electronics, converting electric signals into radio waves at
transmitters and converting the waves back into electrical signals at receivers. Now antennas are
being shrunk orders of magnitude to nanoscale for photonic applications.
Optical antennas rely on the same principles of electromagnetic theory as radio antennas.
Oscillating
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electric charges collectively radiate electromagnetic waves in a pattern that depends on
the antenna structure and the oscillation frequency. Receiving antennas absorb incoming radiation,
converting it into heat and oscillating charges. But although the principles are the same, the
frequencies are hundreds of thousands times higher, so the workings of optical antennas differ in
important ways from those of radio antennas.
So far, most optical antenna work has focused on proof-of-principle demonstrations, says Palash
Bharadwaj of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (Zurich, Switzerland). The results have been
promising, but technological applications have been slowed by the need to make wavelength-scale
components accurate to within 10 nm.1
Importantly, optical excitation of a subwavelength antenna can produce surface plasmons much
smaller than the light wave, as shown in Fig. 1 for a bow-tie antenna. "It's cool because it allows you
to make up for the mismatch between the size of the photon, a wavelength of visible light, and true
nanoscale materials," says James Schuck, director of the Molecular Foundry at the Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory (Berkeley, CA). Optical antennas also are being explored for applications
including beam steering and direction.
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FIGURE 1. Light illuminates an optical "bow-tie" antenna, exciting surface plasmons that produce a
peak electric field in the "feed gap" between the two poles of the antenna, a region much smaller
than the wavelength of light.
Spectroscopy, heating, and high harmonic generation
Many important potential applications have energy concentration in an optical antenna. "Shine a
laser onto a pointed gold or silver tip in close proximity to something you want to study, and the
strongly enhanced field at the apex of the tip leads to enhanced Raman response" for tip-enhanced
spectroscopy, says Bharadwaj. The tip may not look like a traditional antenna, but it concentrates
the propagating light energy into a subwavelength region, so it can map defects in carbon
nanotubes with resolution of tens of nanometers. The same technique can improve the sensitivity of
spectroscopic bioassays.
Visible light is a particularly valuable probe because it gathers information on chemical bonds and
molecular structure, says Schuck. "If you want to understand the structure, the easiest way is to
probe with optical photons." With nanoantennas, light can achieve resolution of 10 nm—the size of
the "feed gap" between the two halves of a dipole-type antenna, where energy absorbed by the
whole antenna is concentrated.3 Figure 2 shows how energy is concentrated in a campanile-type
antenna, shown in the inset.
FIGURE 2. More elaborate dipole-type antennas concentrate power at their central feed gap in the
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same way as the bow-tie. This campanile-type antenna concentrated light energy into a 10 nm zone
for probe measurements at Stanford.
Concentrating light in such a gap also can produce the high electric field intensities needed for
harmonic generation. Researchers at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology
(Daejeon, South Korea) used that approach to concentrate 10 fs pulses with peak power of 100 kW
by a factor of 100, reaching 1013 W/km2. That allowed them to produce the 17th harmonic at 47 nm
in an argon jet aimed at the gap.4 This could allow compact sources to generate high harmonics.
Nanoantennas also can concentrate light energy to heat tiny regions. When Naomi Halas's group at
Rice University (Houston, TX) illuminated gold nanoparticles in water with a resonant wavelength,
the particles absorbed so much heat that it vaporized the surrounding water, leaving the
nanoparticles in a steam bubble.5 This avoids the need to heat the whole fluid to boiling, and
potentially could lead to clinical applications such as destroying tumor cells that had absorbed
nanoparticles.
Halas's group took a different approach, capturing the energy produced when surface plasmons in
an optical antenna decay to hot electron-hole pairs. They fabricated an array of 300 rectangular gold
nanorods on the surface of n-doped silicon, forming a Schottky barrier between the two materials.
Hot electrons generated in the gold nanoantenna had enough energy to cross the Schottky barrier
and produce a photocurrent in the silicon. The wavelength response depends on the nanoantenna
resonance and extends beyond the semiconductor bandgap. They reported that quantum efficiency
was limited to about 0.01% in their laboratory devices, but suggested that adding a 1 V reverse bias
and improving fabrication could raise quantum efficiency to nearly 2%. As a silicon-based device
with response extending into the InGaAs detector range, it could be attractive for silicon photonics or
silicon infrared imaging systems.7
One approach is creating a metasurface, a flat array of plasmonic antennas with subwavelength
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spacing that change the phase and polarization of scattered light, creating beams with controllable
direction, polarization, and orbital angular momentum. In a review paper, Nanfang Yu of Columbia
University (New York, NY) and colleagues cite demonstrations of "phased arrays that beam light into
arbitrary directions, flat lenses that create converging spherical waves, planar wave plates that
operate over ultrabroadband, and spiral phase masks that generate optical vortex beams."8 Yu
earlier used subwavelength surface structures to narrow emission of a terahertz quantum cascade
laser from 180° to 10°.9
Another approach is building an array of many tiny light-emitting optical antennas, with phases
shifted between adjacent emitters. Passive arrays can project fixed images or beams in a constant
direction; active phase-shifting of individual emitters allows beam steering. Active beam steering is
preferred for many applications, but the elements could not be packed closely together using
conventional optical couplers and phase shifters, which are tens to hundreds of wavelengths long.
Michael Watts and colleagues at MIT overcame those limits by fabricating light-delivery waveguides
and emitting antennas in silicon on complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) material.
They fabricated a passive 64 × 64-element array in which a single waveguide running along one
side of the array splits input light among secondary waveguides serving the rows, and each of those
waveguides divides the light among antennas along one row. Figure 3 shows a part of this array. To
make a steerable array with 8 × 8 elements, they added silicon electronic connections and applied
heat to the waveguides to shift the phase actively using the thermo-optic effect.10
Many other applications may be possible in the long term, such as beam steering to switch optical
signals on chips. As Feynman said, there is plenty of room at the bottom. But much work remains to
turn those visions into practical realities.
REFERENCES
2. R. Feynman, "There's plenty of room at the bottom," Eng. Sci., 23, 5, 22 (May 1960).
8. N. Yu et al., IEEE J. Select. Topics Quantum Electron., 19, 3, 4700423 (May/June 2013);
doi:10.1109/jstqe.2013.2241399.
10. J. Sun et al., Nature, 493, 195–199 (Jan. 10, 2013); doi:10.1038/nature11727.