Process Engineering

Training Program
MODULE 4
Process Measurement and Testing
Section Content
I Process Information and Plant Testing
2 Mill Testing
3 FLS Comminution Manual
4 The Physics of Air
5 BSI Conversion Factors and Tables
6 Back to Cement Plant Basics
7 Test Method Formulae and Nomeclature- GEL
8 Combustion and Efficiency

Presentations
Physics of Air
 Process Engineering
Training Program

MODULE 4
Process Measurement and Testing
Section Content

I Process Information and Plant Testing

2 Mill Testing

3 FLS Comminution Manual

4 The Physics of Air

5 BSI Conversion Factors and Tables

6 Back to Cement Plant Basics

7 Wl.ool Gas Flow Measurement by Pitot Static Tube

8 W1.002 Temperature Measurement Using a Thermocouple

9 WI.003 Gas Flow Measurement Using a Vane Anemometer

10 WI.008 Static Pressure Measurement

11 WI.009 Weighfeeder and Conveyor Belt Load Verification

12 WII.013 Kiln Shell Heat Loss Determination

13 WI.014 Measurement and Calculation of Inleaking Air

14 Test Method Formulae and Nomeclature- GEL

15 Combustion and Efficiency

16 Code of Federal Regulations Parts 1900 - 1910

 Blue Circle Cement

PROCESS ENGINEERING
TRAINING PROGRAM

Module 4

Section 1

Process Information and Plant Testing

 PROCESS INFORMATION AND PLANT TESTING

1. Introduction

2. Processing of Available Information

3. Equipment and Techniques for Plant Measurement

4. Plant Testing - Methods

 PROCESS INFORMATION AND PLANT TESTING

1. INTRODUCTION

A reliable, accurate source of process information is the key to plant control. By analysis of the available
information, either by manual or computerized methods, the trends which develop on a plant can be determined
and action taken to restore efficient operation. In addition, info mat ion is also necessary to identify if plant
modification has been successful. Without proper evaluation of the situation before and after modification,
misleading conclusions can be drawn. This paper will discuss the processing and use of normal plant
information sources and also specify methods used to carry out plant testing.

2. PROCESSING OF AVAILABLE INFORMATION

2.1 General

The prime source of information on the majority of works is the plant log-sheet. This should be as brief
as possible but record all essential data. Space should be allowed to average relevant operating data. Where
computer systems exist which will automatically record hourly plant status, this can be used to present a daily
log. Whether this replaces a written log will vary from plant to plant, but writing down of data hourly can often
draw an operator's attention to a deviation from normal conditions. Daily averages can also be produced
automatically from a computerized system but care must be taken to avoid the averaging of irrelevant data. A
daily average oxygen which includes one hour when the instrument was in service and three hours of kiln stop
and subsequent warm-up is of no value.

The processing of the raw data can be a time consuming procedure and direct input of this data into a
microcomputer is a useful development. Once the information has then been inputted manipulation to give the
required analysis of the plant performance becomes a simpler exercise. The presentation of the processed data is
important. An approach based on graphical presentation more easily identifies the trends which are important on
a cement plant. The frequency with which the graphs are produced will depend on the area concerned. It is rare
for the trends in a cement mill to merit better than monthly analysis, but the kiln is a case for a more 'frequent
observation.

The Following sections outline some recommended data which should be processed on plant. They are
not exhaustive lists, however, and Individual plants will have different needs.

2.2 Crushing

The majority of crushers have two functions:

a) To reduce material to a required size, at the required rate and at a minimum power consumption.

b) To have a minimum cost of maintenance, which largely depends on wear rate for high speed
crushers.
 A crusher log sheet must include hours run, kW consumed, tons processed and stops/reasons for,
although the tonnage may have been back-calculated from loads or stocks. The laboratory must regularly (at
least once per week but depends largely on crusher wear rate) analyze the size of both material in and out. Many
Crushers fail to produce for reasons of excessive feed size rather than some internal deficiency. Care in the
sampling procedure is important. Samples taken from belts tend to be segregated across the width of the belt
and it is often easier to sample the coarser material at the edge.

The maintenance department must record the quantities of make-up weld used in repair or check the
loss in weight of sample impact bars or hammers. This will enable a picture of wear rates to be formed. The
analysis of crusher information is a simple process. Loss of output may derive from a failure to deliver
sufficient feed to the crusher or a more basic change in material characteristics. The power consumption and
abrasion figures can be used as back-up for any change in raw mill behavior and also to analyze the effect of any
changes made to crusher operation or wear materials. A typical analysis of crusher operation is shown in Fig.l.

2.3 Raw Milling

Raw mills have three prime functions.

a) To mill raw materials at the required rate, to the required size and with minimum power
consumption.

b) Other than wet process mills, to dry raw materials to the

required moisture.

c) To perform these functions at the lowest repair cost. A combination of log sheet,
laboratory analysis and maintenance information is needed to analyze mill performance.

2.3.1 Grinding

To assess grinding performance a log sheet wi11 need to give the percentage of each material processed,
mi11 feed rare, hours run ( reasons for stops), kW consumed and -fuel used (if applicable). The laboratory must
analyze feed and product size. In cases where product residue variations are large a corrected figure for kWh/t
can then be produced as shown in Table 1 and used in the raw mill analysis in Fig.2.

Given this information it becomes a simple matter to analyze the primary reasons which may reduce mill
output or increase power consumption. Examples would be:

a) If mill output falls but specific power consumption remains constant, then a lack of media
weight is most probable and the percentage mill motor power drawn will be less.

b) If mill efficiency falls then this may be due to an incorrect media size distribution which
would require an axial test (see "Mill Testing" paper). Raw material feed size may have been
allowed to increase or a harder material may be arriving from the quarry. Crusher data may
help in this analysis but. suspected changes in material quality will need to be confirmed in a
Grindability Test. On closed circuit mills the recirculating load or separator efficiency may
have reduced. Plant testing according to the methods shown in "Mill Testing" will then be
needed but is obviously important that comparative data is also taken when the mill is
operating well.
 Vertical spindle mills require much of the same data when assessing grinding capacity but additional
data on roller and table wear will be necessary. As wear has an unpredictable effect on vertical spindle mill
efficiency, historical data will be needed before firm predictions can be made on the relationship between wear
and efficiency, but having assembled this data it can be used (to optimize the timing of changes to roller and
table components.

2.3.2 Drying

Poor quality of drying may show as an inability of the mill to produce the required product moisture for
handling in the raw meal System, or the symptoms may be first seen in the raw mill efficiency. In both cases
data an mill feed and product' residue, mill outlet and inlet temperatures and mill differential pressure will
need to be considered. In the majority of cases, provided neither the raw feed moisture does not exceed that on
which the mill design was based, poor drying will be due to lack of gas flow to the mill. Section 4.1 contains
details of methods for testing mill circuits for inleaking air and restrictions to gas flow. Both will reduce mill
gas flow and lower drying capacity. If required, a full heat balance is also included in Section 4.1. If the mill fan
capacity is suspected, section 4.2 details a method for determining if thefan condition is adequate.

2.3.3 Running Time, Costs and Reoairs

Although the majority of mil I costs are not process related, it is necessary to assess the relationship
between materials used in the mill diaphragms, lining and media, and the resulting wear to these elements.
Together with mill motor power drawn, the volume load of the media must be measured regularly according to
the methods given in “Mill Testing”. Quantities, sizes and quality of make up media is recorded as shown in
Fig.3 in order to assess wear of new qualities, and regular checks should be kept of diaphragm and lining wear
in order to predict replacement dates.

The analysis of down-time is necessary on plants where raw mill availability is important, but is also
advisable on other mills as it may be valuable to identify repetitive repair costs.

2.4 Blending

A blending system has one prime objective; to reduce the short term chemical variations which appear in
raw mill product. As such an analysis of chemical variability in and out is the most direct measure of blending
tank effect. It is necessary that the chemical analysis is carried out on an identical time basis in and out and
standard deviation is used as a better measure of variability than range. Any of the compounds or derived terms
(LSF, SR) can be used in these expressions. If the same time basis is not available for in and out sampling then a
correction according to Table 2 may be applied. After any necessary correction a blending effect can be
calculated.

Blending effect = standard deviation (1 hr sampling of raw meal in)

standard deviation (1 hr sampling of raw meal out)

Deficiencies in blending effect alone are the basis on which batch systems are evaluated. Poor or
deteriorating performance of a batch blender normally requires a check of the timing of valves which feed air to
different sections or a check of airflow as detailed in section 4.3. In extreme cases a silo internal inspection may
be necessary to determine if available air is leaking from a broken connection etc.
In the case of continuous silos, blending effect requires a more complex formula:

Blending Efficiency = σin x λ x 1

σout 2π T

where σin = standard deviation (1 hour) of raw meal in

σout = standard deviation (1 hour) of raw meal out

λ = wavelength of chemical variations entering

T = silo residence time = Tons capacity

Tons throughput

The interpretation of wavelength is the most difficult feature. An example is given in Fig.4.

It is clear from the formula that blending efficiency can be effected by changes in the frequency of feed
variations around the set point and by changes in throughput. If the blending efficiency shows a pronounced
change then testing of airflow as detailed in section 4.3 is needed. Internal inspection of 'he silo would follow if
the airflow shows blocked tiles or convasses. Low pressure of supply air may be due to broken pipes etc.

A -final diagnosis of blending tank behavior, for both continuous or batch systems, may require a tracer
test. This comprises adding a trace material to the tank feed and determining the behavior of this material within
the system. Details are given in section 4.3.

2.5 Kiln and Cooler

The requirements for a kiln/cooler are that it should:

a) produce at the required output and with the maximum possible available running time

b) have the best possible fuel efficiency

c) have the lowest possible repair costs, most significantly in terms of refractory and chain
repairs.

Kiln log sheets or computer data, lab analysis and maintenance records need to record sufficient data to
be able to analyze these requirements.

2.5.1 Production and_Fuel_Efficiency

As low production and high fuel consumption are often closely connected the data collection system
must have a minimum of information which would include the kiln feed and fuel rates, hours run, reasons for
stops, oxygen and carbon monoxide levels, feed moistures (wet process) exit suction (kiln and preheater), exit
temperature and any cooling water used 'in the kiln or preheater in addition if kiln NOx is available this should
be recorded. In general any variables which are in automatic control need not be recorded unless frequent
changes are made to set point.

The laboratory records must include a kiln feed analysis and residue, product free "'me and 503 and fuel
analysis as supplied and, if different, as fired.

The information available will produce the initial analysis of kiln/cooler operation in the form shown in
Fig .5, and this alone will often give the reason For lost production.

Some typical reasons for lost production which can be observed are:

a) Change of feed quality or residue. Relationships between the feed quality and production/fuel
consumption will vary between plants and even kiln processes on a single plant. It is important
that this relationship is established, if approximately, for any kiln. An example taken from a UK
preheater plant is:

1% LSF equivalent to 0.8% production or 6 kcal/kg clinker

0.1 SR equivalent to 1% production.

b) Change of fuel quality or residue. Again it is difficult to be specific about the effect on
production/fuel consumption of fuel quality but Table 3 gives some approximations of the effects
of coal moisture on fuel consumption for a direct fired kiln. Pulverised fuel residue is a more
difficult effect to describe as only in an extreme form will carbon monoxide start to be present
together with reasonable oxygen levels. However, if the general rule of a 90 micron residue one
half of volatile matter is observed the kiln flame will not suffer in this respect.

c) Cooler. A deterioration in cooler performance will damage kiln performance. If this is suspected
then the recommended action consists of a test for cooler efficiency. Details of the method for a
grate cooler are contained in section 4.4 and similar concepts can be applied to planetary and
rotary coolers. In all cases it is important to have historical data for comparison purposes.

d) Inleaking Air. A frequent cause of lost production is inleaking air. Section 4.4 details methods of
assessment.

e) Fan Capacity. Wear or modification can reduce fan capacity. Section 4.2 contains details of
assessment.

f) Build-up. The additional restriction to gas flow caused by build up can normally be determined
by the suctions at kiln exit and where applicable, preheater exit or fan inlet. If these restrictions
are due to changes in alkali contents in the kiln feed an analysis of the alkali cycles may be
required. Section 4.4 gives details of this and the plant testing methods to deter-mine the location
of any build-up.

g) Heat Transfer. One of the important changes which will occur in long dry and wet kilns is
wear to the chain system. In order to assess this factor chain weighing as shown in the
"Wet Kilns"' paper will be needed. Monitoring of the need for chain maintenance is
 possible from kiln exit temperature but correction of the temperature is necessary to allow
for the effects of inleaking air, water sprays, changes in kiln production etc. Table 4 gives
an example of the calculation of ''corrected'' kiln exit temperature.

Other factors than these will also influence kiln performance and section 4.4 gives other plant
testing procedures which should be carried out on a regular basis, not uniquely when a problem
occurs.

Before any significant changes are made to raw material components, raw meal composition or
residue a combinability test is a useful guide to kiln behavior with the new mix. A regular repeat
test is recommended.

2.5.2 Refractories

Detailed discussion of refractory types and wear is beyond the scope of this paper but the methods of
analyzing refractory life are included.

It is obviously important that details of refractory zones replaced, time of the original in service, quality
of refractory used and any refractory test drillings should be kept in a comprehensive log. Analysis of the results
of changes to refractory life for different qualities of brick can then be assessed after allowing for other major
factors which may have contributed to life. With a reasonable fund of information some works have formulated
a method of predictive control. An example is shown in Table 5. if additional information is available on shell
temperatures, such as from the modern scanning systems, then a picture can be built up of the formation and
loss of coating and this can be correlated to loss of refractory and possibly also to changing kiln feed quality,
frequent kiln stops etc.

2.5.3 Running Time

A detailed analysis of kiln lost time is essential. In the case of -planned stops some assessment of the
repairs carried out which would have caused lost time is desirable.

2.6 Cement Mill

Cement mills have three prime functions:

a) To mill clinker and any additives at the required rate, surface area and residue.

b) To produce cement at an acceptable temperature.

c) To perform these functions at the lowest Possible cost.

2.6.1 Grinding

To assess grinding performance the log sheet will need to give the total feed rate, percentage of each
component, hours run (reasons ,or stops) and kW consumed. Laboratory analysis is of cement surface area,
residue and mill feed size. Surface area production can be calculated as:

Surface area (as m2/t) = M2/kWh

kWh/t

An example of cement mill data is shown in Fig.6.

The normal faults of falling grinding efficiency are similar to raw milling. Example of poor efficiency
are essentially identical to raw milling and similar conclusions can be drawn.

2.6.2 Mill Ventilation

One feature of cement mills which does differ from raw mills is the effect which both excessively cold
and hot running can cause Both extremes can lead to coated media and poor grinding efficiency. Detection is
from mill operating temperatures and the axial test described in the “Mill Testing” paper. The area of the mill
which is ineffective will be identified by a small surface area increase across the affected mill length. The most
common fault is the over-hot condition when cement temperatures exceed 1200C. This is also an important
factor in avoiding gypsum dehydration and customer complaints on handling bagged cement. The common
causes of hot cements mills are:

a) hot clinker feed. Data on the cooler performance will be useful in this respect.

b) Inadequate cooling water flow. 'the maximum quantity of water which should be used in
the mill is limited to 4% on clinker. This includes moisture in the mill feed.

c) Poor mill ventilation. The most common fault is most easily identified by an inleaking air
test as described in section 4.5. Additional testing may be necessary to determine airflow
restrictions and mill fan condition.

2.6.3 Running Time, Costs and Repairs

The analysis of mill internal wear, costs and running times are as per raw mills.

3. EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUES FOR PLANT MEASUREMENT

The Majority of the equipment should be available on any plant, but only the larger plants will justify the
more expensive equipment.

3.1 Temperature
 The most essential equipment for temperature testing is the availability of a range of sizes of
thermocouples. The usual type specified is the Chrome/alumel K type which has the advantage of being
applicable over the normal range of cement plant conditions. The size of probe and whether a protective shield
is used will depend on the environment. High temperature and high gas-velocities dictate the need for a rigid,
protected probe, but the temperature response will be slower. Probe lengths of 0.6m, 2m and 3m are a useful
range. A digital meter and compensating cable are also required.

When measuring gas temperatures it is important to note that when gas streams come together mixing is
usually poor and stratification of the streams will, continue along a duct for a considerable distance. Measuring
gas temperature close to sources of inleaking air or joints in ducts can be misleading unless several temperatures
are taken across the duct. In extreme cases, such as cooler exhaust ducts close to the cooler, gas velocity and
temperature are both needed to identify average, temperature. An example of the temperature profile across two
parallel cooler exhaust ducts is shown in Fig.7.

Measuring gas temperature close to a source of higher temperature will given an error as radiation will
lead to an increase in the measured temperature. A typical secondary air temperature installation of a
thermocouple inserted through the cooler wall will suffer from this deficiency.

One danger of measuring gas temperatures in high velocity gas streams containing raw meal may be due
to the build up of static electricity in the probe. As well as giving erroneous readings this can give a slight shock
to the probe holder. The probe should be earthed or at least touched on to the metal casing of the duct.

A surface contact thermocouple is useful equipment and can be used in conjunction with the digital
meter. Surface temperatures below 1500C are most accurately measured by this means, but care must be surface
taken to get good contact between the thermocouple and surface.

The other essential temperature measuring equipment is a low range

(120 6000C) radiation pyrometer. This is used to determine surface temperatures of the kiln, to
identify areas of thin refractory and to measure temperatures for a shell loss calculation. A higher
temperature range (650 - 16500C) pyrometer can be used to determine clinker temperature
entering the cooler, but the purchase of this or the alternative a disappearing filament thermometer, is more
difficult to justify. if a burning zone pyrometer is already installed this may be re-located for the purposes of a
test.

3.2 Flow

3.2.1 Pitot

For measuring velocity of gas in a duct the pitot tube is used. Two types are available, the 5 type and the
N type. The heads of both are illustrated in Fig.8. The N type is the most common type and has the advantage of
greater accuracy and less sensitivity to errors in measuring technique. However, the small static and dynamic
pressure holes are susceptible to blockage in dirty gas streams and for this application the S type is
recommended. As the pressure differential between static and dynamic pressure tappings is usually less than
50mmwg a sloping manometer is necessary to obtain sufficient accuracy. Alternatively a digital
micromanometer can be used, and although more convenient, with cost more than the sloping manometer.
 The conditions which must be met for accurate pitot measurement require that the point at which the
pitot survey is made must be 5 x duct diameter downstream and 2 x duct diameter upstream of any bend,
constriction, fan or damper etc which would disturb the air flow pattern. These conditions are rarely achievable
in a cement plant situation and a compromise which allows for greater error is normally accepted. The
importance of the upstream requirement is most often ignored in practice, and it is better to preserve the ratio of
2:1 in duct lengths if possible.

The methods of deciding number of measurement points, and measurements taken at each point is
defined in Fig.9a and 9b for round and rectangular ducts. The equation most commonly used for calculation of
gas flow for N and S type pitots is:

Pd = manometer pressure differential (dynamic to static)

Pb = barometric pressure (mmwg)

Ps = Ouct static pressure (mmwg)

γ = Gas density (kg/Nm3)

γo = Gas density at OOC (calculated or assume 1.40 kg/Nm3 dry kiln exhaust or 1.29 kg/Nm3 dry air)

Overall I the accuracy of a pitot traverse under good conditions will be 2%, and normally 3% must be
allowed.

3.2.2 Anemometer

Two types of anemometer are available for measuring gas velocity at the inlet to a duct, fan, compressor etc. For
normal velocity a applications the vane anemometer is used. For low gas velocity or dirty gases the hot wire
anemometer is preferred. For both anemometers it is important that for a volume calculation the free area of the
duct at the point of measurement is obtained. For measuring across large ducts with an instantaneous readout the
same rules which apply to pitot transverses must be observed and a reading taken at each point. If the
anemometer has a cumulative readout then the system described in Fig.10 can be used. Anemometers will be
accurate to ±5% if maintained in good working order.

3.3 Suction

A variety of probes are available from the simple open ended 'tube to the static tapping of 'the N type
manometer. A manometer is also required, either liquid column or digital type.

The more sophisticated designs of probe are for situations where gas velocity is high and the angle at
which an open-ended tube is held to the gas stream would affect results. If, for example, an open-ended tube
was inclined 'towards the gas stream some dynamic I head would be measured and the static suction reading
would be reduced.

3.4 Oxygen and Carbon Monoxide

Two types of equipment exist for measuring oxygen and carbon monoxide. One is the Orsat equipment,
which uses solutions of potassium hydroxide, alkaline pyrogallol and cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid to
absorb carton dioxide, oxygen and carbon monoxide respectively. The quantity of gas absorbed from the sample
can be used to determine the proportion of each gas in the sample. A more modern development is the portable
gas analyzer which measures oxygen and combustibles in a gas stream which is Pumped through an electrical
fuel cell and a combustion cell respectively. The modern equipment has the advantage of continuous sampling
and a more rapid result. It is also fully portable and requires a minimum of setting up. The disadvantage is that
the measurement is of combustibles which can include a contribution from methane, hydrogen, hydrogen
sulphide etc as well as carbon monoxide. This limits the application if checking of carbon monoxide meters is
required.

As with temperature measurements, proper selecting of sampling points is required or misleading results
will be obtained. If using an Orsat and measuring near a source of inleaking air several samples will be needed
across the duct to ensure accuracy. With the continuous sampler measurement at several points and averaging
results will be required.

4. PLANT TESTING - MTHODS

This section describes in greater detail some of the methods of plant testing which may be used to
diagnose the reasons for changes in plant performance. As stated previously it is important with many of the
tests that comparable results taken during normal operation are available.

4.1 Raw Mill

The tests described in this section can, in many cases, be equally applied to coal mill circuits.

4.1.1 Inleaking Air

 In order to carry out an inleaking air survey on a raw milling system either actual measurements of the
gasflow at various points may be made, using a pitot tube, or measurements of the percentage of oxygen in the
gas may be made, using a portable oxygen analyzer, or a combination of these techniques may be used. The
choice of method may be dictated by the availability and dimensions of measuring points.

Where actual gasflows can be measured, the quantity of inleaking air between two points in the milling
circuit can be obtained by difference after the two measurements are referred to the same temperature and
pressure and corrected for any change in state, e.g. vaporization of moisture.

Where a portable oxygen analyzer is used, the inleaking air into the gas stream flowing from point A to
point B is given by:

Inleaking air = B–A x100%

20.9-B

Where B = % O2 at point B
A = % O2 at point A

Fig.11 illustrates a ball mill in closed circuit with a static separator, the raw meal being separated from
the gas steam by four cyclones.

Typical measuring points might be A to G as shown.

Points A & B would give the inleaking air through the air sea]

Points B & C would give the inleaking air through 'the mill inlet and outlet seals

Points D & E would give the inleaking air into the separator

Points F & G would give the inleaking air into the cyclones Points A & G would give the inleaking air
into the whole circuit.

(Note that this is not equal to the sum of the four individual inleaks).

Fig.12 shows a roller mill with product collection by a cyclone followed by an electrostatic precipitator.

Typical measuring points might be A to F as shown.

Points A & B would give 'the inleaking air into the mill (including via the raw feed airlock.)
Points C & D would give the inleaking air into the cyclone
Points E & F would give the inleaking air into the precipitator.

4.1.2 Suctions Across System

 A series of static pressure measurements along a duct or a system of ductwork, fans and other items of
plant can reveal restrictions to gasflow such as partly blocked ducts, dampers which are partly closed even
though indicating fully open externally, etc.

A sudden rise in suction when measurements are being taken in the direct-ion of gasflow (or vice versa)
indicates that an obstruction has just been passed.

4.1.3 Mill Gas Flows

The best means of determining raw mill gas flow depends on the arrangement of the gas ducts but if
adequate measurement points exist close to mill inlet a pitot survey alone will be sufficient. Measurement of
gas flow at the mill outlet is often difficult due to the heavy dust concentration blocking the pitot and it is advi-
sable to measure flow closer to the mill fan. in this case a survey of inleaking air will also be needed so that the
actual mill gas flow can be calculated. An example would be:

Measured gas flow at mill fan 1,417m3/min

Suction at mill fan 50mmwg
Oxygen at mill fan 14.0%
Temperature at mill fan 116 oC
Suction at mill inlet 50mmwg
Oxygen at mill inlet 10.0%
Temperature at mill inlet 343oC

Percentage of inleaking air = O2 fan - 02, inlet

O2 air - 02, fan

= 14.0 - 10.0
20.9 - 14.0

= 58.0%

Mill inlet flow = fan flow x Temperature inlet + 460

Temperature fan + 460

x Atmospheric Pressure - Suction at mill inlet x 100

Atmospheric Pressure - Suction at fan 100 + % inleak

= 1,417 x (343 + 273) x (10333 - 50) x 100

(116 + 273-) (10333 – 500) x 158

= 1485 m3/min at 343oC

4.1.4 Miscellaneous
 The details of test procedures for axial testing, media grading and percentage volume load, separator
efficiency and recirculating load are contained in the Mill Testing Paper. An example of a raw mill heat balance
is contained in the Mill Systems Paper.

4.2 Fans

The first step to establish if a fan is working to design capacity is to obtain the fan curve, and if not
available on site, to consult the manufacturers. The conditions for which the curve is constructed are also
necessary i.e.:

a) Is the curve for static or total pressure? Normally static curves are supplied which means that the pressure
difference across the fan is from dynamic inlet to static outlet heat. Total pressure is static to static.

b) What gas density is specified?

c) What fan speed is specified?

Fig.13 shows a typical manufacturers fan curve. To check fan operation the following data must be taken.

a) Fan shaft speed. Taken by tachometer or by a stroboscopic system.

b) Fan operating temperature. As most fans suffer from some inleak, which cools the gas, and also
inefficiency, which heats the gas, it is advisable to measure inlet and outlet temperatures and use an
average.

c) Fan capacity volume. Whether the fan volume is measured at inlet or outlet will normally depend on
access to sample points but inlet is usually preferred as this will also yield the data for dynamic heat -it the
fan inlet.

d) Fan operating heads. Static head is measured at fan outlet and dynamic heat at inlet if fan static pressure is
specified.

e) Fan motor power. Taken either from the kilowatt hour meter or ammeter (check accuracy).

The following example demonstrates the calculation necessary to check fan performance.

Fan shaft speed 952 rpm

Fan inlet temperature 260oC
Fan outlet temperature 263oC
Fan volume 1,417m3/min
Fan inlet suction - 508 mmwg
Fan inlet dynamic head - 493 mmwg
Fan outlet suction - 13 mmwg
Fan motor current 32.4 amps
Fan motor voltage 3.30 kV
Power factor 0.9
ran motor efficiency 0.37
Calculation:
Fan shaft power (input) = 145 kW
Fan average temperature = 261.5oC
Fan static pressure = - 493 - (13)

departure from this, such as shown in Fig.14, would signify inadequate mixing.

Continuous silos are treated as continuous flow stirred rank reactors and the average residence time must
be determined from the calculated half-life i.e. the time at which one half of the added tracer is calculated to
have left the silo. Fig.14 gives a test result which shows poor mixing and hence blending efficiency.

4.4 Kiln

4.4.1 Suctions

As with raw mills static pressure measurement can reveal restrictions to gas flow. Figs.16 and 17 show
the results of pressure surveys on two wet process kilns which are identical in size but have different chain
systems. In the case of kiln I (Fig.16). the static suction rises from 109 mmWG at the precipitator outlet to 155
mmWG at the ILD fan inlet, a difference of 46 mmWG. For kiln 2 (Fig.17) it rises from 137 mmWG to 206
mmWG, a difference of 69 mmWG. It is clear that the pressure drop is high for both kilns but particularly so for
kiln 2, where a partly blocked duct or partly closed damper is suspected. Internal inspection is required to
confirm these findings.

4.4.2 Temperatures

Measurement of temperature in a kiln system can be valuable for several reasons. Some examples are:

a) As an alternative to oxygen analysis to determine inleaking air. Although a kiln exhaust system
between the kiln exit and main fan will lose some gas temperature by radiation and convection,
the principal loss in temperature will be dilution by cold air. An approximation of inleaking air
can thus be determined by temperature.

b) To determine short-circuiting of raw meal beneath a distribution box or plate in a preheater. By

measuring the gas temperature between 2 and 4ft beneath the distribution plate any deviation
from the normal gas temperature may signify corrosion of the plate etc. An example is shown in
Fig.18.

c) As a check on control room temperature readings.

4.4.3 Inleaking Air

The portable oxygen analyzer is the most useful instrument for kiln inleaking air surveys.
Fan Size α dim 2 α dim3 α dim 5

If possible the first measuring point should be at the kiln back-end. Care should be taken to ensure that
the gas sample is taken from inside the kiln, and not from the back-end chamber where it could be contaminated
by inleaking air from the back-end seal.

A Sample from the back-end chamber may allow the inleaking air from the seal to be calculated, but
obtaining a good gas sample is not easy as good mixing between the kiln exhaust gases and the inleaking air will
not have been possible in the short distance involved.

For dry process kilns an oxygen analysis at the preheater exit will allow calculation of the inleaking air
into the preheater system.

For wet process kilns, readings may be made at various points between the back-end and the stack as
shown in Fig.16 and 17.

4.4.4 Cooler Testing

4.4.4.1 Cooler Air Balance

Airflow through the cooling fans can be measured either by anemometer at the fan inlet or by pitot tube
at the fan outlet provided that a measuring point can be found on a straight section of duct not too close to the
fan.

The primary air fan flow can be measured in a similar way to the above.

The exhaust fan airflow may be determined using a pitot tube. A series of measurements should be
taken, certainly at least two, and the average taken as conditions in the cooler will vary.

The quantity of secondary air passing into the kiln is not directly measurable and will have to be
calculated. This may be done from first principles if an analysis of the kiln fuel is known. More secondary air
than theoretically required by the fuel actually passes up the kiln as the presence of back-end oxygen indicates.
E.g. at 2% back-end oxygen 10% excess air passes up the kiln. Details of the method of calculation of the
secondary and excess air quantities from first principles are given in the Heat Balances paper. As a reasonable
approximation published values of the theoretical air requirements for various fuels may be used, e.g.

British steam coals 0.1 kg air/kg coal

Heavy fuel oil 3,500 sec Redwood No 1 3.7 kg air/kg coal

The quantity of air inleaking via the kiln hood should be included in the air balance - from experience a
figure of 5% of the secondary air quantity is a reasonable approximation. The cooler air balance then is:

Air from cooling fans + hood inleak = Secondary air + Exhaust air

Since the fan curve is defined at 960 rpm and 327oC it will be necessary to correct the fan curves to the
measured conditions using the table.
CHANGE ALTERATION
Fan Pressure Volume Power
Density α density No change α density
Speed α speed 2 α speed α speed 3
 Fan Size α dim 2 α dim3 α dim 5

the fan curve shown in Fig.13 is modified for actual conditions. Comparing the measured data with the modified
curve it can be seen in this example that the actual fan performance corresponds well to the specification. Also
possible is to correct the operating point measured to specified fan conditions and check that this point lays on
the original curve.

4.3 Blending

If blending performance is poor or deteriorating then the first check on plant must be to investigate the
air flow to the silo aeration system. A test using an anemometer to measure the air flow at the compressor inlets
together with noting the pressure supplied to the silo will indicate if the compressor is failing to deliver the
correct volume, or if high pressure and low flow are due to blocked tiles, pipes or canvas.

If the air flows, pressure and any changeovers of air flow between sections of the silo are as designed
then a silo tracer test may be useful to determine the flow of material in the silo. This comprises the addition of
a tracer substance to the silo feed and frequent sampling of the silo product to determine the concentration of the
tracer in the product. Fig.14 and 15 shows a typical test result for batch and continuous silos. The interpretation
of the graph differs for batch and continuous. The design of the batch silo is that the tracer in the product should
theoretically be at an average concentration throughout the discharge period. Anywhere in each case the air
quantity is expressed as kg per unit time.

Example of Cooler Air Balance

This is for a wet process grate cooler where a quantity of hot air is drawn off the cooler for use in the
coal milling circuit. It is cooled by the addition of ambient air before being drawn into the mill and it all passes
into the kiln as primary air.

Data Clinker throughput 41 tph

Airflows - fan 1 261 m3/min at 28oC

o
- fan 2 752 m3/min at 32 C
- fan 3 528 m3/min at 24oC
- fan 4 377 m3/min at 21oC
- fan 5 313 m3/min at 20oC
- cooler exhaust 1412 m3/min at 133oC
- to coal mill 673 m3/min at 300oC
- primary air 485 m3/min at 90oC

Dry coal consumption =150 kg/min from volumetric feeder calibration and coal density

Back end oxygen = 2%

Calculation of secondary air from cooler

Using theoretical air requirement of 10.1 kg air/kg coal

Air required = 150 x 10.1 kg/min

= 1515 kg/min

Excess air for back-end oxygen of 2% is 10%.

∴Actual air required 1515 x 1.1 = 1667 kg/min

IF hood inleak = 5% of actual airflow

Hood inleak = 83 kg/min

Also primary air = 472 kg/min

∴Secondary air from cooler = 1667 - 83 - 472

= 1112 kg/min

Air Balance

Air from cooling fans = Secondary air + exhaust air + hood inleak + air to coal mill

Cooling fans : No 1 306 kg/min

2 870 kg/min
3 627 kg/min
4 453 kg/min
5 376 kg/min

Σ = 2632 kg/min

Hood inleak 83 kg/min

Σ = 2715 kg/min

Cooler exhaust air 1228 kg/min

Air to coal mill 415 kg/min
Secondary air 1112 kg/min

Σ = 2755 kg/min

Difference 40 kg/min

This suggests that the hood inleak has been under-estimated and should be in fact 7%.
4.4.4.2 Cooler Efficiency

In order to calculate the cooler efficiency, we need to know the heat content of the clinker leaving the
kiln and passing into the cooler. Determination of the temperature of the clinker as it falls into the cooler is not
easy as direct vision at this point may be impossible due to the design of the kiln hood. Also, dust coming up
from the cooler with the secondary air may obscure the clinker.

If vision is possible a disappearing filament pyrometer or an infra-red pyrometer can be used to measure
the clinker temperature.

If not, then from experience the following clinker temperatures can be used as reasonable
approximations:

Wet process kiln 1,350oC

Long dry process kiln 1,300oC
Reheater kiln 1,275oC

A further temperature we require to know is the temperature of the clinker as it leaves the cooler.
Normally the best, method to employ is to sample the clinker using a scoop and transfer it to an insulated
container. A thermocouple should be inserted into the center of the sample and the temperature reading
observed until the maximum is reached. The maximum temperature is the required cooler exit clinker
temperature. A series of at least three determinations should be carried out and the average taken.

The thermal efficiency (E) of a cooler is defined as:

E = (A-B) x 100% or C x 100%

A A

Where A = heat content of clinker leaving the kiln

B = heat losses from the cooler.

B can consist of heat loss in excess or exhaust air, heat contained in the clinker leaving the cooler,
radiation or other losses.

C is the heat content of the secondary air returned to the kiln.

The secondary air temperature is very difficult to measure accurately and so the cooler efficiency is
normally calculated using the first formula.

The heat content of the clinker leaving the kiln is calculated from its temperature (see above) and the
clinker output of the kiln.

The heat losses from the cooler include:

(i) Heat loss in exhaust air, calculated from exhaust. air quantity (see section 4.4.4.1) and
temperature.
 (ii) Heat in clinker leaving cooler, calculated from clinker output and temperature (see above).

(iii) Heat lost by radiation and convection from cooler shell (see Heat Balances paper)

Example of Cooler Efficiency Calculation

The data for the example of a Cooler Air Balance will be used again here, together with the following:

Clinker temperature at cooler exit = 100oC

Clinker temperature at kiln exit = 1276oC

A heat balance over the cooler can now be constructed using 'the principles described in the heat balance
paper. The datum temperature used is 0oC.

Heat In

Cooling fans : No.1 3.0 kcal/kg

2 9.8 kcal/kg
3 5.3 kcal/kg
4 3.3 kcal/kg
5 3.2 kcal/kg

= 24.6 kcal/kg

Hood inleak @ 28oC 0.8 kcal/kg

Clinker from kiln 315.2 kcal/kg

= 340.6 kcal/kg

Heat Out

Radiation & Convection, determined as described later 14.8 kcal/kg

Clinker from cooler 24.7 kcal/kg
Cooler exhaust air 56.4 kcal/kg
To coal mill 43.0 kcal/kg
Secondary air (by difference) 201.7 kcal/kg

= 340.6 kcal/kg

Cooler thermal efficiency E = (A - B) x 100%

A
 A = heat content of clinker leaving kiln = 315.2 kcal/kg

B = heat losses = Heat in radiation and convection + clinker from cooler + cooler exhaust air +
air to coal mill

ie B = 14.8 + 24.7 + 56.4 + 43.0 = 138.9 kcal/kg

∴E = 315.2 - 138.9 x 100 = 55.9%

315.2

4.4.5 Alkali Cycles

Changes in behavior in a kiln system may occur as a result of alteration to alkali balances within a kiln
system. It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss the factors which might effect alkali cycles but the effect
of a higher level of alkali in the kiln feed and dust can be to increase the frequency of build-up within the kiln or
preheater, form coating on the plates of a precipitator which will decrease the efficiency of the precipitator or
increase the pressure drop through a bag filter.

Sampling to establish the alkali cycles within a kiln system requires that the samples are taken at
relevant points within the system. Fig.19a shows the points at which samples need to be taken on a wet process
kiln if a full alkali balance is required. Fig.19b is the type of cycle diagram which can be constructed from the
laboratory analysis. A separate cycle diagram should be constructed for each of the species. As with other
information it is important that data on alkali cycles should be available under normal running conditions such
that any change to operating conditions, dust return, raw materials etc can be monitored.

4.4.6 Heat Balance

The reasons why heat balances are useful to the cement plant operator and the way in which they are
calculated, are covered in detail in the Heat Balances paper. It is the purpose of this section solely to indicate
how the raw data required for these calculations can be obtained.

The data listed below is that required for the heat balance on a wet process kiln with grate cooler
included in the Heat Balances paper, but similar information is needed whatever process or fuel type is being
used.
(1) Clinker output - normally calculated from kiln feed using a feed to clinker ratio calculated for a
long period of time. Make sure that this ratio has not been "modified" to make a clinker stock
correction.

(2) Raw coal consumption - Very often no raw coal weigher exists and the coal feed to the kiln is on
a volumetric basis. This can sometimes be calibrated and a coal density used to give a lb/hour
figure. Any errors in the raw coal consumption will show up in the failure of the heat balance
calculations to balance and an iterative procedure can be used to correct the coal input, Oil and
gas flows to kilns are usually metered and it is only necessary to read the flow rate at the time of
the test.

(3) Slurry moisture (or raw meal moisture) - can be determined by the works laboratory on a sample
taken at the time of the heat balances.
(4) Dust loss - it is usually possible to direct the precipitator dust into a lorry and to weigh several
hours' dust on the works weighbridge.

(5) Clinker temperature leaving cooler - procedure described in section 4.4.4.2.

(6) Exhaust air from cooler

- quantity by pitot tube, see section 4.4.4.1

- temperature by thermometer.

(7) Kiln exit gas temperature - the value of this variable will be available to the kiln burner but,
unless the back-end thermocouple is known to be accurate, it should be checked using a
thermometer.

(8) Kiln exit gas analysis - 02 and CO can be determined using a portable combustion optimizer. An
Orsat will give 02, CO and C02. An average of several readings should be used.

(9) Temperatures of slurry (raw meal), coal and air at cooler -by thermometer.

(10) Coal - moisture can be determined by works laboratory on a sample taken at the time of the heat
balance.

- calorific value by works laboratory or fuel supplier.

- analysis by works laboratory or fuel supplier.

(11) Clinker analysis - by works laboratory. Average of hourly samples during period of test.

(12) Raw meal and dust analyses - by works laboratory. Average of hourly samples during period of
test.

(13) Kiln shell losses - Using an infra-red pyrometer the kiln shell temperature should be measured at
ten feet intervals along the length of the kiln. At each measuring point, the maximum and
minimum shells temperatures should be recorded. Table 6, together with figures 11c and 1ld in
the Heat Balances paper, allow the heat lost from the kiln shell to be calculated.
Example for one 3 meter long section of shell

o
Maximum temperature 254 C
o
Minimum temperature 211 C
Diameter of kiln shell (external) 6 meters
Measuring interval 3 meters
Wind Medium
o
Ambient temperature 20 C

From figure 11c of Heat Balances paper:

Heat loss = 4650 kcal/m2/hour

Area of shell section = π.6.3 = 56.5m2

∴ Heat loss = 262,000 kcal/hour

This procedure is repeated for each 3 meter section of shell and 'the individual heat losses are totaled.

(14) Cooler shell losses - These can be calculated in a similar way to the kiln shell losses, whether the
cooler is cylindrical or square section.

4.5 Cement Mill

4.5.1 Suction

As with the raw mill, a survey of suctions through the cement mill system can identify blockages,
failures in dampers etc.

4.5.2 Inleak

In cement milling, air is the only gas involved so the portable oxygen analyzer is of no help to us. At
points where the measurement of airflow by pitot tube is difficult, e.g. at the mill inlet because of the presence
or reed chutes, conveyors and feeders, it may be necessary to use vane or hot wire anemometers.

A further method of measuring the airflow is by the injection of an inert gas tracer. The practice is to
inject a known quantity of tracer into the air stream and measure the concentration of this at a point further
downstream. For a cement mill the tracer is injected at the mill inlet and its concentration is measured at the mill
outlet.
 Fig.20 shows the principle of the nitrous oxide tracer method in use to determine airflow through a mill.

The airflow is calculated as in the following example.

N2O volume : If N20 input = x m3/hour at TgOC

Volume at sample point = x (273 + Ts) m3/hour

(273 + Tg)

Where TsOC is the sample temperature.

Air volume : If air volume = V m3/hour at TsOC

then Parts per million N20 = x (273 + Ts)

(273 + Tg) x 106
V

So if P is the value of parts 6 per million N20 from the detector,

then V = x (273 + TS) 106 m3/hour
P (273 + Tg)

e.g. If Ts = 15.5OC
Tg = OOC
x = 0.072 m3/hour
P = 49 parts per million N20 from detector

Then V = 0.072 x 288.5 x 106 = 1,552m3/hour

49 x 273

The determination of the airflow at the mill inlet, as well as being the basic measurement of airflow in
the mill circuit to which the inleaking air volumes may be related, also allows the number of air changes per
minute in the mill to be calculated. Only the mill inlet airflow is free of the likelihood of inleaking air.

Measurements of airflow at other points in the cement mill system are normally carried out using the
pitot tube.

4.5.3 Mill Gas Flows

It is seldom that adequate measuring points are available for measurement of mill air flow. With a
minority of cement mills air ventilation can be measured at the mill inlet using an anemometer. However, this
type is relatively rare and as with raw mills, the best technique requires measurement of the inleaking air into
the mill system together with an air volume at a convenient measuring point. The actual air entering the mill can
then be back-calculated.
4.5.4 Heat Balance

Refer to Appendix of "Milling Systems" paper.

4.5.5 Miscellaneous

The methods used for axial testing, media grading, separator efficiency and circulating load are
explained in the "Mill Testing" paper.

TABLE 1

CORRECTION 0F RAW MILL SPECIFIC POWER CONSUMPTION FOR

CHANGES IN PRODUCT RESIDUE

Formula used is Bond's Law

kWh/t = K (10 - 10)

(√P1 √P2)

Where K is Bond Grindability factor established by test or by current raw mill performance.

P1 is 80% passing size in micron for new product size.

P2 is 80% passing size in micron for original product size.

An example of formula use in the case of a raw mill product changing from 10% residue on 90 micron to
5% residue on 90 micron.

K = 13.52 kWh/t

Original mill specific power consumption 16.00 kWh/t

Obtained from (P1 = 48 micron (30% passing, new product)

Conversion (
curve (P2 = 63 micron (80% passing, original product)

Additional power consumption = 13.52 ( 10 - 10

(√48 √63)

= 2.48 kWh/t

Final power consumption = 18.48 kWh/t

TABLE 2
 CORRECTI0N OF BLENDING AND KILN FEED SAMPLES

0bjective: To correct the 24 hour standard deviation of differing sample frequency to a common basis,
usually I hour frequency.

For example: 24 hour standard deviation of kiln feed LSF

= 2.02 sampled every 2 hours.

To correct to 1 hour basis multiply by

= 2 .02 x 1 .14

= 2.30
 TABLE 3

EFFECT OF COAL MOISTURE AND ASH VS FUEL CONSUMPTION FOR WET

AND PREHEATER PROCESS KILNS

A. PREHEATER

B. WET
TABLE 4

CALCULATI0N OF CORRECTED BACK END TEMPERATURE

Measured kiln exit temperature 260oC

Kiln production 768 tpd
Measured water flow 83 kg/min
Kiln exit oxygen 2.0%
Kiln fuel consumption 1167 kcal/kg
Feed calcium carbonate 78.0%

1. Calculation of gas quantities

kg/kg clinker

C02 ex feed 0.5485

ex fuel 0.4408

TOTAL 0.9893

N2 ex combustion gas 1.2547

ex excess air 0.1511

TOTAL 1.4158

02 ex excess air 0.0612

H20 ex coal 0.0180
ex feed 0.0032

TOTAL 0.0212

2. Total heat content of gases to kiln exit

Heat content = (0.9893 x 0.245

above 0oC + 1.4158 x 0.2500
+ 0.0612 x 0.232) x T
+ 0.0212 x 0.460 x (T - 100) + 0.0212 x 658

= 0.6203T + 13.0
TABLE 4 CONTINUED

3 Total heat content of gases ex kiln (including water)

22 water = 83 kg/min

Kiln production = 542 kg/min

∴water spray = 0.1533 kg water/kg clinker

Heat content = (0.9893 x 0.230

+ (1.4158 x 0.249
+ (0.0612 x 0.227) x 260
+ (0.1745 x 657 + 0.1745 x 0.450 x 160)

= 154.4 + 127.2

= 281.6

4. "Real" kiln exit temperature

0.6203T + 13.0 = 281.5

∴T = 433oC
 TABLE 5

SAMPLE OF PREDICTED LIFE OF REFRACTORY

BASED ON 1980 1986 DATA

ZOINE LIFE
(in from nose) (weeks)
0 - 1.5 31
1.5 - 3.0 37
1st tyre 3.0 - 4.5 27
4.5 - 6.0 28
6.0 - 7.5 22
7.5 - 9.0 23
9.0 - 10.5 27
10.5 - 12.0 33
12.0 - 13.5 32
13.5 - 15.0 41
15.0 - 16.5 40
16.5 - 19.0 37

2nd tyre 18.0 - 20.0 33

20.0 - 21.5 48
21.5 - 23.0 69
23.0 - 24.5 93
24.5 - 26.0 116
26,0 - 27.5 128
27.5 - 29.0 125
2-9.0 - 30.5 103
30.5 - 32.0 145
32.0 - 33.5 153

3rd tyre 33.5 - 35.0 155

35.0 - 36.5 180
TABLE 6
L0SS OF HEAT By CONVECTION AND RADIATION

MAXIMUM MINIMUM HEAT LOSSES AREA OF TOTAL

TEMPRATURE TEMPERATURE FROM CHARTS SHELL LOSSES
oC oC
kcal/m3/h m2 kcal/h

1 254 211 235.4 4650 56.5 262,000

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
 TEMPERATURE PROFILE OF COOLER EXHAUST DUCT

CRUSHER

FIGURE 7 - Temperature profile of Cooler Exhaust

Dust
 FIGURE 9a AND 9b PITOT TRAVERSE POINTS
Round and rectangular Ducts

Note:Diameters given in mm and all measuring points quoted as fraction of Diameter.

For rectangular cross sections an effective diameter of Def = 0.5 x (H + B) is calculated, then use the
number of measuring points as tabulated above.

e.g. A duct measures 1000 mm by 600 mm

Def = 0.5 x (1000 + 600) = 800 mm

Corresponding to 2 x 6 i.e. 12 measuring points distributed as shown.

FIGURE 10 - Helical pattern to be described on circular inlet duct to fans. Describe one helix into centre and
return to start through same pattern. Move anemometer at equal velocity throughout.
Approximate traverse time 1-1.5 mins total.
FIGURE 18- Temperature distribution across riser duct measured approx. 0.6m below distribution plate.
indicates some short circuiting of meal may be taking place in area of low temperature (5100C),
probably due to deformed distribution plate. Temperatures across duct measured 5m above this
position varied only between 479 and 490 0C.
FIGURE 19- a) samples necessary in wet process kiln to obtain alkali balance. Note a proportion of the
filter dust discarde the remainder insufflated.

b) Alka1i cycle for the kiln. Each of K20, Na20 , Cl, SO3 has a separate diagram and the
width of the strip represents a mass flow of the material.
 Blue Circle Cement

PROCESS ENGINEERING
TRAINING PROGRAM

Module 4

Section 2

Mill Testing
1 INTRODUCTION

The efficiency of grinding depends upon a number of factors, and a variation of one or more of
these causes deterioration of mill performance. If this goes unchecked very inefficient grinding
occurs resulting in a very poor quality mill product. Careful routine observation of mill residues
and power used for the grinding process will show when efficiency begins to fall off and whether a
thorough check on performance is necessary.

2 MONITORING MILL PERFORMANCE

In order to monitor a mills performance, the following data is required:

1. Mill Throughput
2. Power Drawn
3. Mill Product Quality
4. Feed Grindability
5. Mill Temperature/Product
Temperature
6. Mill Air Flow/Cooling

Much of the above information should normally be recorded as part of the Works routine procedures. Where
routine data is unobtainable or is suspect then the following tests and checks may be carried out.

2.1 MILL THROUGHPUT TESTS

2.1.1 WEIGH FEEDERS

All too often weigh feeders can give a misleading picture of a mills throughput. Direct readings of the mill
throughput from a weigh feeder or totaliser are subject to possible errors in the calibration of the feeder.
Regular checks on the calibration of feeders in accordance with manufacturers recommended procedures can
reduce the degree of error.

A simple method of checking the accuracy of a weigh feeder is by measuring the weight of material over a
known length of belt under steady feed conditions, knowing the belt speed enables the throughput to be
estimated. Sufficient length of belt must be sampled and account taken of any cyclic variation in feed rate if this
method is to be accurate.

Chain tests can be used to check the accuracy of weigh feeders. After zeroing the scale, the weigher
belt is loaded up with a set of chains which are calibrated to cover the weighing range of the scales.
The scale indicator and recorder can be checked from a knowledge of the chain loading and belt
speed.

2.1.2 SALT TESTS

Another method for determining throughput is the salt test, where salt is used as a tracer
through the mill. Under steady conditions a constant amount oil salt is added to the mill feed and the
rise in chloride level of the mill product is observed. A typical procedure for a Salt Test on a cement
mill would be as follows:
1 ) Sample the mill feed and finished cement for approximately 30 minutes before starting the test
in order to establish control conditions.
2) When the mill is running steadily add accurately measured equal quantities of salt at regular
intervals for a period of two hours. The addition rate of rate should be approximately 0.5% of the
mill output per minute.
3) Sample the mill product at regular intervals for up to 3 hours.
4) Analyze the samples for chloride using the chromate direct titration method. Determine the
purity of the salt added and determine the chloride content of the clinker and gypsum feed.

5) Plot a graph of % CI against time and note the steady average value to which the chloride level
rises. (M) as shown in Figure 14.1.

6) Determine the output by the following mass balance where:

X = Chloride entering mill in kg/min

y = Cement Mill Output
Z = % Chloride in the cement prior to salt addition
M = % Chloride in the cement after salt addition

M= X + Zy x 100
Then NaCl X + y
Cl

From which y may be calculated

(NaCl)
y = X(100_- M Cl
M - 100Z
2.1.3 CEMENT WEIGH OFF

In this test the cement mills product is diverted into an empty clean silo where it can be separately packed
off and weighed. For valid results, the test must be run for sufficiently long time, i.e. at least 24 hours.
Errors will arise if the silo used cannot be effectively emptied out before and after the test due to build up.

2.1.4 CLINKER DROP TESTS AND VOLUME MEASUREMENTS

In cases where space allows for the collection of feed belt material, a drop test may be carried out by
diverting the material through some form, of by-pass into a preweighed dumper. By collecting the feed
material over a known period the mill throughput can be estimated.

Another method which is not particularly accurate but which can be used to give a rough guide to mill
output, is the method of measuring the fall in level of clinker in a feed hopper, whilst the mill is running
with a steady feed.

Samples are taken during the test to determine the clinker bulk density and the SO3 level in the clinker and
finished cement. An SO3 mass balance then enables the gypsum addition rate to be calculated whilst the
clinker throughput is estimated from the bulk density and fall in volume in the hopper. Errors arise in this
method from level measurements and differences in the degree of compaction and segregation affects
which may alter the bulk density of clinker in the hopper from that measured on the feed belt.

2.2 POWER DRAWN

The most useful method of checking the power drawn by a mill is by taking routine readings from an
integrating kWh meter. Such readings are very often taken on a weekly basis. Spot checks can be made by
timing a number of revolutions of the disc of the kWh meter and applying the appropriate correction factor for
the meter. If neither of these tests can be carried out, then an estimate of the power drawn can be made from
ammeter readings. A knowledge of the voltage and power factor enables the power drawn to be deduced
though such estimates are often subject to large errors. From records of the mill throughput and the power
drawn, the power consumption in kWh/tonnes is calculated.

Power = (sq. root of 3) V.I Cos θ, where V = Voltage, I = Current, Cos θ = power factor

2.3 MILL PRODUCT QUALITY

When referring to a mills output, reference should also be made to those quality aspects which can affect the
output. It is normal to check a cement mills product for surface area and sieve residues at 90 and 300 microns. A
record of S03 content is important as the form of sulphate addition, whether it be gypsum or anhydrite can have
a significant effect on mill outputs by altering the grindability of the feed.
2.4 FEED GRINDABILITY

Changes in the grindability of the clinker can affect mill performance and so it is advisable to carry out
grindability tests on the clinker at regular intervals. When carrying out- axial tests on a mill, as will be described
in greater detail later on in this paper, it is recommended that approximately 50 kg of average clinker sample is
taken for a grindability test to be carried out. The result of this test enables the actual mill performance to be
compared with the theoretical performance and is useful in showing how efficiently the mill and individual
chambers are performing, highlighting areas of the mill where the performance can be improved by alterations
to the mill charge etc.

2.5 TEMPERATURE

Problems arise when hot clinker is fed to a mill or the mills cooling system i.e. induced draught or water injection
do not function properly. Thermocouples can be used to monitor both feed and product temperatures and the
latter can be used to control a water injection control loop.

2.6 AIR FLOW Closed

Open 2-3 vols/min

For adequate ventilation, the quantity of air through the mill should be 2-3 volume changes of air per
minute. Here the term volume refers to the free volume above the charge in the mill and estimates are made
using a standard temperature of 110o C.

There are a number of difficulties involved in making measurements of air flow through a mill.
Measurements taken around the ducting leading to the dust filtering plant can be meaningless if the mill has
poor seals as the resultant air flow figures are more likely to indicate inleak rather than ventilation air flow.

Measurements recently taken at one U.K. Works indicated that whilst the air flow through the cement mill
filtering plants was adequate, only 20% of this air flow was actually being drawn through the mill owing to
poor mill outlet seals. Pitot measurements in this region suffer from problems of blocking pitot tubes due to
dust and humidity. To measure the quantity of air actually flowing through the mill, an anemometer can be
used at the mill inlet with the feed rate off the mill. Draught indicators may be provided at the mill inlet to
give some rough idea of the quantity of cooling air through the mill. The differential pressure across a
cement mill being typically 40-60 mm w.g.

Another method of assessing the air flow through the mill is to use nitrous oxide into the mill inlet as a tracer.
The concentration of N20 in the exit air is measured using an infra red detector. Figure 14.2 shows 'he
arrangement for N20 tracer testing on a mill.

If either the routine performance data or any of the above tests show that there has been a deterioration in the
performance of a particular mill, then it is advisable to carry out a more detailed examination into the internal
state of the mill as well as an axial test.
3 AXIAL SAMPLING TESTS

An axial sampling test is a means of determining how well a mill is grinding along its length. Such a 'Lest can
highlight areas within the mill where the grinding is not being carried out as efficiently as it should be. When
coupled with the results for grindability test it is then possible to compare the overall performance of the mill as
well as individual mill chambers with the theoretical performance predicted.

3.1 PROCFDURE FOR AN AXIAL TEST

a. Sample the mill feed and product' under steady conditions for approximately 40 minutes prior to
stopping the mill. Record the mill output and power consumption.

b. Stop both the mill and the feeder simultaneously. If the feed is stopped before the mill then the
residual material within the mill will be ground finer than normal and this will make the overall mill
efficiency appear higher than it actually is.

c. After allowing sufficient time for cooling, enter the mill and take axial samples. Divide up the mill
internally into sampling points approximately 10 per chamber or typically 50 cm apart. Samples should
also be taken at the diaphragms. At each point on the axis, an average sample should be taken of the
material along a line at right angles to the axis of the mill. The material should be taken from points a
few inches below the ball charge and not from the surface. In the case of a three chambered mill, take
larger samples in the first and second chambers than in the third chamber.

d. Allow the samples to cool before measuring the surface area in the case of a cement mill, or sieve
residues in the case of a raw mill. The coarser samples whose surface area cannot be measured directly
must be graded and their surface areas calculated from Figure 14.3. For a cement mill, a check should
also be made on sieve residue of samples throughout the mill.

e. Measure the height above the charge and calculate the % volume loading from Figure 14.4. From this
the weight of media in each chamber can be calculated using a value for the average media bulk density,
if none is available then a bulk density of approximately 4480 kg/m3 can be assumed. The height above
the charge is best measured with the filling slightly run down, otherwise a false high value for volume
load will be obtained.

f. Using the power equation, calculate the power absorbed by each mill chamber and for the mill overall.
Compare this with the figures obtained from the kWh meters.

Ratio

Net/Gross = 0.9 → 0.95

Avg = 0.93

Nett kW = 0.2846 D.A.W.N. D= Mill diameter inside the

W = Weight of media in tonnes lining in metres

N = Mill speed in rev/min A= 1.073-J where J is the

fractional volume loading
Gross @ motor
 CLINKER GRADE mm SURFACE AREA
B.S. SIEVE m2/kg
+ 3"/4 +19 0-2
-3/4” + 3"/8 - 19 +9.5 0-3

-3/8” + 3"/16 - 9.5 +4.8 0-6

-3/16” +7 - 4.8 +2.4 1-1

-7 + 14 - 2.4 +1.2 1 - 83

-14 + 25 - 1.2 +0.6 3 - 46

-25 + 52 - 0.6 +0.3 6 - 42

-52 +100 - 0.3 +0.15 17 - 8

-100 - 0.15 Measured directly

(Lea Nurse)

Fig. 14.3 Surface Area of Different Clinker Grades

 g. Plot an axial graph of surface area (cement mill) or residue (raw mill) against the mill length or the
nett kW drawn. Normally one plots surface area against nett kW drawn with a cement mill where
we are concerned with the rate at which surface area is produced for the power absorbed along the
mill. If theweight of charge per unit length is the same throughout the mill then surface area can be
plotted against mill length. However, more often than not this is not the case with mills of more
than one chamber where the volume load can vary between the chambers.

The axial graph should show a steady rise, smooth curve, in surface area along the mill. If the graph
contains any flat sections or sections where the rate of surface production is low as indicated by a
shallow slope of the graph, then this indicates areas of the mill where 'the efficiency is low due to:

Compare to grindability (theoretical)

Incorrect ball size

Insufficient charge

Blocked diaphragms

h. Calculate the surface production for the mill overall as well as the surface production for the
individual chambers using the following formula

Surface Production = (SB - SA) T. 103

P

where SA = Surface area (m 2 /kg) of material entering mill or mill chamber

SB = Surface area of material leaving mill or mill chamber

T = Tonnage (tph)

P = Power drawn by mill/chamber (kW)

The efficiency of the mill or chamber is expressed by the relationship

Efficiency = 100 x Actual surface production

Theoretical surface production

The theoretical surface production is predicted from the grindability curve for the feed materials. The method
of calculating the theoretical performance is somewhat involved and a worked example is given in Appendix
3 - It is assumed that a reasonable rate of surface production for a mill grinding standard clinker up to a
surface area of 250 m 3 /kg is 115 x 102 m2/kWh. From this base figure, making due corrections for surface
area and grindability the theoretical performance can be predicted for the mill.
 i. Take samples of the media in each chamber. Dig into the load in order to obtain these and take several
samples along the axis of the mill particularly in the case where the mill has a classifying
lining fitted.

Record the weight, number and size of the media withdrawn from the mill together with
the sampling position. Plot a graph of average ball diameter against distance along mill
axis.

j. Carry out a size grading of the feed clinker. This is important when determining the size
of media to be added to the mills first chamber. Usually the maximum feed size dictates
the maximum ball size that should be added to the first chamber of the mill, for
example, for 19 mm clinker the typical maximum media size is approximately 90 mm.

4 AXIAL TEST FOR A CEMENT MILL - PRACTICAL EXAMPLE

Figure 14.5 shows the results of two axial tests carried out on a 2,500 kW cement mill. The solid line represents
the results with the mill producing 55.8 tph cement at a power consumption of 44.8 kWh/tonne. This line shows
a poor rate of surface production in the third chamber. If the mill tonnage was raised in order to reach the
guarantee of 60 tph, then the first chamber diaphragm blocked. It was therefore decided to add an additional 2
tonnes of 60 mm media to the first chamber.

The smaller sized media was chosen owing to the small feed size of the clinker. To improve the performance of
the third chamber, some 7 tonnes of 19 mm media were added. This resulted in the following alterations to the
mills load:

Weight of Charge Media

Before After Size Range
1st chamber 45 47 100 - 60 mm
2nd chamber 39 39 50 - 30 mm
3rd chamber 88 95 25 - 19 mm

TOTAL 172 181

The resulting improvement in mill output led to an increase in output from 55.8 to 62 tph as well as a reduction
in power consumption from 44.8 to 41.1 kWh/tonne, a saving of 3.7 kWh/tonne. It can be seen that the results
of a second axial test carried out after the above media additions, show a gradual rise in surface area throughout
the mill and that the areas of poor surface production have been eliminated.
5 MILL INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

During an axial test or as part of a programme of routine mill maintenance, it is usual to carry out an
examination of 'the mill internals. Special attention should be paid to the following points:

5.1.1 LINING PLATES

Examine the plates for any signs of wear, coating and breakage. Normally one expects a reasonably long life
from lining plates and it is important to keep an eye out for any unexpected wear or breakages so that
suppliers quality can be checked.

5.1.2 DIAPHRAGMS

Examine the diaphragm for any breakages, wear and blockage. If the diaphragm shows signs of blockage then it
is important to determine what has caused the blockage as this can affect what action needs to be taken, for
example, the presence of nibs could indicate the absence of sufficient quantities of larger size media.

5.1.3 MEDIA

Inspect the media for wear and breakages. From the results of the axial test ball grading, check the grading
against the specified grading if this exists and from this determine what sized media should be added or whether
or not the charge should be regraded. Note any differences between the media levels in each chamber since too
great a step up in level can cause hold ups along the mill unless a lifter type diaphragm is used. Note any coating
of the media due to poor mill ventilation or moisture.

5.1.4 VOIDAGE FILLING

During an axial test check whether the feed material fills the voids of the balls. Overfilling may indicate
diaphragm blockages and a restriction to flow whilst under-filling could be causing excessive ball wear and
heat generation. If a mill has been brought down for examination due to a specific fault, for example, its
output has fallen or nibs are present in the product, then there are a number of possible explanations for this.
Appendix 1 lists some common cement mill faults together with their possible causes and remedies.

5.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF REGULAR MILL MAINTENANCE AND THE

USE OF AXIAL TESTS
Figure 14.6 illustrates the importance of regularly maintaining the correct level of charge in a mill by indicating
what happens when the charge is allowed to run down in a dry raw mill, over a period of time. It can be seen
that as the power drawn by the mill has fallen due to wear on the charge, the tonnage has fallen and the
kWh/tonne have risen.

Approximately £9,000 per annum could be saved on power costs by restoring the mill to its previous
performance. In addition to power savings there would have been additional benefits due to increased raw
meal availability.
 By regularly monitoring the mills performance and by carrying out axial tests from time to time, it should
be possible to determine the optimum performance from a mill. In addition to providing information on
how efficiently the grinding process is being carried out within a given mill, axial tests also enable an
insight to be given into the effect of other process changes which can affect the mills performance. For
example, 'he effects of clinker pre-crushing, changes in gypsum addition rate and feeding cooler clinker
to cement mills can all be investigated more thoroughly by means of axial tests.

There is a tendency to only consider carrying out an axial test and other mill tests when something has
'gone wrong' and a mill is not performing as well as it should. However it is equally important to carry
out axial tests when a mill is performing well so that we can establish why it is performing well. By
carrying out axial tests on a regular basis it is possible to build up a record of mill operating data, thereby,
enabling factors such as optimum charge grading to be determined.

6 WET RAW MILL TESTING

 The principles behind cement mill testing apply equally to wet mill testing. The test methods differ only in
detail due to the differences between the physical properties of a slurry compared with a fine powder such as
cement or raw meal. In a wet mill, or for that matter, a dry raw mill, we are more concerned with the residue
of the milled material and not its surface area.
It is possible to carry out an axial test on a wet mill although these tests tend to be carried out less frequently
than tests on cement mills. This is partly due to the difficulties that arise when sampling within the mill.

6.1 AXIAL SAMPLING TESTS ON A WET MILL

It is not so straightforward carrying out an axial test on a wet mill as it is on a cement mill. The procedure
is similar to an axial test on a cement mill with the following differences:

a. It is necessary to sample the mill as quickly as possible as the slurry will settle out quite quickly within
the mill and it is often necessary to dig down below the load.

b. The samples should be wet sieved at 90 and 300 microns and moisture determinations carried out.

c. Plot the axial sample curve for 90 and 300 micron sieve residues against mill length or power
drawn.

The power drawn is assumed proportional to distance along any chamber but can vary between
individual chambers depending upon the volume loading and can be calculated as follows:

Nett kW 0.9 x 0.2846 D (1.073-J)

where 0.9 represents a typical figure for the slip factor in wet grinding.

d. The tests for measuring power are the same as shown previously. A simple method for checking the
output is as follows:

Run the mill's product into an empty slurry mixer for several hours with the mill under steady feed
conditions. Measure the depth of the slurry in the mixer before and after the test and determine the
average slurry moisture and density. From the mixers dimensions, the total volume of slurry and hence
the weight of dry raw materials can be calculated.

e. If the mill has been stopped because of a specific fault or it is known that its performance has
deteriorated, then an inspection of the mill internals is required. Appendix 2 lists some common wet
raw mill faults together with possible explanations and the remedial action that can be taken to cure
them.
7 AXIAL TEST FOR A WET RAW MILL – PRACTICAL EXAMPLE

Figure 14.7 shows the results of axial tests carried out on two 3,000 HP wet raw mills. The mills were of the
same design and were charged with approximately the same overall quantity of media. No. I mill was fitted
with three Danula rings which were not fitted in No. 2 mill. The distribution of the charge was also different
with No. I mill having proportionally more media in its first chamber. From the following table it will be seen
that the performance of No. I mill is superior to No. 2 mill:

Mill No. Dry TPH kWh/tonne % Residue

300 µm 90 µm
1 122.9 17.6 1.8 14.3
2 115.9 18.1 3.3 15.3

It can be seen that the residues are generally lower throughout the length of No. 1 mill compared with No. 2
mill. No. I mill was better grinding downmaterial which would end up as residue on the 300 µm sieve by
preparing a finer feed to the mills second chamber.

In this case, it can be seen how axial tests can be used to highlight differences in the grinding action between
similar mills. The tests are particularly useful in cases where, for example, it is known that one mill of particular
group of similar mills is known to perform consistently better than its neighbours. Axial tests can be used to give
indications why differences occur, and thereby enable the optimum operating parameters such as charge quantity
and grading to be determined.
APPENDIX 1

CEMENT MILL FAULTS

1. OUTPUT DESCREASES
Possible cause Remedy

a. Increase in clinker hardness and Examine raw feed composition and

b. Mill Charge too
c. Mill volume loading too
kiln burning conditions.
Dump charge, regrade and make up
new charge.
Measure each chamber and add
correct tonnage of new bodies.

d. Too small bodies used for make Charge should be dumped and
regraded, or (Less satisfactory) use
largest bodies for make up.
e. Diaphragm slots partially Inspect Diaphragms clean
slots. Further action as in
f. Fractured Replace section

2. CEMENT TOO COARSE Remedy

Possible cause
Examine raw feed composition and
a. increase in clinker hardness kiln burning conditions.
and size
Make up with smaller media e.g.
b. Grinding media too large 50/50 of the two smallest sizes.
Measure each chamber and add
c. Mill Volume Loading too low
correct tonnage of new bodies.
d. Diaphragm slots too worn Replace as soon as possible, (with
steel diaphragms, weld bar into
e. Coating forming
worst slots as a temporary measure).
Reduce mill temperature. Use dryer
feed. Increase mill ventilation.
 3. CEMENT TOO FINE Remedy
Possible cause See section 1 b, d and e.

a. Output decreased Dump and recharge or make up

b. Last chamber media too small
c. Diaphragm slots practically
blocked
with large media.
Locate source of blockage by sound
and examine diaphragm. Further
action see section 6.

4. MILL FILLS Remedy

Possible cause
Check raw feed composition and kiln
a. Harder Feed Clinker burning conditions. Increase lst chamber
piece weight
b. Too much feed
Run without feed until chamber sound
c. Worn grinding media in is normal. Then use slightly reduced
first chamber feed. (If mill fills again consider (a) (c)
and (d))
d. Choked diaphragm(s)
Section lb
e. Coating forming
See section 6
See section 8

5. MILL EMPTIES Remedy

Possible cause
Increase feed slowly
a. insufficient feed
See section 2d.
b. First diaphragm slots worn
Check raw feed composition and kiln
c. Decrease in clinker hardness burning conditions decrease lst
and size chamber piece weight.
d. Media in last chamber too
large
Note: If a mill fills severely, clearing is difficult due to the excessive temperature rise that results
from running with reduced ventilation and feed. A little grinding aid poured into each chamber
through the man door in turn (starting with the last chamber) accelerates the clearing.
6. CHOKED DIAPHRAGMS
Possible cause
a. Steel diaphragm slots closed by
metal flow
b. Tramp metal in feed
c. Grinding body pieces formed
in mill
d. Over worn grinding media
e. Clinker nibs
f. Coating forming in slots
7. CLINKER NIBS IN CEPENT
Possible cause
a. 1st chamber diaphragm slots
too worn
b. 1st chamber diaphragm has
open crack/is ill fitting
or loose
c. Exceptionally hard and/or
large size feed
d. Maximum ball size in 2nd
chamber too small
Dump charge and refill with
charge of smaller piece weight.
Remedy
Burn/grind out slots to original
width, replace diaphragm soonest
Greater care and tidiness when scrap
metal is handled and repairs are carried
out in proximity to clinker store and
clinker handling systems.
Examine cast iron and very hard
grinding media for casting faults and
excessive brittleness. Inspect mill
for very large bodies mixed with very
small bodies (if found, dump charge).
Dump charge and make up with new
See section 7
See section 8
Remedy
Replace soonest
Repair as necessary
Examine raw meal quality and burning
control (if permanent, increase ball
size in 1st chamber).
increase piece weight by adding 70mm
balls.
8. FORMATION OF COATING
Possible cause Remedy

a. Excessive moisture in feed Mix dry feed with moist feed to reduce
moisture content

b. Inadequate ventilation Increase by opening fan damper or

identify source of in-leaks after mill
and reduce.inspect mill to find
possible blockage within mill
(Differential pressure across mill
should be around 40 - 60mm w.g.

c. Too high milling temperature Reduce clinker temperature, increase

mill cooling and ventilation.

d. Grinding body charge size Use grinding aid (include internal

generally too large water cooling) if charge is otherwise
performing satisfactorily (i.e. when
grinding Ferr/C in an O.P.C. Open
Circuit Mill).
 APPENDIX 2
WET RAW MILL FAULT FINDING AND TUNING
CHECK LIST
1. DECREASE IN OUTPUT
Possible Cause
a. Raw feed increase in size
b. Raw feed increase in hardness
c. Mill charge too worn
d. Mill volume loading too low
e. Too small media used for make up
f. Diaphragm slots partially blocked
Remedy
Check operation and efficiency of
crushers and screens if in closed
circuit system.
1. Check quarry operation and
possibility of avoiding hard stone.
2. Make fresh grindability tests.
3. Investigate operation of crushers
to see if they can be uprated
4. Put larger top sized balls in the
first chamber, but not at the expense
of the liners.
1. Make up with larger balls
2. Dump charge, regrade and make up
new charge
Power drawn by the mill will be
low. Measure up each chamber and add
correct tonnage of new grinding media 50/50
mix of two largest balls in the chamber
is suggested.
1. Make up with largest balls
2. Dump charge, regrade and recharge
1. Inspect diaphragm, clean slots.
Look "or the causes of the blockage.
2. Ensure grinding media is large enough.
 g. Fractured diaphragm 1. Replace broken section(s)
2. Examine the charge in each chamber
on either side of the fracture. Readjust
volume loadings and ball gradings
necessary.

h. Slurry moisture or viscosity 1. If the slurry moisture is too

not at specified level high the viscosity will be low and
flushing may occur which will affect the
slurry residues.
2. If the slurry moisture is too low
the viscosity will be high causing flow
problems through the mill and reducing
the grinding efficiency.

2. SLURRY RESIDUES TOO HIGH

Possible causes Remedy

a. Raw feed increase in size See 1.a.

b. Raw feed increase in hardness See 1.b.

c. Grinding media too small May be necessary to increase "piece"

size in final chamber. Study the results
of axial sample text.

d. Mill volume loading too low 1. Power drawn by the mill will be low.
Check kWh meter.
2. Measure up each chamber and add the
tonnage of new media to re-establish
correct grading.

e. Diaphragm slots too worn 1. Coarse residues will not be retained

long enough in the mill to be ground.
2. Replace diaphragm as soon as possible.
3. Weld bar into worst slots as a
temporary measure only. Take care to
use compatible metals. Iron diaphragm
may not be suitable for welding.

f. Lining plates worn or damaged Check condition of lining plates and replace as
necessary. If rubber lining is damaged renew as
necessary.
3. SLURRY TOO FINE
Remedy
Possible causes
1. Increase feed
a. Output decrease
2. See sections 1(c) (e) & (f)

b. Diaphragm slots practically blocked 1.Outlet diaphragm may be

blocked and needs to be cleared
2. Look for possible causes of blockage
3. Listen to mill sound to find blockage
position. This may be difficult with a
rubber lined mill

4. MILL FILLS UP
Remedy
Possiblecauses

a. First chamber fills up

May be due to an increase Problem may be caused by top 2 or 3% of
in feed size or hardness. feed only, being too hard or too large for
(Slurry coming back over first chamber media. (See la & b)
mill feed end)

b. Feed rate too high 1. Stop feed and run mill until problem
1. See section eases. Then run at slightly reduced feed. 2.
l(c) If mill fills again consider 4 (a) (c) & (d)

c. Worn grinding media in

d. Blocked diaphragm(s) 1.
first chamber
See section l(f) 3(b)
2. If
the whole mill fills up the mill
discharge must be blocked. Restricted
discharge will cause up-stream chambers
to fill but the down stream chambers
will probably empty.

e. Slurry moisture too low and/ 1. Increase slurry moisture to the

or slurry too thick correct level
2. Check slurry viscosity

f. Slurry over-ground 1. There may be an unusual increase

in slurry viscosity due to an unusually
fine particle size distribution
2. Look at raw mix proportions i.e.
too much clay or
3. See 4(d)
5. MILL EMPTIES
Possible causes Remedy

a. Insufficient feed 1. Increase feed slowly

2. Look for hold UDS in mill feeding
system

b. Discharge diaphragm slots worn See section 2 (e) Not a common fault

c. Decrease in raw feed size and 1. Increase feed slowly

hardness 2. If more than a temporary change,
sample the feed and test for size grading
and grindability. May be possible to
upgrade the mill

d. Slurry moisture too high 1. Reduce water addition rate to operate

at correct slurry moisture
2. Check slurry viscosity and residues.

6. BLOCKED DIAPHRAGMS
Possible causes Remedy
a. Steel diaphragm slots closed by metal 1. Burn out slots to original width
flow 2. Replace diaphragm as soon as possible
3. Not a common effect in wet mills
which are more prone to diaphragm wear

b. Tramp metal in the feed 1. Take greater care to avoid scrap

metal getting into feed
2. Check permanent magnets used for
removal of scrap or tramp metal in the
mill feed

c. Broken grinding media in the 1. Examine grinding media for casting

mill faults and excessive brittleness.
2. Examine ball charge for wide
variations in size which may
necessitate dumping and regrading

d. Excessively worn media Dump charge, screen, regrade and

make up with new media

e. Extra hard inclusions in the 1. Put larger balls in the first

raw feed chamber to crush hard materia1
2. Crush feed to a smaller size by
new crusher plant if necessary.
 14.33
APPENDIX 3

AXIAL TEST - WORKED EXAMPLE ON A CEMENT MILL

SUMMARY

It is intended to install Slegten lining plates in this mill. in order to assess the effect of this change, a
comprehensive mill test has been carried out under present operating conditions.
Data collected shows the mill to be generally satisfactory. Overall grinding efficiency is high, though
better results could be obtained from the first chamber by removal of undersize charge.

The Waytrol feeder is operating well, and gives a fairly constant feed. Variations in surface area from the
mill are likely to be due to gypsum feed and occasionally stock clinker rather than the feed itself.

There was little evidence of media segregation, which should be obtained after the Slegten liners have been
installed. Segregation should slightly increase grinding efficiency, giving some advantage in output.

TEST PROCEDURE

The mill was stopped on full load and opened. Axial samples were taken from each chamber, the mill
charge was measured up, and samples of grinding media were taken at the beginning and end of each
chamber. The linings and diaphragms were inspected, The mill was then "closed up" and grinding
recommenced.

When the mill had settled down and was grinding to its normal surface area, a salt test was carried out. Salt was
added at the rate of 3 lbs/minute for about two hours; after twenty minutes of salt addition cement samples were
taken at the discharge end of the mill at intervals of two minutes, for about two hours. During this test the
power consumption of the mill was determined, the Waytrol Clinker Feeder setting and gypsum setting noted,
and an average sample of the clinker feed to the mill taken for grindability tests. In addition, the speed of the
Waytrol feed belt was determined in order that the T.P.H. of clinker feed to the mill could be calculated.

In order to have a check on the accuracy of the salt test, the output of the mill was turned into an empty silo at
the start of the test for about eight hours. The silo was then measured, thus enabling the output to be calculated
from the tons/feet run of the silo.
MILL – INSPECTION

Chamber Height above charge Condition of Condition of

diaphragm lining plates
1 56” Showing sign of Some plates in
wear, but clear poor condition
2 62” “ Fair condition
3 60 ½ “ “ Fair condition

MILL DATA
Clinker Feed Setting 41.9
Clinker Feed Belt Speed 4.2 secs/ft
Gypsum Feed-Setting 5.7
Average Clinker SO3 0.8%
Average Cement S03 3.35%
Gross Power 578 kW = 775 H.P.
Nett Power (approx.) 540 kW

TESTING OF SAMPLES

1. AXIAL SAMPLES

The surface area of each sample was determined by air permeability apparatus, and where necessary, by sieve
analysis. These results are tabulated in Tables 14.1 and 14.2 plot of surface/mill lengths is shown in Fig.14.8.

2. SAMPLES OF GRINDING MEDIA

A grading analysis was done on each sample used and reported in Table 14.3 and Fig. 14.9. Hardness tests
were done on the various sizes of media in each sample, and these results are to be seen in Table 14.4.

3. SALT TEST CEMENT SAMPLES

The surface area of each sample was determined. The samples were also analysed for sodium chloride content
using the direct silver nitrate titration method. It was necessary to make corrections to these results, since Kirton
Lindsey cement contains small amounts of sulphide.

A 5 gm sample of cement was taken for analysis, and the salt purity was 99.4% NaCl. The results were
calculated directly to T.P.H. of cement, and are shown in Table 14.5. An averaged plot of T.P.H./Surface Area
is made in Fig. 14.10.

4. CLINKER SAMPLE

A grindability test was done on the sample of clinker collected during the Salt Test.

Sufficient gypsum was added to bring the % SO3 up to the same value as it was during the Salt Test, and in
order to do this the average clinker and the average Salt Test sample were analyzed for SO3 content. The
grindability curve is Fig. 14.11.
 TABLE 14.1

CLINKER GRADINGS - Ist Chamber

Distance Feed 0'0" 1'6" 3'0" 4'6" 6'0" 7'6" 9'0" 10'6"
along
Qbarnber
% AGE GIVEN SIZE
+ 7 - 3/16 36.0 36.7 33.0 18.0 11.5 9.0 2.9 1.1 0.3
+ 14 - 7 24.0 23.7 17.8 25.5 23.0 17.4 13.8 7.3 3.2
+ 25 - 14 12.0 12.5 19.0 19.0 21.0 21.4 20.0 21.1 15.5
+ 52 - 25 4.0 7.3 10.2 12.0 15.7 16.4 18.8 19.6 22.5
+100 - 52 7.0 5.8 6.0 9.3 9.3 13.4 14.0 16.0 17.5
- 100 17.0 14.0 14.0 16.5 19.5 22.4 30.5 34.9 41.0

TABLE 14.2
SURFACE AREAS

1st Chamber 2nd Chamber 3rd Chamber

Distance Surface Distance Surface Distance Surface
along Mill Area cm2/gm along Mill Area along Mill Area
FEED 133 10'6" 1030 17' 6" 1950
0'0" 185 12' 0" 1080 19'0" 2000
1' 6" 146 13' 6" 1240 20' 6" 2060
3' 0" 259 15'0" 1400 22' 0" 2280
4' 6" 208 16' 6" 1530 23' 6" 2400
6' 0" 489 17' 6" 1700 25' 0" 2600
7' 6" 609 - - 26' 6" 2720
9'0" 710 - - 28' 0" 2860
10' 6" 847 - - 29' 6" 2980
- - - - 31' 0" 31140
- - - - 32' 6" 3140
- - - - 34' 0" 3230
- - - - - 3260
 TABLE 14.3

GRINDING MEDIA SAMPLES

%AGE FINER THAN GIVEN SIZE

Diameter 1st Chamber - Balls 2nd Chamber - Balls 3rd Chamber -
Ins. Cylindrical Media
0'-0" 10'-6" 0'-0" 7'- 0" 0' - 6" 13' 6" - 18' 6
3 3/4 100.0 100.0
3 1/2 93.6 96.9
3 1/4 66.3 66.5 100.0
3 56.9 57.5 61.2 100.0
2 3/4 50.3 51.4 52.7 92.7
2 1/2 32.3 30.1 41.2 66.5
2 1/4 6.6 15.5 19.2 46.3
2 0 0 6.8 20.7
1 3/4 - - 1.7 5.5
1 1/2 - 0 0
7/8 100.0 100.0
3/4 53.0 33.9
5/8 20.3 16.8
1/2 4.0 8.4
3/8 0 0

TABLE 14.4
VICKERS PYRAMID HARDNESS NUMBERS

1st Chamber 2nd Chamber 3rd Chamber

Dia (ins) V.P.H. No. Dia (ins) V.P.H. No. Dia (ins) V.P.H. No.

3 316 3 359 3/4 489

2 3/4 359 2 1/4 312 1/2 516
2 1/4 322 2 312
1 3/4 387
 TABLE 14.5
RESULTS Of TESTS ON MILL SAMPLES TAKEN DURING THE
SALT TEST

Sample. M/S N/10 Cement Surface Sample M/S N/10 Cement Surface
Number AgNO3 Tons / Hr. Area Number. AgNO3 Tons / Hr. Area
68.7 68.7
AgNO3 AgNO3
- Blank -Blank
BLANK 0.30
0 1.85 44.3 3370 32 4.35 17.0 3380
1 2.55 30.5 3370 33 4.15 17.8 3350
2 3.00 25.4 3380 34 4.05 18.3 3290
3 3.55 21.1 3370 35 4.30 17.2 3240
4 3.65 20.5 3360 36 4.30 17.2 3230
5 3.85 19.4 3360 37 4.00 18.6 3190
6 4.00 18.6 3370 38 3.95 18.8 3180
7 4.15 17.8 3390 39 3.90 19.0 3110
8 4.20 17.6 3370 40 3.80 19.6 3150
9 4.25 17.4 3370 41 3.80 19.6 3150
10 4.25 17.4 3400 42 3.90 19.0 3150
11 4.25 17.4 3430 43 4.05 18.3 3170
12 4.40 16.8 3390 44 4.10 18.1 3160
13 4.25 17.4 3400 45 4.00 13.6 3230
14 4.20 17.6 3400 46 4.10 18.1 3250
15 4.20 17.6 3400 47 4.35 17.0 3240
16 4.15 17.8 3420 48 4.10 18.1 3250
17 4.10 18.1 3420 49 3.95 18.8 3310
18 4.30 17.2 3420 50 4.20 17.6 3320
19 4.35 17.0 3490 51 4.10 18.1 3340
20 4.25 17.4 3510 52 4.15 17.8 3360
21 4.20 17.6 3510 53 4.40 16.8 3410
22 4.10 18.1 3530 54 4.15 17.8 3460
23 4.35 17.0 3540 55 4.40 16.8 3440
24 4.40 16.8 3540 56 4.30 17.2 3490
25 4.40 16.8 3520 57 4.30 17.2 3470
26 4.25 17.4 3490 58 4.35 17.0 3470
27 4.35 17.0 3510 59 4.40 16.8 3470
28 4.20 17.6 3470 60 4.25 17.4 3460
29 4.25 17.4 3480 61 4.15 17.8 3460
30 4.05 18.3 3420 62 3.85 19.3 3430
31 4.10 18.1 3400 63 3.90 19.0 3460
CALCULATION OF MILL OUTPUT

1. FROM FEEDER SETTING

Belt Speed = 4.2 secs/ft

= 857.143 ft/hr

Clinker Feed = 41.9 lbs/ft run of belt

Rate = 41.9 x 857.14 tons/hr

2240

= 16.03 tons/hr

Clinker SO3 = 0.80 37.00 3.35

Cement SO3 = 3.35 3.35 0.80

Gypsum SO3 = 37.00 33.65 2.55

Gypsum added = 2.55 x 16.03 1.22 tons/hr

33.65

Cement output = 33.65 x 16.03 17.25 tons/hr at 3375 cms/gm specific surface.

2. BY SALT TEST

The output is obtained from Fig.14.10, i.e. Cement Output = 17.74 TPH at 3375 cm2 /gm Specific Surface.

3. BY SILO MEASUREMENT

124 tons of cement were collected in eight hours, and the average specific surface area was 3370 cm2 /gm
i.e. Cement Output = 15 ½ TPH at 3370 cm2 /gm.

COMPARISON

Output by TPH
Weigh Feeder 17.25
Salt Test 17.74
Silo Measurement 15.50
AXIAL CURVES

ACTUAL AXIAL CURVES

Where the weight of charge/ft run of mill length is constant, the amount of power used for surface production
may be taken to be directly proportional to the length along the mill, and hence a plot of surface area against
mill length is identical with a plot of surface area against the nett kW used. In this case the weight of charge/ft
run of mill is not constant for the three chambers, and as it is more correct to plot surface area against nett kW,
the charge weight in each chamber has been calculated, and the nett power divided in the ratios of these weights.

From this information Table 14.7 was constructed, and a plot made of the surface area against nett kW
- See Fig. 14.12.

CALCULATION OF THEORETICAL AXIAL CURVE

Theoretically, for a mill operating at 100% efficiency, the surface area production rate for "standard clinker" at
2500 cm2 /gm = 115 x 106 cm2 /kWh.

The surface area production rate may be estimated for a change in surface area along a mill from the standard
curve for standard clinker and from the grindability curve for any other clinker.

The basic expression used is:

Surface area production rate

= Standard rate x Energy Ratio x Surface produced.

The "Energy Ratio" is determined from the grindability curve by reading off the number of revolutions (of the
test mill) at the initial and final surfaces and ratio-ing the difference to the data from the standard curve.

For example, in the case of standard clinker(s) being ground to 920 cm2 /gm from the initial surface area of 130
cm2 /gm.

Surface production for standard clinker

= 115 x 106 x Revs (130-2500)s x (920 - 130)

Revs (130 - 920)s (2500 - 130)

Similarly for any other clinker (A) using the grindability curve andcomparing it to standard clinker.
Surface produced

= 115 x 106 x Revs (130-2500)s x 790 x 1

Revs (130 - 920)s 2370 Grindability A

= 115 x 106 x Revs (130-2500)s x 790 x Revs (130 - 920)s

Revs (130 - 920)s 2370 Revs (130 - 920)A

= 115 x 106 x Revs (130-2500)s x 790 ---------------------------- (1)

Revs (130 - 920)s 2370

CALCULATION OF MILL EFFICIENCY

in the case of the mill under consideration at the time of the stoppage, the surface area of the product was 3260.
From graph 14.10 this corresponds to an output of 18.38 tph. Details of mill loading are given in Table
14.6.

CHAMBER HEIGHT ABOVE % VOLUME WEIGHT OF NETT KW NETT Kw

CHARGE INS VOLUME ft3 CHARGE per 18"
LOADING TONS

1 56 31 423 15.8 178 25.43

2 62 22 279 7.29 82 17057

3 60.5 24.5 746 24.89 280 22.7

TOTAL 1448 47.98 540

IN THE FIRST CHAMBER

Surface area of material entering = 130 cm2 /gm

Surface area of material leaving = 920 cm2 /gm
Surface area produced = 790 cm2 /gm
Total surface area = 18.38 x 1.016 x 10 6 x 790 cm 2 /hour. The first chamber is equivalent to 178 kW of the
540 nett kW used by the mill.

Surface produced/kWh = 18.38 x 1.016 x 106 x 790

178

= 82.88 x 106 cm2 /kWh

From the standard curve and the grindability curve Figs.14.13 and 14.11

Theoretical surface production in 1st chamber (using expression (1))

= 115 x 106 x (57.0 – 3.0) x 790
(15.8 - 0) 2370

= 131.0 x 10 6 cm 2 /kWh

Therefore efficiency of chamber = Actual surface production x 100

Theoretical surface production

TABLE 14.7
Length along Mill Nett Kilowatts Surface Area
0' 0" 0 133
1' 6" 25.4 146
3' 0" 50.9 259
4' 6" 76.3 208
6' 0" 101.7 489
7' 6" 127.2 609
9' 0" 152.6 710
10' 0" 178 847
2nd Chamber
0' 0" 178 1030
1' 6" 105.6 1080
3' 0" 213.1 1240
4' 6" 230.7 1400
6' 0" 248.3 1530
7' 0" 260 1700
3rd Chamber
0' 0" 260 1950
1' 6" 282.7 2000
3' 0" 305.4 2060
4' 6" 328.1 2280
6' 0" 350.8 2400
7' 6" 373.5 2600
9' 0" 396.2 2720
10' 6" 418.9 2860
12' 0" 441.6 2980
13' 6" 464.3 3040
15' 0" 487 3140
16' 6" 509.7 3230
18' 0" 540 3260

TABLE 14.8
THEORETICAL RATE OF SURFACE PRODUCTION

kWh Revs, (x - 130) Surface Area

0 0.1403 130
50 7.02 500
100 14.03 860
150 21.05 1190
178 24.97. 1370
200 28.06 1540
250 35.08 1850
260 36.48 1900
300 42.09 2150
350 49.11 2450
400 56.12 2710
450 63.14 2950
500 70.15 3180
540 75.76 3370
For 1st chamber, efficiency

= 82.88 x 106 x 100

131.0 x 106

= 63.3%

Grindability of clinker over the surface range in the 1st chamber

= (15.8 - 0) = 15.8 x 100 = 87.8%

(21.0 -3) 18.0

IN 2ND CHAMBER

Surface area of material entering = 920

Surface area of material leaving = 1660
Surface area produced in chamber = 740 cm2 /gm.
Total surface produced = 740 x 18.38 x 1.016 x 10 6 sq.cms./hr.

2nd chamber is equivalent to 82 kW

Surface produced / kWh = 18.38 x 1.016 x 106 x 740 = 167.8 x 106 cm2 /kWh
82

Theoretical production should be:

115 x 106 x 740 x R(2500 - 130)S x R(1660 - 920)S

2370 R(1660 - 920)S R(1660 - 920)A

115 x 106 x 740 x 54.0 x 16.92 124.5 x 106 sq.cms./kWh

2370 16.92 15.55

Efficiency of 2nd Chamber = 167.8 x 106 x 100 = 134.8% x

124.5 x 106

Grindability over the surface range in the 2nd chamber

Revs. (1660 - 920)A = 15.55 = 91.8%

(1660 - 920)S 16.92
3RD CHAMBER

Surface material entering = 1660

Surface material leaving = 3260
Surface produced in chamber = 1600 sq.cms./gm.

Total surface produced = 18.38 x 10.016 x 106 x 1600

3rd chamber is equivalent to 280 kW

Surface produced/kWh = 18.38 x 10.016 x 106 x 1600 = 106.5 x 106 sq.cm./kWh

280

Theoretical production 115 x 106 x 1600 x Revs (2500 - 130)S x Revs (3260-1600)
2370 Revs (3260 - 1660)S Revs (3260-1600)

=115 x 106 x 1660 x 54 x 40.42

2370 40.42 41.7

Efficiency of 3rd chamber = 106.5 x 106 x 100 = 106.0%

100.5 x 106

OVERALL
Surface material entering = 130
Surface material leaving = 3260
Surface produced in Mill = 3130 sq.cms./hr.

Total surface produced = 18.38 x 1.016 x 106 x 3130 sq.cms./hr.

Total kW = 540

Chamber Actual Surface Prod.sq. Theoretical SurfaceProd. Efficiency %

cm./kWh x 106 sq.cm./kWh
1 82.8 130.8 63.5
2 167.8 124.5 134.8
3 106.5 100.5 106
overall 108 112.9 95.7

Surface produced/ kWh 18.38 x 1.016 x 106 x 3130 = 108.0 x 10 6 sq.cm./ kWh
540

Theoretical production = 115 x 106 6 x 3130 x 54.0 x 75.3 = 112.9 x 10 6 cm 2 /kWh

2370 75.3 72.6

overall efficiency = 108.0 x 106 x 100 = 95.7%

112.9 x 106
CONCLUSIONS

Mill Efficiency

The overall efficiency is quite good, however the first chamber has a low efficiency, especially compared with
the second chamber which is highly efficient. The third chamber is also satisfactory.

The low efficiency in the first. chamber may be due in part to the percentage of minus 21/2" media present, and
if this were removed and replaced by 31/2" more work would be done in this chamber.

Grindability

The grindability is low, but is accounted for by the high percentage of gypsum which was added to simulate
actual mill conditions of high % SO3 content in the cement. The higher the gypsum content, the lower the
grindability and bigger the output at a given surface.

Mill Output

The output determined from the weighfeeder and the salt test are in very close agreement. The figure obtained
by silo measurement is lower, but is subject to several inaccuracies, i.e time lost in changing silos, measurement
of cement in the silo and an inaccurate figure for tons/ft. of silo heights.

it would seem that 171/2 T.P.H. would be a fair value for the output of the mill at 3375 cm.2 /gm. surface area.

Grinding Media

The hardness figures for the media in all three chambers are reasonable for the type of media used. Ideally the
media in chambers 1 and 2 could do to be harder, the optimum hardness range is between 400 and 650 Vickers.

Mill Power Consumption

At 171/2 tons/hr. the power consumed is 33 kWh /ton.

Mill Filters

The filter was in-operative at the time of the test due to holes in the filter cloth. The filter is of the old Sly Type,
with no continuous cleaning facility.

Mill Operation

The mill has very few troubles, and in general is working very satisfactorily
APPENDIX

ESSENTIAL PRECONDITIONS FOR USE OF FINER MEDIA GRADINGS IN CHAMBER

TWO OF CEMENT MILLS

(1) The first chamber charge should be in good condition and Oroduce following typical fineness of
samples prior to the intermediate diaphragm.

Sieve Size % Cumulative Residue

2.36mm 1%
1.18mm 6%
300um 20%

When determining this fineness - take large samples and do not ignore any unground clinker nibs present. if nibs
are present - check first chamber charge grading and coarsen up with extra 90/80mm instead of 70mm media.

(2) The first chamber should have an efficient reverse step/lifter type lining - recommended type
typically the Magotteaux reverse step or similar.

(3) The diaphragm slots must be clear and even with no excessive gaps which can allow coarse materials
into chamber 2.

(4) Check chamber 2 axial sampling curve for any signs of nibs/coarse material ex chamber I which can
inhibit fine grinding characteristics. Figure 1 shows an example of two mills, one with an efficient and
one with an Lnefficient, first chamber. Notice how the second chamber of the latter mill has to carry out
some of the crushing action which should have been carried out in chamber 1.

(5) The mill must be adequately vented, i.e. with typically 5 air changes per minute or 0.4 kg air/kg cement.

(6) Avoid high milling temperatures above 120oC which can Cause in the second chamber. Coating can
adversely affect performance of finer charges.
APPENDIX I

CEMENT MILL FAULTS

1. OUTPUT DECREASES

Possible Cause Remedy

a. Increase in clinker hardness Examine raw feed composition and

and size kiln burning conditions.

b. Mill Charge too worn Dump charge, regrade and make up new
charge.

c. Mill volume loading too low Measure each chamber and add correct
tonnage of new bodies.

d. Too small bodies used for make Charge should be dumped and up regraded,
or (less satisfactory) use largest bodies for make up.

e. Diaphragm slots partially Inspect diaphragms clean slots.

blocked Further action as in Section 6.

f. Fractured Diaphragm Replace section(s).

2. CEMENT TOO COARSE

Possible Cause Remedy

I
a. Increase in clinker hardness Examine raw feed composition and
and size kiln burning conditions.

b. Grinding media too large Make up with smaller media e.g.

50/50 of the two smallest sizes.

c. Mill Volume Loading too low Measure each chamber and add correct
tonnage of new bodies.

d. Diaphragms slots too worn Replace as soon as possible, (with steel diaphragms,
weld bar into worst slots as a temporary measure).

e. Coating forming Reduce mill temperature. Use dryer

feed. Increase mill ventilation.
3 CEMENT TOO FINE

Possible cause Remedy

a. Output decreased See section 1b, d and e.

b. Last chamber media too small Dump and recharge or make up with large media.

c. Diaphragm slots practically Locate source of blockage by sound blocked and

examine diaphragm. Further action see section 6.

4. MILL FILLS
Possible cause Remedy
a. Harder Feed Clinker Check raw feed composition and kiln burning
conditions. increase 1st chamber piece weight.

b. Too much feed Run without feed until chamber sound is

normal. Then use slightly reduced feed.
(If miIl fills again consider (a) (c) and (d)).

c. Worn grinding media in Section 1b.

first chamber

d. Choked diaphragm(s) See section 6.

e. Coating forming See section 8.

5. MILL EMPTIES

Possible cause Remedy

a. Insufficient feed Increase feed slowly.

b. First diaphragm slots worn See section 2d.

c. Decrease in clinker hardness Check raw feed composition and kiln

and size burning conditions decrease 1st
chamber piece weight

d. Media in last chamber too Dump charge and refill with charge
large of smaller piece weight.

Note: If a mill fills severely, clearing is difficult due to the excessive temperature rise that results from
running with reduced ventilation and feed A little grinding aid poured into each chamber through the man door
in turn (starting with the last chamber) accelerates the clearing.
6. CHOKED DIAPHRAGMS

Possible cause Remedy

a. Steel diaphragm slots closed Burn/grind out slots to original by metal flow
width, replace diaphragm soonest. Use "harder"
materials specification rather than steel.

b. Tramp metal in feed Greater care and tidiness when scrap metal is
handled and repairs are carried out in proximity to
clinker store and clinker handling systems.

C. Grinding body pieces formed Examine cast iron and very hard grinding media
in mill for casting faults and excessive brittleness. Inspect
mill for very large bodies mixedwith very small
bodies (if found, dump charge).

d. Over worn grinding media Dump charge and make up with new

e. Clinker nibs See section 7.

f. Coating forming in slots See section 8.

7. CLINKER NIBS IN CEMENT

Possible cause Remedy

a. 1st chamber diaphragm slots too worn Replace soonest.

b. 1st chamber diaphragm has open Repair as necessary

crack/is ill fitting or loose

c. Exceptionally hard and/or Examine raw meal quality and burning

large size feed control (if permanent, increase ball
size in 1st chamber).

d. Maximum ball size in 2nd Increase piece weight by adding 70mm balls.
chamber too small (Extreme case only -concentrate efforts an
correcting first chamber performance.)

.
FORMATION OF COATING

Possible cause Remedy

a. Excessive moisture in feed Mix dry feed with moist reed to reduce moisture content

b. Inadequate ventilation Increase by opening fan damper or identify source of in-leaks after
mill and reduce. Inspect mill to find possible blockage within mill
(Differential pressure across mill should be as per section 2.6.)

c. Too high milling temperature Reduce clinker temperature, increase mill cooling and ventilation.

d. Grinding body charge size Use grinding aid (include internal water cooling) if charge is other
generally too large wise performing satisfactorily (i.e. when grinding Ferr/C in an OPC Open
Circuit Mill).
APPENDIX 2

THE FINENESS OF SAMPLES TAKEN IMMEDIATELY PRIOR

TO THE FIRST CHAMBER DIAPHRAGM.

(i) Sampling Method

It is important to use common sense when taking samples within a mill. If visual inspection of the material
shows it to be relatively fine then small (200 gm) samples will suffice for carrying out sieve analysis. However,
if large quantities of nibs are present it is advisable to take larger samples ie around 0.5 – 1 kg in weight.

(ii) Sample Analysis

Coarse samples should be graded through the convenient sieve sizes available on site. A recommended range for
raw mill and cement mill testing are as follows:

Sieve Size Notes

76mm Choose coarse sieve sizes to suit typical

50mm feed size of stone or clinker to the
25mm mill. Of particular importance for raw
12mm mill assessment.
6 mm

Microns
2,360 Important for analyzing samples prior to
the intermediate diaphragm in raw/cement mills

1,180 Important for analysing samples prior to

the intermediate diaphragm in raw/cement mills

300 Important for analysing samples prior to the

intermediate diaphragm in raw/cement mills

90 Use for mass balance calculations around

75 raw mill circuits

45 Important for analyzing samples ex cement

mill second chambers. Do not normally
use for raw mill testing. Use for mass
balance calculations around cement mill
circuits.

If the above sizes are not available an site then seek to obtain these otherwise use the nearest equivalent sieve
sizes.
(iii) Fineness of Samples Immediately Prior to the Intermediate
Diaphragm

(a) Cement Mills

The first chamber of a cement mill should crush the clinker/gypsum to sufficient fineness to pass through
the intermediate diaphragm and be finely ground in the second chamber of the mill. As a rough guide,
cement mills (open and closed circuit) with efficient first chamber grinding characteristics should aim to
achieve the following fineness immediately prior to the diaphragm.

Sieve Size Typical Cumulative % retained an Sieve

2.36mm 1% (maximum 4%)

1.18mm 6%

300um 20%

This is an approximate guide only. It takes no account of (i) open/closed circuit mill operation (ii) the level
of recalculating load (iii) the intermediate diaphragm slot size above figures are based upon experiences
with mills of 6-8mm intermediate slot size.

Despite this, it is a useful rule of thumb for establishing how efficiently a first chamber is crushing down
the feed. if the above levels of fineness are not achieved then the mills second chamber will have to carry
out part of the crushing which should have been done in Chamber 1.

(b) Raw Mills

The above figures can also be applied to raw mills but' must be treated with greater caution.

Some raw mill designs feature the use of short length to diameter ratios, high recirculating loads, large
diaphragm slots (12 - 15mm ) with these mills the prediaphragm samples are usually coarser than those
shown above.

For example, typical prediaphragm samples from three central discharge closed circuit mills having 12mm
slot sizes gave the

following results.
 Cumulative % residue Mill
on 300 Micron Sieve

33 (A) Efficient first chamber handling fine stone - mill

underun - capable of slightly higher output

43 (B) Typical mill installation - efficient first chamber

handling reasonable size stone

72 (C) Mill with first chamber over filled due to coarse feed size
and inadequate ball size. Extra 90mm or even 100mm
media required to improve crushing action

As can be seen, in the case of this design of a mill a more realistic target reside would be around 40% retained
on 300 micron ie twice the residue considered acceptable for a cement mill.
APPENDIX III

EXAMPLE OF HOW THE VOLUME LOADING WITHIN A MILL CAN BE AFFECTED

BY THE ACCUMULATION OF UNGROUND MATERIAL

(i) Background

The following results were obtained on a 4200 kW raw mill which -was designed to produce 220 tph raw
meal. The mill was crash stopped after running at 75% of its design load during commissioning. It was
decided to carry out an axial sampling test on the mill before raising the charge to 90% load. The mill was
crash stopped and it was noted that the first chamber was very full of unground stone. Later on the mill
was run out and the height above charge measurements were rechecked.

(ii) Apparent First Chamber Volume Loading Following Crash Stop

Average height above charge (H) = 3.07m

inside lining diameter of chamber (D) = 4.42m

H/D= 3.07 = 0.695

4.42

"Apparent" volume load = 25.5%

(iii) Volume Loading After Mill Was Run Out

Average height above charge (H) = 3.275m

H/D = 0.74

Volume load = 20%.

Tonnage of media loaded into mill = 88 tonnes

Chamber internal volume = 92.1m3

Volume of media =3251 x 0.2 18.42m3

Media density 88.0 = 4.78 t/m3

18.42

(iv) Apparent Media Density

 Due to the presence of nibs occupying approximately 25.5 - 20.0 = 5.5% of the internal volume of the
mill, the apparent media density is less than that shown above ie Volume of media plus nibs = 92.1 x
0.255 = 23.49m3

Apparent media density 38.0 = 3.75 t/m3

23.49

(v) Conclusions

Hence, unless the volume loading of the chamber had been checked with the mill run out it would have
appeared that the chamber contained more media than it actually did ie

92.1 x 0.255 x 4.78 = 112.3 tonnes

Another means of crosschecking the actual media loaded is to calculate 'the kW drawn for each chamber
using the power formula and crosschecking these results against the figures from the mill kWh meter.
APPENDIX IV

AXIAL SAMPLING CURVES FOR CEMENT MILL

SECONO CHAMBERS - SIEVE RESIDUES

GENERAL

In addition to examining the surface area versus nett kW drawn/chamber length relationship for the second
chamber of a cement mill, it is also useful to examine the sieve residue relationship.

This is best examined by using a 45 micron sieve or even finer sieves such as 32 and 25 micron sieves if these
are available.

Very often, the axial sampling curves for second chambers show a steady reduction in 90 and 300 micron
residue throughout the chamber. This gives the impression of efficient grinding taking place. However,
cement is predominantly finer than 45/32 micron and to assess the fine grinding efficient, these sieve resides
should also be examined.

Fig.8 shows axial sampling curves for two closed circuit cement mills. Mill A was an efficient mill using fine
media (25 - 15mm) in its second chamber. The material leaving the first chamber of this mill was fine and
within the guidelines shown id Appendix 11.

Mill B used a fairly conventional media grading consisting of 60mm to 17mm media. The mill also had a form
of classifying lining which did not function well and resulting in reverse classification of the media.

Comparing the 45 um residue shows that the material at the inlet to the chamber was or similar fineness ie
around 50% cumulative residue.

However, the chamber outlet samples were as follows:

Mill Mill Outlet % Residue Reduction in residue

45 micron across chamber

A 46% 4%
B 28% 22%

This shows the superior fine grinding characteristics of the finer media used in conjunction with an efficient first
chamber charge in Mill A.

To improve mill B to give a similar performance would have involved costly replacement of the liner/charge. It
was therefore decided to reduce the average replacement media size from 60mm to 25mm size and replace some
of the coarser 60mm media by the available 25-17mm media.
APPENDIX V

MASS BALANCE ON A RAW MILLING CIRCUIT

GENERAL

The example chosen to demonstrate mass balance calculations on a milling circuit is that of a double rotator
mill. It was felt that this represents one of the more complex closed circuit milling systems available which
could best illustrate some of the techniques/problems involved. Generally speaking, most closed circuit
cement/raw milling systems should be simpler to evaluate than the example shown.

Mill Circuit Samples

Sample % Cumulative retained on

90 micron sieve

(i) Rejects from static separator 68.00

(ii) Fines from cyclone after static separator 9.24

(iii) Rejects from Wedag separator (feed to 76.22

chamber 2)

(iv) Feed to Wedag separator 52.90

(V) Mill central discharge 49.50

(Vi) Fines from Wedag separator 2.70

(vii) Finished raw meal 6.30

MASS BALANCE CALCULATIONS

(i) Mill Throughput

Mill feed rate = 42.8 tph (from totaliser readings prior to test)
Feed moisture = 3.1%
Dry tonnage = 42.8 x 0.969 = 41.5 tph

(ii) Finished Raw Meal

Dry tonnage = 41.5 tph

The Finished raw meal consists of (a) Fines ex cyclone
(b) Fines ex Wedag separator
 Let x = tph of fines ex Wedag separator

∴ (41.5 - x) = tph fines ex cyclone

Mass balance on 90 micron residue

(2.7) + (41.5 - x) 9.24 = 41.5 (6.30)

= 18.7 tph

Hence fines ex cyclone = 41.50 - 18.7 = 22.8 tph

(iii) Rejects Feed to the Separator

The feed to the separator consists of mill discharge material together with rejects from the static separator.

Basis 1 tph of separator feed

let y = tph of material ex mill central discharge

Mass balance on 90 micron residue

y(49.5) + (1-y) 66.0 = 52.90 x 1.0

y = 0.79

ie 79% of the feed to the separator consists of material from the mill central discharge.

(iv) Separator Performance

Table A gives the formulae used for evaluating separator performance.

(a) % Recirculating Load

Circulation factor = C = 76.22 - 2.70 = 3.15

76.22 - 52.90

Recirculating load = C - 1 = 2.15 ie 215%

(b) Fines Efficiency

= 100(100 - 2.7) = 65.6%

315 - (2.70 + 2.15 x 76.22)
 (c) Coarse Efficiency

= 100 (2.15 x 76.22) = 98.4%

2.7 + 2.15 x 76.22

The coarse (or rejection) efficiency is good. The fines efficiency is on the low side due to the fine cut
point of the separator (2-3% plus 90 micron as opposed to 5.0% + 90 micron target - see comments in
conclusions section). The recirculating load estimate does not agree with that indicated by the rejects
weigher (109%). However, the two cannot be directly compared (see section vii below)

(v) Mass Balance Over Separator

Fines ex separator = 18.7 tph

Let rejects = R tph

Balance on 90 micron residues

(R + 18.7) 52.9 = R (76.22) + 18.7 (2.7)

R = 40.3 tph

Hence separator feed = 40.3 + 18.7 = 59.0 tph

(Vi) Rejects ex Static Separator

These form 21% of feed to separator = 59.0 x 0.21 = 12.4 tph

Hence mill central discharge = 59 - 12.4 = 46.6 tph

(vii) Indicated Versus Actual Recirculating Load

(a) Indicated

Mill rejects weigher = 45.1 tph

Mill feed dry = 41 .5 tph

Hence indicated recirculating load = 45.1 x 100 = 109%

41.5
(b) Estimated

Calculated rejects ex Wedag = 40.3 tph

Mill feed = 41 .5 tph

 Estimated recirculating load = 40.3 = 97%
41.5

These are within the errors of accuracy that can be expected.

(vii) Mass Balance

Fig.A gives the completed Mass Balance.

CONCLUSIONS

The above mass balance must be treated cautiously for the following reasons. These illustrate some of the
problems with calculating circuit mass balances.

1. The estimated fines from the cyclone is 22.8 tph or 55% of the finished raw meal. This is most
probably an over-estimate. Normally one would expect only 3014 of the product to cone from this
cyclone.

2. The mass balances are carried out using 90 micron residues. Considering the very fine product
produced by the Wedag separator it may be advisable to use a finer sieve size for constructing the
mass balance. It is best to carry out further sieve gradings on say 45 or 75 um residues to see which
results relate best to the measured rejects flow rate.

3. In the example shown, the Wedag separator was producing a finer product in order to compensate for
the coarser product from the cyclone after the static separator. The target residue was 5% on 90 micron.
This proved to be useful information. After the test the static separator was inspected internally and it
was found that the suspended "bob" beneath the central cone of the separator was misaligned. This was
subsequently put right and finer resides resulted.

4. To carry out a full assessment of the separator performance the efficiency figures should be estimated
over the full range of particle size results. Reference to a single residue efficiency will only give a very
rough guide to separator performance. When comparing results from the same mill, reference should be
made to the level of recirculating load, ie an apparently poor fines efficiency result may simply be a
feature of operation with high recirculating loads rather 'than any fault with the separator itself.
Construct TROMP curves for the separator product using full psd analysis.

5. When two fines or rejects streams are mixed (as in the above example) if the analysis of the materials
before and after mixing is similar then it becomes very difficult to estimate their respective tonnages. If
sieve residues are no helpful - try tracer techniques or check for any chemical variation.

6. To improve accuracy - several samples should be taken from the circuit and analyzed.
TABLE A

SEPARATOR EFFICIENCY AND MILL RECIRCULATING LOAD FORMULAE

(i) DEFINITI0N OF TERMS

C = Circulation Figure
where recirculating load (C-1)100% cumulative residue in feed to separator

FE = %cumulative residue in feed to separator

FI = %cumulative residue in feed ex separator
R = %cumulative residue in rejects ex separator

(ii) CIRCULATTION FIGURE

C = R – FI
R - FE

(iii) FINE EFFICIENCY

100(100 - FI) %
100.0 - [FI + (C-1).R]

(iv) COARSE EFFICIENCY

= 100 (C-1) R %
FI + (C-1)R

(v) OVERALL EFFICIENCY

= Fines Efficiency x Coarse Efficiency %

100
 Blue Circle Cement

PROCESS ENGINEERING
TRAINING PROGRAM

Module 4

Section 3

FLS Comminution Manual

 Blue Circle Cement

PROCESS ENGINEERING
TRAINING PROGRAM

Module 4

Section 4

The Physics of Air

“THE PHYSICS OF AIR”

THIS MANUAL WAS

COMPILED FROM A SERIES OF
LECTURES GIVEN BY

JAMES W. MAY
MANAGER OF TECHNICAL RELATIONS
CLEAN AIR GROUP
AMERICAN AIR FILTER CO.

PRICE $2.00

American Air Kilter COMPANY,

2 1 5 C E N T R A L A V E N U E , L O U I S V I L L E 8,
INC.
K E N T U C K Y
 THE PHYSICS OF
- AIR-

Table
- of- Contents
Page
Basic definitions involving temperatures and pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l

Perfect gas equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Properties of steam and water vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Mixture of air and water vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

The psychrometric chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Air flow in a duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Orifices and nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Pressure regain in a duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Total pressure developed by a fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Pressure relationship in a duct system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Effect of air density on duct friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Performance characteristics of fans ..................................... 43

Fan laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Suggested problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
 THE PHYSICS OF AIR

Since the majority of products manufactured by the American Air Filter Company
are designed to treat air in some form, shape, or manner - it behooves us to have a
thorough knowledge concerning the various properties of air and water vapor, how these
properties are determined, how air flow is produced and measured, etc.

It would probably be well to first start with the definition of certain terms which we
will be using in our various discussions. These terms may be new to some of you
gentlemen, but they are very fundamental in their application and I am sure that you
will find them easy to grasp and to apply.

BASIC DEFINITIONS - Temperature: Let us start out with a term with which we are
familiar, such as temperature. Temperature, by definition, is a measure of the intensity
of heat and is no indication of the quantity involved. There are several temperature
scales, but the one used by the Engineering Profession is “Degrees Fahrenheit. ” On this
temperature scale the freezing point of water is 320 F. , and the boiling point is 212O F.
The physicist and the chemist generally think in terms of degrees Centigrade, so we
should spend a moment to discuss the relationship between Centigrade and Fahrenheit.
On the Centigrade scale the freezing point of water is O” C. and the boiling point is
100° C. You will immediately note that the difference between the freezing point and the
boiling point of water is 180° on the Fahrenheit scale but only 100° on the Centigrade
scale, so if we had a temperature reading of 20° Centigrade and we wanted to convert
it into degrees Fahrenheit, we would use the expression:

Degrees F = (9/5 T,) + 32 = (9/5 x 20) + 32 = 68’ F.

or conversely: Degrees C = 5/9 (Tf - 32 )

As we mentioned, the term “temperature” is an indication of the intensity of heat

in an object and indirectly reflects the amount of movement of the molecules which make
up the body. As the molecular movement slows down, a point would theoretically be
reached at which there is no molecular movement and this is said to be absolute zero,
and on the Fahrenheit scale is 459.60 below O” F. This is an important relationship : ad
one which you should remember, because any calculation involving the ratio of temper-
atures must be done on an absolute temperature basis which means that 460° must be
algebraically added to the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit in order to determine the
number of degrees above absolute zero. On the Centigrade scale the point of absolute
zero is -273.1 below 0’ C.

Instruments which are ordinarily used for measuring temperatures include mercury,
gas, and resistance thermometers; thermocouples; radiation, gas and optical pyrometers;
Seger cones, etc.

Heat: Whereas temperature in degrees is an indication of the intensity of heat, the British
Thermal Unit or m is the accepted unit of heat quantity. A Btu is frequently defined as
the heat required to raise one pound of water through lo F., but a more accurate defi-
nition is that 1 Btu equals l/180 of the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of a pound of water from 32O F. to 2120 F.

-l-
 The following example will serve to indicate the fundamental difference between
quantity of heat and intensity of heat:
Given 50 lbs. of water and 50 lbs. of cast iron - each to be heated
through a temperature rise of lOOoF. - Determine the heat added
to each substance:
Average amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb.
of water through 1°F. = 1 Btu.
Heat added to water = 1 x 50 x 100 = 5000 Btu.
Average amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb.
of cast iron through 1°F. = 0.12 Btu.
Heat added to cast iron = 0.12 x 50 x 100 = 600 Btu.
In this example the weight of material and the temperature rise were
the same in each case, but the quantity of heat added differed con-
siderably due to the nature of the substances. Had the same amount
of heat been added to the cast iron as was added to the water the
temperature rise of the iron would have been 5000 f (50 x 0.12) = 833’F.
Specific Heat: The foregoing illustration introduced another basic term with which we must
become familiar and that is “Specific Heat. I’ The specific heat of any substance is the
ratio of the heat required to raise a unit weight of the substance lo F., to the quantity
of heat required to raise the temperature of the same weight of water through lo F. In
CGS units the average specific heat of water equals 1 calorie/gram/deg. C. Since the
specific heat of water may be considered to be 1, we may then say that the specific heat
or thermal capacity is the quantity of heat required to raise 1 pound of the substance
through 1°F. For any given material, the specific heat will vary somewhat depending
upon the range of temperature involved. This is particularly true for gases but can
generally be disregarded unless the temperature range is wide or precise calculations
are involved. In dealing with air, there are actually two types of specific heat to be
considered. There is the specific heat at constant pressure, which is the one used mostly
in air conditioning, and the specific heat at constant volume. The approximate values
of each are 0.241 and 0.173 BTU respectively. Specific heat at constant pressure is
the greater because the increase in the air volume due to the addition of heat means
that external work has been done against the pressure that is present. Some datum is
always necessary when making heat content determinations and if this datum is not def-
initely stated, it is generally understood to be O’F.
Find the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 100 lbs.
of ice from O°F. to 32OF. Specific heat of ice = 0.5
100 x (32-O) x 0.5 = 1600 Btu.
Pressure: Let us now take up another group of definitions which are important for a
thorough understanding of the properties of air. These have to do with “pressure.”
Air is such a commonplace thing that we are seldom conscious of its existence. We
must, however, realize that air has weight, it exerts a pressure, and everything that we
do takes place in an ocean of air. The earth as a planet is completely surrounded by an
envelope of air, or atmosphere, as we frequently refer to it. The pressure exerted by
the atmosphere is termed “atmospheric pressure”, and is generally expressed in terms
of force per unit area. Atmospheric pressure is measured above zero absolute pressure
or above a perfect vacuum.

-2-
 The pressure of the atmosphere varies with the elevation above sea level, weather
conditions, etc. , and since it is such a variable quantity, it has been necessary to define
standard atmospheric pressure so that it can serve as a basis of comparison in engineer-
ing formula, etc. This standard atmospheric pressure is supposed to be measured at sea
level and by definition is equivalent to 29.92” of mercury per square inch. This means
that a column of air one square inch in cross section and extending up into the sky to
the limit of our atmosphere would exert just enough ‘weight to counter-balance the weight
of a column of mercury 1 square inch in cross section and 29.92” in height. The follow-
ing illustration shows this relationship:

The height of mercury standing in the tube

will be exactly equal to the pressure of the
atmosphere pushing down on the surface of
the mercury in the beaker.

As a matter of fact atmospheric pressure is frequently measured by an instrument

using mercury, precisely as shown in the above illustration and this device is referred
to as a mercurial barometer. There is another type of barometer in general use which
uses no fluid and the pressure of the air is measured by a linkage which is attached to
the elastic side of a box or chamber which has been exhausted of air. This type of in-
strument is called an “aneroid” barometer, which means “no fluid.”

In the above illustration we talked about the pressure of air as measured in terms of
inches of mercury, but we should also be familiar with the other units in which air pressure
is frequently measured. Standard atmospheric pressure (which is theoretically the air
pressure at sea level) is also equal to 14.7 lb. per square inch and this gives us a
relationship of 14.7/29.92 = 0.491 lbs. per square inch for each inch of mercury column.
In many pressure determinations, the unit “inches of mercury” is too large for the value
of the pressure being measured (for the same reason that it would be absurd to measure
the weight of a parcel post package in tons - therefore, we use pounds and ounces) and
so we need a smaller unit of measurement such as “inches of water.” Since mercury is
13.6 times as heavy as water, then 1” of mercury = 13.6” of water. Standard atmos-
pheric pressure of 29.92” of mercury is therefore equivalent to approximately 407” of
water per square inch. When pressure is measured in a steam boiler for example, the
pressure is measured above or below the atmosphere and such pressure is always ex-
pressed as gauge pressure and is frequently abbreviated p. s. i. g. meaning pounds per square
inch gauge. In order to determine the absolute pressure or the pressure above zero, it
is necessary to algebraically add the gauge pressure to the atmospheric or barometric
pressure. Absolute pressure is frequently abbreviated p. s. i. a. (pounds per square inch
absolute.) Always be sure that each pressure is expressed in the same units, as it is
absolutely fatal to try to add inches of mercury to pounds per sq. in. or to add inches of water
to inches of mercury.

In dealing with air flow the pressures are frequently quite minute and are almost
always expressed in terms of inches of water. such pressures are referred to as “gauge
pressure” or pressure above or below atmosphere. The phrase “gauge pressure” is derived
from the fact that this pressure is generally measured with some type of gauge. In measur-

-3-
ing these pressures we sometimes use an ordinary U-tube which has been filled with water
and the water in the two sides will deflect in accordance with the pressure differential
being measured. If the pressure in question involves the deflection of a fraction of an
inch, a U-tube would not be a very accurate measuring device, so in these instances we
generally use as a gauge a device which is referred to as a “manometer” or draft gauge.
This instrument is fundamentally the same as a U-tube except that one leg is bent out at
a very obtuse angle in order to magnify the deflection or displacement of the liquid. In-
stead of water, most gauges of this type use a light colored mineral oil which will also
amplify the deflection for a given amount of pressure. In practically all cases these gauges
are calibrated to read in terms of inches of water, so we must thoroughly familiarize our-
selves with this unit of pressure measurement.

Specific Volume: In addition to the foregoing we should become familiar with the term
“specific volume, ‘I which generally refers to the volume occupied by one pound of a sub-
stance. A gas such as air expands or contracts quite readily with changes in temperature
and pressure, therefore, the number of cubic feet occupied by a pound of air (or its spe-
cific volume) must take these properties into consideration. Assume the temperature of
the air within this room is 75O F. and a barometer pressure of 29.2” of mercury. There-
fore, the specific volume of the air is about 13.9 cu. ft. per pound. This room roughly
measures 20 ft. by 36 ft. with a 7-l/2 ft. ceiling, and multiplying these three values
together gives a volume of 5,400 cu. ft. Since we said that each pound of air would
occupy 13.9 cu. ft. - this room would then calculate to contain 389 lbs. of air. When
a man says he is under pressure, it is certainly true of air pressure. The reciprocal
of specific volume is specific weight, which is the weight in pounds of 1 cubic foot of
the substance at some stated condition.

PERFECT GAS EQUATION: All matter is composed of molecules which are defined as the
smallest sub-division of matter that retains its original characteristics. Molecules may
in turn be sub-divided into atoms but these atoms will no longer have the same character-
istics as the original substance. For example, a molecule of water will behave precisely
as water does, but each molecule consists of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen, which taken
individually will bear no resemblance to water. According to the general accepted theory,
all molecules are in continuous motion and the magnitude of this motion is a function of
the temperature, with the higher the temperature, the greater the velocity of molecular
movement. Solid bodies have rigidity because the molecules vibrate continuously, but do
not change their position relative to adjacent molecules. In a liquid all molecules have
greater freedom, however, the forces of cohesion are strong enough so that there is no
tendency for the molecules to separate. In the case of a gas, such as air, the molecules
are at a much greater distance apart and tend to diffuse and disperse indefinitely unless
prevented by a constraining vessel.

The atmosphere of our earth is a mechanical mixture of several gases, the pro-
portion of which varies slightly in different localities. The chief constituents of air are
oxygen, nitrogen, argon and water vapor; with slight traces of other gases such as
carbon dioxide, hydrogen, neon, etc.

In studying air and its properties, our problem actually divides itself into two parts,
Dry air follows very closely the fundamental laws dealing with a perfect gas, but the
water vapor (which is actually low pressure steam) obeys the laws which are peculiar to
vapors. In studying the behavior of dry air, we should first consider Boyles Law and
Charles Law. Boyles Law states that for a perfect gas, when the temperature remains
constant the volume will decrease as the pressure is increased; or at a constant temper-
ature, the volume will vary inversely as the pressure. Charles Law also deals with a
perfect gas and states that if the pressure remains constant and the temperature varies,
the volume of the gas will increase directly as the absolute temperature. By combining
these two laws we arrive at a characteristic equation for a perfect gas which states that:

PQ = RT for 1 pound of the gas, or

PQ = WRT for W pounds of the gas

where: P = the absolute pressure in pounds per - square foot-

*Q = the tot a1 volume of the gas in cubic feet

W = the total weight of the gas in pounds

R = Gas constant

T = the absolute temperature = (460 + t) o F.

This gas constant (R) has an interesting derivation. For any individual gas, the’ constant
(R) multiplied by the molecular weight of the gas (M) is always equal to 1545.4. With
this basic relationship we can, therefore, compute the constant (R) for any gas by divid-
ing 1545.4 by the molecular weight of the gas. It was previously mentioned that air is a
mechanical mixture of several gases and has approximately the following volume relation-
ship -

Constituent Part by Volume Molecular Wt. Proportion of Mole. Wt.

Oxygen (02) .210 x 32 6.72

Nitrogen (N2) .781 x 28 21.866

Argon (A) .009 x 39.9 0.355

1.000 28.941

The total apparent molecular weight of the air mixture is 28.941 and the gas constant
(R) for air is, therefore, 1545.4/28.941 = 53.34

At this point it might be of interest to mention the relationship involving molecular

weight and specific volume.

* The letter l’V’l will be reserved to represent Velocity.

-5-
 The volume of a pound molecule, or mol, of any gas at normal conditions is a def-
inite number and is equal to 359 cu. ft. This means that for any gas a mol, which is
equal to the molecular weight expressed as pounds, will always occupy 359 cu. ft. at a
barometric pressure of 29.92” of mercury and at a temperature of 32O F. You will note
that this represents so-called “normal conditions” as used in chemistry. In air condition-
ing work we usually refer to normal or standard conditions as representing a barometric
pressure of 29.92” of mercury, and a temperature of 700 F.

Using the above relationship for molecular weight, specific volumes may be calcu-
lated as indicated by the following examples:

The atomic weight of oxygen is equal to 16, so for 02, the

molecular weight would be 2 x 16 = 32
Specific volume of O2 = 359/32 = 11.22 cu. ft. per pound (at 32O F. and 29.92” Hg.)

Molecular weight of CO2 = 12 + (2 x 16) = 44

Specific volume = 359/44 = 8.16 cu. ft. per pound (at 320 F. and 29.92” Hg.)

We previously calculated the molecular weight of air to be 28.941.

Specific volume of air at 29.92” Hg and 32O F. = 359/28.941 = 12.4 cu. ft. /lb.
This value can be checked directly from a psychrometric chart. If it is desired
to obtain the specific volume of air at 70° F. and standard barometric pressure,
we would then multiply the specific volume at 32O F. by the ratio of absolute
temperatures:

12 . 4 x (460
(460 ++ 70)
32) = 13.35 cu. ft. per pound

The Perfect Gas Equation is a very useful relationship as will be shown by the follow-
ing illustrations:

(a) Given 1 lb. of air at 700 F. and 29.92” Hg.

sp. Vol. = 13.35 cu. ft. per lb.
If the pressure is increased to 5 lbs. per sq. in gauge, and the temperature
remains constant, what is the volume then occupied by the pound of air?
According to Boylesl Law:
14.7 x 13.35 = 9.95 cu. ft. per lb.
Q =(14.7+5.0)

If the air at the original condition was cooled to O” F. , what would be its volume?
According to Charles’ Law:
& _ (460 + 0 ) x 13.35 = 11.58 cu. ft. per lb.
- (460 + 70)

(b) Assume 1 pound of air at standard atmospheric pressure of 14.7 lb. per sq. in.
occupies 11.58 cu. ft. Using the Perfect Gas Equation, determine the temperature
of the air in degrees Fahrenheit.
PQ=WRT
(Absolute) T = 2 = 14* : z :F3i 11* 58= 460° T (Deg. F) = 460 - 460 = O°F.
.
 (c) Given 1 lb. of air at 70° F. and under a pressure of 5 lbs. per sq. in gauge.
Determine the specific volume occupied by 1 lb. of air using the Perfect Gas
Equation:

WRT 1 x 53.34 x (460 + 70) = 9.95 cu. ft. per lb.

P Q = W R T Q = p=
(14.7 + 5) x 144

(d) An inflated automobile tire contains 0.5 lbs of air which occupies a volume of
1.82 cu. ft. at a pressure of 40 psig and a temperature of 750 F. The barometric
pressure is 14.4 lbs. per sq. in.

Using Charles’ Law, calculate the resulting gage pressure in the tire if it is
heated to a temperature of 130° F. , assuming the volume remains constant.
Check by using the perfect gas equation.

V = Const. Pl
-=-Tl
P2 T2

PIT2 _ (40 + 14.4) x (460 + 130) _ 14 . 4

p2 = -Ti-- (460+ 75)

= 60 - 14.4 = 45.6 psig.

Check: P = WRT= 0.50 x 53.34 x 5 9 0 = 6. - 14.4 = 45.6 psig

8 1.82 x 144
Since the atmosphere is a mechanical mixture of several gases, plus water vapor,
the atmospheric pressure which we measure with a barometer is the sum of the pressures
exerted by the individual components. This is a very important relationship in our study
of the properties of air and water vapor, and is known as Dalton’s Law. Briefly it states
that two or more gases or vapors can occupy the same volume at the same time, and
the total pressure of the mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of the constituents.
This law is particularly important as we study the relationship between dry air and water
vapor.

WATER VAPOR OR STEAM: Let us first discuss some of the properties of water vapor
which will be significant to us later. We are all familiar with the process of water boil-
ing in an open vessel. Starting with water at 32O F., as we add heat the temperature of
the water will continue to rise until the temperature of 212O F. is reached and the water
begins to boil (at standard atmospheric pressure. ) At this point the temperature will re-
main constant until all the water has boiled off or disappeared. We must realize, how-
ever, that evaporation of the water was also occuring during the entire heating-up period.
At the low temperatures the rate of evaporation was very slow with the evaporation in-
creasing as the temperature of the water increased. The important point is that a very
definite quantity of heat was required to change the water from the liquid state to the
vapor state and this quantity of heat was dependent upon the temperature (or pressure) of
the water.
From the molecular standpoint, vaporization means the flying off of molecules against
the forces of molecular attraction provided by the water. If we take a vessel partially
filled with water and cover it with a tight lid, the liberated vapor will be confined above
the surface of the liquid. If the water in the vessel is maintained at some constant tem-

- 7 -
 perature, such as 100° F., there will be a continuing release of molecules of vapor into
the space above the liquid. At the same time, however, some of the vapor molecules will
strike the water and become liquid again. The phenomena will continue until the average
number of molecules returning to the liquid will exactly equal the number of molecules
being liberated as a vapor. Under these conditions the vapor is said to be in “equilibrium
with the liquid. ” When this point is reached the vapor is said to be SATURATED and the
equilibrium pressure is called the SATURATED VAPOR PRESSURE. The magnitude of
this saturated vapor pressure will, of course, depend upon the temperature - with the
higher the temperature, the higher the vapor pressure. This applies not only to all satu-
rated temperatures above 32O but to ice as well. If the lid was removed from the vessel
in this illustration, and the vapor thus not allowed to accumulate over the liquid, it will
remain unsaturated, equilibrium conditions would not be reached, and the liquid would
gradually disappear by evaporation.

The process of boiling is associated with the pressure on the surface of the liquid.
For normal atmospheric conditions this pressure is 14.7 lb. per sq. in. Assume that we
have a vessel of water boiling vigorously and suddenly we are able to increase the pressure
above the surface of the liquid. You would find that boiling would immediately stop and it
would be necessary to add additional heat to the water (above the 212’ point) until the
water reached a new SATURATED TEMPERATURE corresponding to the increased pressure.
Conversely, assume we have an open vessel of water which we had just heated to 212O
so that boiling was just beginning to take place. If some means were available to suddenly
reduce the pressure above the surface of the water, we would note that the water would
begin to boil very vigorously because with this reduction in pressure we have also reduced
the SATURATED TEMPERATURE, or the temperature of the boiling point.

When water is heated in a vessel such as a boiler, we usually refer to the vapor
generated as steam and we call such a device a steam boiler or a steam generator. Let
us take another example in which we have a tea kettle half full of water and we heat it
until it begins to vigorously boil. At this point the water vapor or steam will discharge
from the tea kettle spout. Assume that the steam thus produced is piped over into another
vessel and additional heat is applied at this point. We will find that the temperature of
the steam will be increased above its saturation temperature (as measured in the tea
kettle) and the steam is then said to be in a super-heated state. The difference between
the actual temperature of the steam and its saturation temperature corresponding to the
pressure at which it was formed is said to be the DEGREE OF SUPER-HEAT. At low
orders of super-heat and at pressures near that of standard atmospheric, the mean spe-
cific heat of steam is approximately 0,45 Btu/lb/deg. F. The mean specific heat of ice is 0.50
Btu/lb/deg. F.

In order to graphically illustrate this process of steam generation let us consider what is
commonly referred to as a temperature - entropy diagram. In this diagram we will plot Ab-
solute Temperature as the vertical leg or ordinate, and Entropy will be the base line or abscissa.
For our purposes it will suffice to define “ENTROPY” as the ratio of the heat added to a sub-
stance, to the absolute temperature at which the addition takes place. Therefore if we multiply
the change in ENTROPY by the absolute temperature, the product will represent HEAT, and
these coordinates were chosen so that the areas on the diagram would represent the HEAT added
during the different stages. Properties of steam are generally presented in tabulated form and
, “Steam Tables” covering both saturated and superheated conditions can be found in many hand
books.
 P

ff
S
ENTROPY

The line AL is known as the liquid line and BC is the saturated vapor line. If we
would extend the liquid and vapor lines until they intersect, such as point X - it would
represent the critical point above which we could no longer liquify the steam by the appli-
cation of pressure. This point represents a temperature of 7060 F. and an absolute pressure
of 3206 lb. per sq. in. As an example in the use of this diagram let us assume that we are
generating steam in a boiler at 3# gauge pressure. The saturation temperature at this
pressure is 222O F. Starting with water at 32’ F. such as point A, our liquid follows the
line AL to point D which represents the temperature of 222’ F. corresponding to the sat-
uration temperature at 3# gauge pressure. At this condition we have added to each pound
of water the heat equivalent to the area under the curve AD. This is referred to as the
HEAT OF THE LIQUID and is equal to 190 Btu per pound. At point D the liquid is exerting
its maximum tendency to be transformed into the vapor state. By that we mean at point
D the water is still liquid but any further addition of heat will cause a change in state
thereby transforming it from a liquid to a vapor - or steam. This change in state occurs
at a constant temperature as indicated by line DE. At point E on the vapor line, the
pound of water has been transformed into steam and the area below line DE will repre-
sent the LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION or the heat required to change a pound of
water from a liquid at 222O F. into steam at 2220 F. You will note that we have intro-
duced the term “latent heat”. The dictionary definition of the word lllatent’l states that it
means “present but not visible or apparent. 11 The latent heat of steam, therefore, is
heat which has been applied in order to effect a change of state (from a liquid to a vapor),
but the presence of this heat would not be reflected in a temperature reading, because
during this change of state process - the temperature remains constant as indicated by
line DE. However, if we later condense this steam into water, such as is done in a
Steam radiator, we will reclaim this latent heat and it can be used for space heating, etc.

The latent heat of vaporization for steam at 3# gauge pressure is 966 Btu per pound
and the heat content of a pound of steam at point E will, therefore, be the sum of the
heat of the liquid plus the latent heat of vaporization = 190 + 966 = 1156 Btu’s per pound

- 9 -
of steam. You will note that the liquid line AL and the vapor line BC are converging (and
actually intersect at point X as indicated.) Consequently the latent heat of evaporation de-
creases as the saturation temperature (or the saturation pressure) increases. At the criti-
cal point X, the water would instantaneously flash or vaporize into steam without the addi-
tion of any heat or vaporization. The temperature and pressure would have to be 706O F.
and 3206# per sq. in. gauge, respectively, as previously stated.

After point E is reached, if we were to continue to add heat to the vapor, our steam
would follow the line EF which is the super-heat line at constant pressure and the area
to the right of the vapor line BC is known as the super heat region. At point F the heat
of super-heat added to each pound of steam would be equivalent to the area under line EF.
If you assume point F to represent a temperature of 250° F., the heat of super-heat is
equal to 13 Btu’s per pound. The number of degrees of super-heat are 250 - 222 = 28’ F.
On the basis of the actual Btu’s of super-heat involved you will note that the average spe-
cific heat of the steam calculates to be 0.465 Btu/lb/deg. which approximates the value
of 0.45 previously referred to.

At point F the total heat in one pound of our steam in now equal to the sum of the
heat of the liquid plus the latent heat of vaporization plus the heat of super-heat and =
190 t 966 t 13 = 1169 Btu per pound.

Down in the range of vapor pressures and temperatures associated with air condi-
tioning, we have the same processes for the formation of vapor which is present, as we
have just covered in our steam discussion. Thus if our liquid is heated to 70° F. along
the liquid line AG and vaporized or evaporated along the constant temperature line GK we
have added the heat of the liquid and the latent heat of vaporization just as we did in the
example dealing with our steam boiler at 3# gauge pressure. Point K represents the con-
dition of the water vapor in air saturated at 70° F. and any further addition of heat would
cause the saturated water vapor to become super-heated at constant pressure to some
point such as P. Let us assume for a moment that point P represents 80° F. (which
would be the dry bulb temperature of the air in an air-vapor mixture.) Under this condi-
tion the water vapor in the air is actually super-heated above point K. In this example
the amount of super-heat would be loo and point K would correspond to the dew point
temperature - or the temperature at which air becomes saturated without the gain or loss
of any moisture. In air conditioning the water vapor in the air is in a super-heated state
the majority of the time and we are, therefore, concerned mostly with the conditions of
the vapor either on or to the right of the saturation BC and it is in this area in which
our psychrometric charts are plotted. While this temperature entropy-diagram could very
well serve as a psychrometric chart, it would have to be constructed in such detail as
to be impractical.

MIXTURES OF AIR & WATER VAPOR: When we spoke of air being a mechanical mixture,
mention was made of the fact that the over-all or total atmospheric pressure was made
up of the sum of the pressures of the individual components. For our work in air condi-
tioning we will group all the dry components together and refer to them as r’Air” and we
will then have only the water vapor component to consider separately.

In other words: Pt = Pa + Pv which states that the total atmospheric pressure is 1

equal to the partial pressure of the air plus the partial pressure
of the water vapor.
_j

- 10 -
.)
 Since we have already developed the basic equation combining the
laws of Boyles and Charles, to wit: PQ = WRT, it might be well
to determine the value of the gas constant R when our pressure
units are expressed in terms of inches of mercury per square
inch.
The volume occupied by 1 lb. of air at a temperature of 70° F.
and a pressure of 14.7 lb/sq. in. = 13.35 cu. ft. Since 14.7 lb.
per sq. in. = 29.92” Hg, the gas constant R for dry air when
the pressure is expressed in inches of mercury is:
29.92 x 13.35 _ o 753
R=z =
1 x 530 - *
In air conditioning we have two mixture conditions to contend with, insofar as the
water vapor component is concerned. There is the condition of saturated water vapor
(when the air is saturated); and the condition where the air in unsaturated or when the
water vapor present is in a superheated state. We shall work out a number of examples
for both of these conditions and shall then check them against the psychrometric chart.

It has been previously mentioned that at low temperatures, the water vapor or steam
will behave almost as a perfect gas, and under these conditions it obeys the same laws
as for air. When dealing with water vapor we may use the expression PvQ, = WR,T,,
where the subscript (v) identifies the water vapor component. Where the pressure is ex-
pressed in pounds per sq. ft., the gas constant R for water vapor = 85.72. With the
pressure expressed in inches of mercury, the equation reduces to PvQv = 1.21 TV.
This latter expression applies to 1 lb. of vapor since the value of W (weight) has
been omitted.

SATURATED CONDITIONS: Given one pound of dry air at 70° F. and 29.92” of mercury
pressure and to this air has been added sufficient water vapor to saturate it. Please note
the term “pound of dry air” - as this is the basis for all determinations made on the
psychrometric chart. The reason for this is quite apparent. If you had a pound of air
which consists of a mixture of air and water vapor you can well see that would be an
infinite number of dry air weight and water vapor weight which when added together would
make one pound. Because of this infinite number of possible combinations - it would mater-
ially complicate a psychrometric chart if a “pound of mixture” was used as the basis.
On the other hand, however, with all properties being based on one pound of dry air, plus
the moisture present; it is only necessary to take into consideration the varying weight of
water vapor. In actual practice the only property which generally needs to be corrected
to a “pound of the mixture basis *’ is specific volume or density.

Let us reconsider our reference example of one pound of dry air at a temperature of
70’ F. and under standard barometric conditions of 29.92” of mercury. Solving in our
perfect gas equation, the volume calculates to be 13.35 cu. ft. which is the volume occupied
by one pound of dry air at the conditions specified. However, when this air is saturated
with water vapor, the pressure exerted by the dry air component will no longer be 29.92”
Hg, but will be the reading of the barometer less the pressure exerted by the water vapor.
For the properties of water vapor, let us refer to a steam table and at 70° F. we note
that the pressure of saturated steam (or water vapor) is 0.74” of mercury and that the
volume occupied by pound of water vapor at this condition is 868 cu. ft. Since the total
pressure of the mixture is 29.92” of mercury, the pressure exerted by the dry air only
is 29.92” - 0.74 = 29.18 Hg. It was originally calculated that the volume occupied by one

- 11 -
pound of dry air at 29.92” Hg was 13.35 cu. ft. We now note that when the air is saturated
with water vapor, its volume will increase because the pressure exerted by the dry air
portion only has been reduced and when the pressure is reduced the volume increases,
to wit:
29.92
- x 13.35 = 13.67 cu. ft.
29.18
which is the volume occupied by one pound of dry air plus
- the
- vapor
- to -saturate it-at a
temperature of 700 F.

It should be thoroughly understood that the water vapor present also occupies precisely
the same volume as is occupied by the dry air portion of the mixture. In this example
the quantity of water vapor necessary to saturate one pound of dry air at 70° F. is 110
grains. Since there are 7000 grains in a pound, the amount by weight of water vapor
necessary to saturate a pound of air under these conditions is -1 1 0 = 0.0157#. The values
7000
of pressure and volume which we originally obtained from a steam table indicated that a
pound of water vapor occupied 868 cu. ft. at 70° F. A pound of dry air at 70’ F. requires
only 110/7000 or 0.0157# to saturate it, so the volume occupied by this weight of vapor
would be 0.0157 x 868 = 13.67 cu. ft. Your particular attention is called to the fact that
this volume of water vapor is precisely equal to the volume occupied by one pound of
dry air at its partial pressure and at a temperature of 700 F.

The pounds of moisture per pound of dry air in this example amounted to 0.0157 lbs.,
as obtained from a psychrometric chart. Since we have now proven that the air and the
water vapor occupy the same volume, we are in a position to calculate the moisture con-
tent by again referring to the perfect gas equation, with the subscripts (a) and (v) applying
to the dry air and water vapor components respectively:

Pa Qa = 0.753 Wa Ta Pressure units in

And: Pv Qv = 1.21 WV TV inches of mercury.
In a given mixture: Qa = Qv
0,753 Wa Ta _- 1.21 WV Tv
Then:
Pa PV
Let Wa = l# of dry air and since T a = TV
w -0.753Pv
Then: v - 1.21 Pa
For Standard Air, Pa = 29.92 - Pv
w -0.753Pv lbs. of vapor per
Therefore v - 1.21pg.92 - pv) pound of dry air.

or w V = 4355 pv grains of vapor per

29.92-Pv pound of dry air.
Either of these expressions can be applied to air at standard barometric pressure
for calculating the weight of vapor associated with one pound of dry air, whether it is
in a saturated or unsaturated (super-heated) condition.

In the above example the aoight of the water vapor is:

0.753 x 0.74 0.0157 lbs. of moisture which occupies a volume
WV =
1.21 (29.92 - 0.74) = of 13.67 cu. ft.
 The total weight of dry air plus vapor involved in this example is 1 + 0.0157 = 1.0157
lb. The volume occupied by 1 lb. of the mixture is . i’&-$$$ = 13.46 cu. ft.
,

As previously mentioned, the mixture basis may he used whenever precise calculations
involving specific volume or density are involved.
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY is the actual weight of water vapor (in grains or pounds) per cu.
ft. of mixture. SPECIFIC HUMIDITY is the weight of water vapor (in grains or pounds) mixed
with one pound of dry air. The use of specific humidity rather than absolute humidity fre-
quently simplifies the calculations. Although the results will not be absolutely accurate, for
all practical purposes the error which is introduced can generally be ignored.
Dr. Carrier has proposed the following equation for solving for the partial pressure
of the water vapor at any given wet and dry bulb temperature:

Pv = Psv - (pb - p,,) (td - tw)

2800 - 1.3 t,
Where Pv = Pressure of the water vapor at the unsaturated condition.
P sv = Pressure of the saturated water vapor at the wet bulb temp.
Pb = Barometric pressure
td = Dry bulb temperature
t, = Wet bulb temperature
Example: Given air at 750 dry bulb and 600 wet bulb at an atmospheric
pressure of 29.92 in. Hg. determine the partial pressure of
the water vapor.
Psv = 0.5218 in. Hg. - Saturation pressure of the water vapor at
600 F. wet bulb.
(29.92 - 0.5218) ( ‘75 - 60)
P, = 0.5218 -
2800 - (1.3 x 60)

= 0.3604 in. Hg. - Partial pressure of the water vapor

(This value can be checked from a chart or table by
determining the saturation pressure at the dew point
temperature.)

It should be noted that when air is saturated at a given temperature - such as at ‘70°,
that same temperature will also correspond to the Dew Point. This is a very important
term in air conditioning and one with which we must become familiar. Again by definition,
the dew point temperature is the temperature at which the air becomes saturated with-
out the gain or loss of moisture. In this example if the air is cooled only a fraction of
a degree below 70, some of the moisture will condense out in the form of droplets of
water (such as fog or dew), and the moisture content will then be reduced and the dew
point temperature will be lowered.

Conversely if the air is heated above 70° F. so that additional moisture can be added -
the temperature of the dew point will be raised. Let us, therefore, remember that the
dew point temperature of the air is a function of the moisture content, and if the moisture
content remains constant, the temperature of the dew point will not change. Therefore,

- 13 -
in an air-vapor mixture the dew point temperature corresponds to the saturation conditions
of the vapor or steam as given in steam tables.

TOTAL HEAT: Another property of a saturated mixture of air and water vapor that we
will find useful is called the “total heat content”. It consists of the sum of the sensible
heat content of the dry air above a pre-determined reference point plus the sensible
heat of the water from which the vapor was formed, plus the latent heat of vaporization
of the weight of water required to saturate the air at any given condition. In determin-
ing the total heat content of an air-vapor misture, it is customary to base the sensible
heat in one pound of dry air above the datum of O” F, and the heat in the water from
which the vapor was formed is based upon the datum of 32O F. In this expression for
total heat we have used the terms sensible heat and latent heat and we should become
completely familiar with these two terms. Whenever we add heat to a substance we in-
crease its temperature and the heat thus added is known as sensible heat, because it
can be “sensed1 by touch or its presence can be detected by a thermometer. Heat may
be added to a body without any change of temperature provided a change of state takes
place, such as from a solid to a liquid or from a liquid to a vapor, and the heat thus
added is known as -latent heat. - For example, when ice melts into water, the heat ab-
sorbed during the melting process (which takes place at a constant temperature of 32OF.
at standard atmospheric pressure) is known as “latent heat of fusion”. When water is
boiled and changed into steam, the heat required for this change of state is known as
the “latent heat of vaporization”. At standard atmospheric pressure the boiling point of
water is 212O and the latent heat of vaporization required to vaporize a pound of water
is *971,7 Btu per pound. The value of the latent heat of vaporization decreases with an
increase in pressure and saturation temperature. You will recall from our T-S diagram
that the latent heat of vaporization is 0 at a saturation temperature of 706O F.

From the previous definition, the equation for total heat (H) for 1 pound of dry air
saturated with moisture then becomes;

H- 0.241 (T-O) + [WV x 1 x (T - 32jj t (WV L)

where: 0.241 = mean specific heat of dry air - Btu/lb/deg. F.

T = Saturation Temperature, - Deg. F.

WV = the weight of the water vapor in lbs. required to saturate a pound

of dry air at the temperature under consideration

L = latent heat of vaporization at the saturation temperature - Btu per

pound

Based upon our previous example of saturated air at 70’ F., the total heat content
would calculate to be:

H= 0.241 (70 - 0)-l 0.0157 (70 - 32) + (0.0157 x 1052.8)

(Sensible Ht.) (Sensible Ht. ) ( Latent Ht. )

= 16.88+ 0.60 + 16.57 = 34.05 Btu per pound of dry air saturated
at 70° F.
*Values given in different “Steam Tables” and fbr “air-vapor mixtures” may vary slightly depending upon source material.

- 14 -
 The value of heat content can be found in most tables having to do with the mixture
of air and saturated water vapor. It should be borne in mind, however, that these tables
apply to saturated conditions only.

UNSATURATED CONDITIONS: Up to this point we have dealt primarily with saturated

mixture of air and water vapor, but most of the conditions encountered in practice involve
air in an unsaturated state (or where the vapor is super-heated). Water vapor which is
mixed with air is known as “humidity” and technical literature may refer to several
different types. As previously defined SPECIFIC HUMIDITY refers to the weight of
water vapor (expressed in grams or in pounds) which is associated with a pound of dry
air at some stated dry bulb temperature. The ratio of the weight of water vapor mixed
with a pound of dry air to the weight of water vapor which the air could contain if
saturated at the same dry bulb temperature is frequently referred to as “percent satu-
ration” and is so indicated on the AAF Psychrometric Chart. This ratio may also be
referred to as percentage humidity.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY is another term which is widely used and may be defined at the
ratio of the partial pressure of the water vapor at a given temperature, to the vapor
pressure corresponding to saturation at that temperature. It may also be defined as
the ratio of the weight of water vapor per cubic foot of dry air to the weight corres-
ponding to saturation conditions. At the temperature of the dew point, the percent
saturation and the relative humidity will always be 100%.

Given air at a temperature of 800 F. and at a percent saturation of 50%.

If this air were saturated at its dry bulb temperature of 80° F., the spe-
cific humidity or weight of moisture per pound of dry air would be 155.5
grains.

Since the percent saturation is 50%, the weight of water vapor per pound
of dry air would be 155.5 x 0.5 = 77.8 grains. At this specific humidity
the dew point temperature is 60.2O F,

You will recall that this dew point represents the lowest temperature to which the
air could be cooled without giving up any of its original moisture.

The total heat content of an unsaturated mixture of air must also take into consider-
ation the heat of super-heat of the vapor, in addition to the heat in the dry air, the heat
of the liquid, and the latent heat of vaporization - all of which we previously discussed.
It is important to remember that the latent heat of vaporization must be based upon the
dew point temperature.

Let us determine the heat content per pound of dry air at 80’ F. and percentage
humidity of 50. We previously determined that the dew point temperature under these
conditions was 60.2’ and the latent heat of vaporization at this dew point temperature
is 1058.7 Btu Per pound of vapor. The pounds of moisture per pound of dry air at this
dew point temperature is 0.011:
Total heat (H) = [0.241 x 1 x (80 - oi + [l x 0.011 (60.2 - 32)l
+ (0.011 x 1059.7) + [0.45 x o.Oll(80 - 60.2)l
= 19.28 + 0.310 + 11.66 + 0.098
= 31.35~ Btu/lb of dry air

- 15 -
 This value of total heat is frequently referred to as ” Enthalpy” and is listed as such
on many charts and tables. For all practical purposes from our point of view, the two
terms enthalpy and total heat can he assumed to be interchangeable.

Another interesting aspect of this property of air having to do with enthalpy or total
heat can probably best be shown by the following illustration:
Let us assume that we have a supply of air at the original conditions of 80°
F. and a percentage humidity of 50%. We will then put this air through an
insulated duct’ system in which has been installed an air washer using recir-
culated water, and with a theoretical wetting efficiency of 100%. The duct work
has been insulated so there will be no heat transfer to or from the room air.
After conditions have become stabilized, as the air passes through the air
washer, it will absorb additional water vapor and the temperature of the dew
point will therefore be raised. The latent heat which is necessary to evaporate
this additional moisture must come from the sensible heat in the air as it is
the only source of heat available. Since the air washer was assumed to be
100% effective in wetting the air, the dew point temperature will rise and the
dry bulb temperature will drop until they meet each other and they will meet
at the original -wet bulb- temperature- of the
- air.- This is a new term, but one
with which we must become thoroughly familiar. The “wet bulb temperature”
may be considered as the temperature at - which
- the - air -becomes saturated
without the gain- or loss
- of
- heat. Therefore, in this example the air will leave
the air washer at a wet bulb temperature of 66.9O and since the air is satu-
rated at this point, this will also represent the dry bulb temperature and
the temperature of the dew point at the leaving conditions. Actually there
is a slight deviation between the enthalpy and total heat values for any given
wet bulb temperature. This deviation is due to the change in the “heat of the
liquid,” but is usually so small that it can be ignored.
Solving for the amount of moisture added, we find that at the new dew point
temperature of 66. go, the moisture content is 99 grains per pound of dry
air. At the original entering conditions of 80° F. and a percent saturation
of 50, the dew point temperature was 60.2 and the moisture content was
78.5 grains per pound of dry air. Therefore, the moisture added during the
passage of the air through the air washer is 99 - 78.5 = 20.5 grains per
pound of dry air. Since this evaporation took place at the wet bulb temper-
ature of 66.9 degrees, the latent heat of vaporization at this temperature is
1056.0 Btu per pound. The heat required to accomplish this vaporization is:

20.5 x 1056.00
- 3.20 Btu per pound of dry air
7000
q

The only source of heat to accomplish the vaporization of this additional moisture
had to come from the sensible heat available. The sensible heat required comes from
two sources, namely; a reduction in the sensible heat of the dry air and a reduction
in the heat of super-heat of the water vapor. This total heat transfer calculates to
be:

0.241 x (80-66.9) + (0.45 x 7ooo

78.5 x (80-66.9) = 3.16 + 0.06 = 3.22 Btu/lb. of
dry air.

- 16 -
 The conditions of the air have been read from a chart; otherwise, the calculated
value of latent heat increase and sensible heat reduction should check exactly.

The wet bulb temperature of air is not a theoretical property, but is a property which
can be measured by means of a thermometer and is of tremendous importance in air
conditioning determinations. Wet bulb temperature readings are made by using an ordinary
dry bulb thermometer and covering the thermometer bulb with a soft wick material which
can easily be saturated with .water. After the wetted wick has been prepared it is then
necessary to move the air across the bulb of the thermometer at a fairly rapid rate.
This rate should exceed a velocity of 500 ft. per minute in order to reduce to a minimum
the error in the wet bulb observations. One common instrument used for making wet
bulb determinations is a “sling psychrometer. I1 In this instrument two identical ther-
mometers are used, with one mounted slightly below the other. The lower thermometer
comes equipped with a wick around its bulb and is so positioned on the instrument that
the bulb can be immersed in a cup of water without wetting the upper dry bulb ther-
mometer. Instead of moving the air across the thermometer, the entire instrument is
whirled by means of an attached chain and that is why this device is called a “sling
psychrometer. ‘I Without the wetted wick the two thermometers would indicate identical
temperatures - as it makes no difference whether the air is moving or stationary inso-
far as the dry bulb temperature is concerned. After one bulb is covered with the wetted
wick and whirled through the air, the temperature on this thermometer will begin to
drop and will continue to decrease until a certain point is reached, after which the tem-
perature will remain momentarily stationary. This stationary point is known as the “wet
bulb reading” of the thermometer and the difference between the dry bulb temperature
and the wet bulb temperature is known as the “wet bulb depression.” You can well under-
stand why it is necessary to use some care in making wet bulb determinations because
of the following influencing factors:
1 - A soft wick thoroughly wetted should be used. It is desirable for the
wick to snugly fit the bulb of the thermometer and if the wick has be-
come hard, due to the accumulation of minerals - it sometimes becomes
deformed and does not thoroughly wet the bulb. This will produce in-
accurate determinations.
2 - As the layer of air adjacent to the wick becomes saturated with mois-
ture from evaporation - it must be continually replaced with a new
layer of air. Therefore, it is important to move the air rapidly across
the wet bulb wick, or to vigorously sling the psychrometer. Too low
a velocity across the wet bulb can be responsible for a major error,

3 - In the case of a sling psychrometer, the instrument should be slung

for something like 30 to 45 seconds and then a wet bulb observation
made. After taking this reading the instrument should again be slung
for another ten second interval, and a second observation made. If
the two wet bulb readings are identical, then the observer can assume
that the temperature has dropped to the stationary point and that the
wet bulb reading is correct. However, if the wet bulb temperature
continues to drop, additional readings must be taken until the observer
is satisfied that he has reached a stationary temperature. Of course
the wick must not be allowed to dry out because the temperature
will begin to rise, and this would obviously not be the true wet bulb
reading.

- 17 -
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Barometric Pressure 29.92” Hg.
$ 28 ‘,\ ,
\ J\
i0 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115
Dry Bulb Temperatures - OF
- 18 -
 In the preceding example involving an air washer, the duct work was assumed to be
completely insulated so that there was no heat interchange to or from the surrounding air.
Under such conditions of no external heat transfer, the process is said to represent an
ADIABATIC change in which no heat is added to or taken away - as heat. This is an
important consideration in thermodynamics and in any process involving air, the wet bulb
temperature remains constant during an Adiabatic change.

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART: If it were always necessary to calculate every value which we

needed to know about a mixture of air and water vapor, the process would become quite
tedious and involved. The elaborate calculations which are sometimes necessary have led
to the development of a psychrometric chart which allows us to read at a glance all the
properties of air and water vapor, if any two of the properties are known. Several differ-
ent psychrometric charts have been developed which vary slightly as to lay-out, etc. , and
some are more elaborate than others - but for the most part they all provide substan-
tially the same information. The following examples will illustrate the use of the AAF
Psychrometric Chart. Remember that if any two of the properties are known, all of the
other indicated properties may be determined.

Example -No. 1- - Given air saturated at 60° F. and at standard atmospheric pressure
of 14.7# per sq. in. (29.92” Hg). Please note
- that
- all- values
- -on the-
chart are based upon this standard atmospheric pressure.
DB ii&i =DPT=OO F.
Per Cent Humidity = 100%
Total Heat Content = 26.41 Btu per lb. of dry air
Grains of Moisture = 78 Grains per pound of dry air - Specific Humidity
Pressure of the water vapor = 0.256# per sq. in. (Table)
Humid Volume = 13.34 cu. ft. per pound of dry air
Grains of moisture per cu. ft. of space=& = 5.84 gr. per cu. ft.
.
Absolute Hum.
13.34
Specific Volume of mixture = = 13.19 cu. ft. per pound of
1 + 78
mixture.
7000

The dotted HUMID VOLUME lines shown on the Chart represent the volume of an air-
vapor mixture -per pound
- - of dry- air.- It is theoretically possible to have an infinite number
of air-vapor combinations. So to permit a plot of the various properties, it is necessary
to maintain one of the components at a fixed value -- as has been done with the air com-
ponent expressed -per pound
- - of dry
- air.-

Example -No. 2- - 1000 cfm at 85’ dry bulb and 70% saturated is cooled to a saturation
temperature of 65’.

What quantity of heat is removed from the air per minute and what is
the rate of condensation in grains of moisture per minute?

Air at 85O dry bulb and 70% saturated has a WB = 77.20 F. and a
DPT of 74.4’ F.

Humid volume per pound of dry air at 85O DB and 70% RH = 14.13
cu. ft.

- 19 -
 1000 cfm
14.13 = 70.8 lbs. of dry air per minute circulated.

Total heat per pound of dry air at 85’ F. and 70% Saturated
(77. lo WE%) = 40.8 Btu/lb.

Total heat per pound of dry air at

65O F. and saturated = 30.0 Btu/lb.
Heat to be removed = 10.8 Btu per lb. of dry air,

Total heat removed from the air = 10.8 x 70.8 = 765 Btu/Min.

Air at 85O F. and 7@~ Sat. (DPT = 74.4’ F.) = 129 grains per lb. -dry air.

Moisture content of air saturated at 65 o = 93 grains per lb. -dry air.

Moisture removed = 36 grains per lb. -dry air.

Total amount of condensation = -x

7i:o 70.8 = 0.365 lb. of water per minute.

Since one pint of water = 1.042 lbs.

0.365 _ 0.35 pints of water condensed per minute

1.042 from each 1000 CFM

On the right-hand side of your chart is a scale labeled l*Sensible Heat Factor.” In air
conditioning problems, it represents the sensible heat percentage of the total heat gain.
Knowing the sensible heat factor for a given room and the desired room conditions, it is
possible to draw a sensible heat ratio line through the required state point. This line
then determines the various combinations of dry and wet bulb temperatures that can be
used to provide the desired room condition.

AIR FLOW: When a fluid such as air is moved through a duct a certain pressure or head
is necessary to start and maintain flow. This total head or pressure has two components;
static pressure and velocity pressure. STATIC PRESSURE is that pressure which tends to
collapse or burst the duct, and is used in part to overcome the frictional resistance of
the air against the duct surface as well as the resistance offered by such obstructions as
coils, filters, dust collectors, elbows, etc. In general the value of the static pressure is
not sufficient to significantly change the volume of air at the ordinary pressures found in
fan work. As an example the static pressure of 1” of water corresponds to a change of
less than l/4 of 1% in the volume of the air. VELOCITY PRESSURE is that pressure
necessary to maintain movement of the air, or, as the name implies, is that pressure neces-
sary to give the air its velocity and is always considered as positive in sign. Under cer-
tain conditions of operation it is possible for either of these components to be equal to
zero but both individually can never equal zero when the fan is in operation. If a discharge
or inlet duct on a fan is completely closed, only static pressure or potential energy is
present on the discharge or suction side. This is manifest by the air pressure tending to
burst or collapse the duct. If a fan is operated with no duct system connected to either

- 20 -
 side, all the available energy would be utilized to produce flow, and the static pressure
would be zero insofar as the duct resistance is concerned.

Static pressure, velocity pressure and total pressure are all interrelated. If a gas
flowing through a duct system undergoes an increase in velocity, a part of the static
pressure available at that point is used to create the additional velocity pressure neces-
sary. Conversely, if the velocity is reduced at some point, a part of the kinetic energy
or velocity pressure at that point will be converted into potential energy or static pressure.
Static and velocity pressure are, therefore, mutually convertible but this conversion is
generally accompanied by an energy loss due to turbulence, shock, etc., and only under
rare circumstances is this conversion 100% efficient. Loss of conversion is usually appre-
ciably greater as air is decelerated than where acceleration takes place in a similar duct
section.

At a given point in any duct system, the STATIC PRESSURE, VELOCITY PRESSURE,
and TOTAL PRESSURE are mathematically related as follows:

TOTAL PRESSURE = Static Pressure + Velocity Pressure.

It should be realized that when pressures are measured on the discharge side of a fan,
the static pressure is usually positive, and this pressure added to the velocity pressure
will give the total pressure at that point.

When the pressure determinations are made on the suction side of the fan the static
pressure is negative because it is less than atmospheric pressure, and this negative
static pressure represents the pressure necessary to produce flow at that point. In order
for this flow to be produced, enough suction must be created to not only overcome the
resistance to flow but also to give the air its velocity.

In determining total pressure, confusion can frequently be avoided by basing all calcu-
lations on absolute pressures. Absolute total pressure would then be the sum of the ab-
solute static pressure and the velocity pressure. As previously defined the absolute pressure
is always obtained by adding atmospheric pressure to gauge pressure. You will recall
that standard atmospheric pressure is equal to 29.92” Hg; 14.7# per sq. in.; 407” water
or 28,200 ft. of standard air.

PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS: Another method of defining STATIC PRESSURE is to say

that it is the pressure measured at right angles to the direction of air flow. Therefore,
any connection to a duct for measuring static pressure must be made in such a manner
as to read only the pressure component at right angles to the flow. This is usually done
by drilling a small hole (l/16!’ diameter is sufficient) in the side of the duct in which
measurement is to be made. If the inside of the duct adjacent to this hole is perfectly
smooth and if there is no turbulence, the reading obtained will not be influenced by
velocity and will indicate the static pressure above atmosphere on the discharge side of
the fan and below atmosphere on the suction side of the fan. In general, most low pressure
determinations are made in terms of “inches of water”. This simply means that the head
of water as read on the draft gauge exactly balances the head of air producing the pressure.
Inches of water is the generally accepted unit used in all air flow calculations. It should
be remembered that at any point in a duct system the static pressure throughout the cross
section should be constant. Sometimes due to obstructions or erratic conditions, the flow of
air will be SO turbulent at the point of measurement and one reading of the static pressure may

- 21 -
 not give a true average. Under conditions of this kind, several readings should be taken in a
plane perpendicular to the duct wall and averaged, or a better location for making the pressure
determinations should be selected.

The TOTAL PRESSURE existing in a duct is measured by means of an impact tube. In

reality an impact tube is simply a piece of tubing of small internal bore with a short leg bent
at right angles to the remainder of the tube. The end of the short leg should be cut squarely
across and the walls at that point ground to a thin edge. If such a tube is inserted in a duct,
with the short leg placed parallel to- the- longitudinal axis
- of- the - duct - and with the open end facing
into
- the
- air
- stream, a small column of air will impinge into the mouth of the tube. The pressure
corresponding to that required to give the air its velocity will add algebraically to the static
pressure already existing in the duct and, therefore, readings taken with this type of tube
will indicate total pressure.

In order to determine the VELOCITY PRESSURE component, it is necessary to subtract

the static pressure from the total pressure and this difference will be the velocity pressure,
bearing in mind that the velocity pressure is always looked upon as being positive in sign.

In air flow measurements one single instrument is generally used to measure both static
and total pressure. This instrument is known as a PITOT TUBE and is, in reality, a tube with-
in a tube with the center tube representing the impact portion used for measuring total pressure,
and with the outer tube sealed at the impact end and provided with small holes at right angles to
the direction of flow for measuring the static pressure. Separate readings of the static and total
pressure may be made with a tube of this type, or this tube may be connected differentially to
both sides of a draft gauge to read the velocity pressure directly. The measurement of the
static, velocity, and total pressures on both sides of a fan or Roto-Clone are indicated in
Figures 1 and. 2.

The velocity distribution across a given section in a duct is never uniform. Even in the
case of a long straight section of duct, the velocity is a maximum in the region of the center
and reduces in value towards the duct surface. Since readings taken with a Pitot Tube indicate
the velocity pressure at the point of measurement, several determinations should be made
in order to arrive at the average velocity pressure existing throughout the cross section. In
the case of a round duct,a traverse across the duct is generally made in two planes at right
angles to each other. The duct should be divided into a number of equal concentric areas and
readings should be taken at the centers of each concentric area. The number of readings to
be made vary with the diameter of the duct. In the case of a rectangular duct, the cross sec-
tion should be divided into imaginary rectangular areas and readings should be made at the
center of these. Reference to the “GUIDE11 published by the American Society of Heating
Refrigerating & Air-Conditioning Engineers will indicate a convenient means for calculat-
ing the centers of the imaginary areas and will show the recommended number of read-
ings to be taken in different size ducts.

For field measurement, the VP range in small ducts can frequently be obtained with
sufficient accuracy by noting the average VP as the Pitot Tube is slowly moved across the
duct.

Other instruments which are used for making velocity determinations include anemo-
meters (both vane and hot wire), velometers, etc. These instruments generally read velocity
direct, but care should be exercised to apply any calibration factors which are generally

- 22 -
 =lTOT
WBE

-(B- A)

TOTAL STATIC VELOCITY

PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE

(FAN)

Tu
\ 1 AIR
(FAN) 4
I FLOW
I /

--
8

I IMPACT IMPACT
TUBE TUBE

I
STATIC B
PRESSURE

TOTAL rOTAL
PRESSURE PRESSURE

FIG. I PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS FIG. 2 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

ON DISCHARGE SIDE OF ROTO-CLONE. ON SUCTION SIDE OF ROTO-CLONE.
supplied with the individual instruments. A more detailed discussion of these instruments
may be found in the ASHRAE GUIDE.

CALCULATION OF AIR VELOCITY: You will recall from Physics that the equation of a
freely falling body is given by the equation Vs = 2 gh
f--
where V, = velocity in ft. per second
h = head in ft.
g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft/sec/sec.
or Velocity, fpm = V = 60 2 gh
f-
Vp x 62.3
If head is expressed in inches water gauge, then h = 12 x w

where Vp = velocity pressure of air in inches of water

VP/12 = velocity pressure of air in feet of water

62.3 = density of water - lb/cu. ft.

w = density of air - lb/cu. ft.

or Velocity, fpm = V = 60 /e = 1096.2~

For STANDARD AIR - w = 0.075 lbs/cu. ft.

then V (ft/min) = 1096.2 = 4005 vp

c
= 4005 fpm Velocity, when Vp = 1” wg.
The above expression is based upon air at standard conditions, but can generally be
employed unless there is a marked deviation. For conditions varying considerably from
those of “standard”, it should be recalled that the density of air varies directly as the
barometric pressure and inversely as the absolute temperature.

= 1.327B W h e r e B = Barometric Press. In. Hg.

460 + T T = Temperature - Deg. F

It will be seen from the above that the velocity calculation involves the square root
of the average velocity pressure. Therefore, in arriving at the average velocity pressure
existing at a given cross section in a duct, it is necessary to take the individual velocity
pressure readings obtained from a pitot tube traverse and average the square root of each
of these readings. This average value should then be squared to obtain the average
velocity pressure at that point.
2
Avg. VP= ~+fit”JVP3+~~+“JVP5+~~
I 6 I
The volume of air flow is always equal to the product of the cross sectional area of
the duct and the average velocity of flow at that section:

Thus: Q = AV
where: Q. = Quantity of flow in cubic feet per slinute
A = Area of duct cross section in square feet
V = Average Velocity of flow in feet per minute

- 24 -
 ORIFICES AND FLOW NOZZLES: If a constriction is placed at the end of a duct or in a
duct through which a fluid is flowing, the velocity of the fluid will increase through the
constriction and the static pressure will be reduced. The reduction in the static pressure
is proportional to the velocity because a portion of the static pressure has been convert-
ed into velocity pressure. Such a constriction is generally referred to as an orifice.
Orifices may be made with a well rounded entrance (usually referred to as shaped
orifices or nozzles ) , or they may simply be a thin plate with a hole in the center.
In the case of a thin plate orifice the air is, of course, restricted in cross section
in passing through the orifice opening, and this restriction continues for a short
distance down stream from the orifice. The final cross-section of the stream is
smaller than the orifice opening and is generally referred to as the “Vena Contracta. I’
If the static pressure measurements are made up-stream and down-stream from an
orifice, the pressure difference, or orifice pressure drop (OPD) will represent the velocity
pressure equivalent to the increased velocity and this value can be substituted in the
standard velocity equation. Theoretically the velocity will be highest at the “Vena Con-
tracta” , but since it is not possible to measure the area of the stream at that point, it
is necessary to apply a correction factor which is designated as the “COEFFICIENT OF
DISCHARGE”. The coefficient of discharge takes into consideration the velocity of approach
(if any), the contraction of the air stream, etc. , and must be determined by experiment. It
will vary with the design of the orifice, its location in the system, and the ratio of orifice
area to pipe area.

The general equation for determining flow by means of an orifice is:

Q = 4005 cd A?JOPD (Air at Standard Conditions)
where: Q = Volume of air in cu. ft. per minute
cd = Coefficient of discharge for the orifice in question
A = Area of Orifice in sq. ft.
OPD = Orifice pressure drop-inches water gage.

There are several methods of locating the pressure taps in pipes. Generally they each
consist of a l/16” drilled hole with the inner surface perfectly smooth in order not to create
turbulence in the air stream. One widely used arrangement is referred to as “Corner Taps”
which derives its name from the fact that the static taps are drilled into the corners formed
by the orifice plate and the pipe. In some cases a circular slot is formed in the pipe flange and
the taps connect with the slotted chamber. Please note that the above expression applies to air at
llstandard conditions11 but again is sufficiently accurate for most determinations unless the
temperature or pressure deviates considerably from that of standard air.
It should be realized that although an orifice may be inserted in a duct system, the re-
sistance against which the fan is working does not necessarily include the total drop across
the orifice. As previously mentioned, the difference in the static pressure on each side of the
orifice is proportional to the increase in velocity of the air through the orifice, but after the air
leaves the orifice it expands in cross section to again fill the duct and the velocity of the
air thus decreases. This decrease in velocity means that a portion of the energy necessary to
Produce the high velocity through the orifice will be converted back into static pressure. This
conversion of velocity pressure into static pressure, or “regain”, is accompanied by some
energy loss, the amount of loss being a function of the type of orifice used.
The foregoing discussion is based upon low pressure operation which is the type with which
we will be principally concerned. In unusual applications special consideration may be re-
quired regarding the effects of compression; manometer or draft gauge corrections due to high
ambient temperatures, etc.

- 25 -
 PRESSURE REGAIN IN A DUCT SYSTEM

The regain of pressure in a duct system is possible because static pressure and velocity
pressure are mutually convertible. As a general rule, this conversion is accompanied by
some energy loss and the amount of this loss is a function of the geometry of the transi-
tion piece (the more abrupt the change in velocity, the greater the loss) and whether the
air is being accelerated or decelerated. In most handbooks, the loss is generally express-
ed as a percentage of the difference between the velocity pressures in the entrance and
the exit of the transition piece. One minus the loss, expressed as a decimal fraction, is
the efficiency of the energy conversion, or “regain”.

The following examples will illustrate the influence of regain on the static pressure in
various typical duct arrangements. In each example is plotted the total pressure and static
pressure in order to show their relationship at various points in each system.

Example (1) - Duct work located on the discharge side of the fan.
Velocity transfer from low
- to- high.
-

FAN,

I, 0.3”,1_ RES.=0.5” c

The over-all resistance of the system is the sum of the individual resistances = 0.5 + 0.3
+ 1.0 = 1.8” w.g.

The static pressure at the fan discharge will be equal to the total resi.stance of the duct
work plus any additional static pressure required for conversion into velocity pressure.
Since the velocity pressure at point “D” is 2” w.g. , as compared to only 1” w.g. at the
fan discharge, the additional static pressure required for conversion into velocity pressure
is therefore 1”. The static pressure at the fan outlet “A” then becomes 1.8” + 1” = 2.8”
w. g.

The total pressure at any point is made up of the velocity pressure at the discharge end
of the duct (point “D”) plus the duct losses up to that point. The total pressure at point
“A” is therefore 3.8” w.g. and consists of the 2” VP at the duct discharge plus the 1.8”
of duct resistance. The relationship between SP and TP at each point in the system is as
indicated.
The air horsepower generated by the fan is a function of the quantity of air being handled
and the pressure developed, and is usually based upon total pressure. In this example,
the TP at the fan inlet is assumed to be 0 because thCe;; is ;o duct work indicated. The
air horsepower supplied by the fan would then equal x .8 . All of the values are
6356
positive in sign because they are measured above atmospheric pressure.

Example (2) - Duct work located on the discharge side of the fan.
Velocity transfer from high
- to low.
-

6 RES-0.5” RES. = LO”

<
2
. @
5 +4-
4 +3 - -
2.L1’. f.f? I -,, I
3
$ +2
II II -
Y I
I --- 037 A-c--'
~-- ----eyIc- --

The over-all duct system is identical with that shown in Figure 1 so the resistance again
equals 1.8” w.g. At point “C” the static pressure equals 1” w.g. and the velocity pressure
equals 1” w. g. In moving from point “B” to point “C”, the air slows down from a VP of
2” to a VP of 1” and the difference of 1” in the velocity pressure is available for con-
version into static pressure at point *‘B’*. If the transition in flow from “B” to “C” took
place with no loss (1000/o regain), the SP at l’B” would be 1” - 1” = 0. However, the
energy transfer is only 70% efficient (0.3” loss). Therefore, the SP at “B” equals 0 4- 0.3”
= 0.3” w. g.

The total pressure at the fan discharge is equal to 2.8” w.g. , which again consists of
the 1” VP at the duct discharge (point “D*‘) plus the 1.8” w.g. duct resistance. Assuming
no suction duct, the TP at the fan inlet equals 0, so the over-all TP of the fan is 2.8”
w.g. The air horsepower would be determined in the conventional manner.

Particular attention is called to the fact that for the same volume of air, the air horse-
power is less in Example (2) than in Example (1)) although the duct resistance is the
same in each case. This difference in AHP is, of course, due to the velocity pressure
component of the total pressure. In Example (1)) the air had a velocity pressure of 2”
w.g. at the point of discharge from the duct. In Example (2), the discharge velocity
pressure is only 1” w.g. and this difference in discharge velocity pressure accounts for
the lower air horsepower in Example (2). Again, it will be noted that the TP at any point
in the duct system includes the VP at the discharge end of the duct plus the duct losses
up to that point. As indicated, the total pressure at point “A” consists of the VP of 1”
at the duct discharge plus the 1.8” duct resistance, or a TP of 2.8” w.g.

- 27 -
Example (3) - Duct work located on the suction side of the fan.
Velocity transfer from low
- to high.
-

VP=I” VP=2”

RES. = I” RES. =OS” 3

Q

On the suction side of a fan, the total pressure is a measure of the over-all resistance
to air flow. In this example, the total resistance again adds up to 1.8” w. g. , the same
as it did when the duct work was on the discharge side of the fan as shown in Examples
(1) and (2). The static pressure at the fan inlet, point “D”, is equal to the velocity
pressure at the fan inlet plus the total &&s%e to that point. This adds up to 3.8” W. g.
static pressure. Since we are working on the suction side of the fan, the pressures are
negative in sign, or below atmospheric pressure.

In going from point “B1’ to point “C”, the air is accelerated and the velocity pressure is
shown as being doubled. The additional energy required by the higher velocity pressure
is supplied at the expense of the static pressure. Therefore, the SP at point “C?l is lower
(remember it is negative) than the SP at point “B” by the amount of the transition loss
plus the difference in the VP at the entrance and exit of the transition piece, or lower
by total of 1.3” w. g. The air horsepower generated by the fan is again a function of the
total pressure across the fan. Since most fans have approximately the same inlet and
discharge area, it will be assumed that the velocity pressure at the fan discharge is
also 2” w.g. , which will then be the total pressure on the discharge side of the fan. The
total pressure developed by the fan is then equal to the total pressure at the fan dis-
charge plus the total pressure at the fan inlet (disregarding the sign) or 3.8” w. g. It will
be noted from the diagram that this is also the value of the static pressure at the fan
inlet. This circumstance is due to the fact that the inlet and discharge areas of the fan
were assumed to be equal. The air horsepower has the same value as in Example (1).
 Example (4) - Duct Work located on the suction side of the fan.
Velocity transfer from high
- to low.
-

56 FAN,
> VP=2” VP= I”
I A
* RES.=OS” -l.o.s-& RES.= 1.0”
‘ I ,hCIF

-I

-2

-3

-41 I I 1

In this example, the only duct work encountered is again located on the suction side of
the fan and the total pressure is a measure of the sum of the individual resistances, or
1.8” w. g. The SP at the fan inlet, point “Dl’, is equal to the VP at the fan
- inlet- plus
the duct resistance (or total pressure) up to that point. This amounts to 2.8” w.g. and
is, of course, negative in sign on the suction side of the fan.

In going from point “B’l to point “C’l, the air slows down as indicated by the difference
of 1” w.g. in the VP at these two points. This difference is available for conversion
into static pressure at point “C”. If the transition from “Bl’ to “C” was accomplished
with no loss (100% regain) the SP at ‘lC” would be -2.5 + 1.0 = -1.5” w.g. Since the
energy transfer is only 70% efficient (0.3” w.g. loss) the SP at point “C” = -1.5 + (-0.3)
= -1.8” w.g.

Again, the air horsepower developed depends upon the TP to be supplied by the fan. As-
suming the velocity pressure in the fan discharge to be 1” w.g. (the same as at the fan
inlet), the TP across the fan will be 2.8” w.g. Again it will be noted that this is equal
in value to the static pressure at the fan inlet. The air horsepower calculates to be the
same as indicated in Example (2).

- 29 -
 Example (5) - Duct work located on discharge side of fan.
Velocity changes as indicated.

_ RES.=0.5* ,_0.4’:, RES.=I.O” -.

From the sketch the duct work is again all located on. the discharge side of the fan. The
total pressure at the fan discharge (point “A”) is equal to the velocity pressure at the
discharge end of the duct (point “F’l) plus the accumulated resistances. These add up to
1.0 + 1.0 + 0.4+ 0.5+ 0.3 + 1.0 = 4.2” w.g.

The static pressure regain between point ‘ID” and point “E” is identical to the situation
encountered in Example (2). If there was no energy loss in the transition piece the static
pressure at “D” would be 0 because the difference in VP of 1” would show up as static
pressure regain. However, the transition is only 60% efficient, which means a loss of
.4” w.g., so the SP at point “D” = 0 + 0.4 = 0.4” w. g.

The conversion of static pressure into velocity pressure between points “Brl and “C” is
the same as occured in Example (1). There must be sufficient static pressure at point
“B1* to furnish the additional velocity pressure required at point “C”. In addition, the
transformation of energy between these two points is accompanied by a loss of 0.3” w.g.
Since the SP at point “C” equals 0.9” w.g. , the SP at point “B” = 0.9 t 0.3 t 1.0 =
2.2” w. g. The air horsepower developed by the fan would be calculated in the conventional
manner. Since there is no duct work on the suction side of the fan, the total pressure
against which the fan is operating will be 4.2” w.g.

- 30 -
 Example (6) - Duct work located on the suction side of the fan.
Velocity changes as indicated.

I RES.= LO* RES. =O. 5” RES.= 1.0” _

83.2
4.2

Since the duct work is all on the suction side of the fan, the SP at the fan inlet (point
“F”) is equal to the VP at the fan inlet plus the total duct resistance up to that joint.
This equals -4.2” SP, since the static pressure on the suction side of the fan is always
negative. The duct system is the same as was used in Example (5) and therefore, it has
the same over-all resistance of 3.2” w.g. If it is again assumed that the inlet and dis-
charge of the fan are of equal areas, the total pressure across the fan will be the same
as in Example (5) and in each case the fan will deliver the same air horsepower when
handling equal volumes of air.

The static pressure conversion between points llB1’ and “C1’ is the same as discussed in
Example (3). There must be sufficient SP at point ‘*B” to furnish the additional VP re-
quired at point llC1l. In addition, the energy transfer between these two points is accom-
panied by a loss of 0.3” w. g. Since the static pressure at “B” = -2” w. g. , the SP at
point l*C1* = -2.0 + (-1.0) + (-0.3) = -3.3” w.g.

The static pressure regain between points “D” and I1 E” is identical to the Situation dis-
cussed in Example (4). If there was no loss in the transition piece, the 1” difference in
velocity pressure would all be regained as static pressure at point “E” and the SP at
that point would be -2.8” w. g. However, the transition is only 60% efficient (0.4” W.g.
loss) so the SP at point “El1 = -2.8 + (-0.4) = -3.2” w. g.

Air handling systems involving duct work on both the suction and discharge sides of the
fan can be evaluated in the manner just described with each side being considered in-
dividually. The over-all total pressure or static pressure against which the fan is operat-
ing can then be easily determined.

- 31 -
TOTAL PRESSURE DEVELOPED BY FAN: The total energy developed by fan may be
calculated from the following expressions:

TOTAL PRESSURE DEVELOPED BY FAN = ABSOLUTE TOTAL PRESSURE AT THE FAN OUTLET

- ABSOLUTE TOTAL PRESSURE AT THE FAN INLET

O R = (SPD t VPD) - (*-sps + vps)

(*Static Pressure readings are negative

on the inlet side of a fan)

= SPD + vPD+ SPs - VPs

STATIC PRESSURE OF FAN = TPF - VPD

In the last two expressions above no regard need be paid as to whether the reading
is positive or negative (i.e. above or below atmospheric pressure), since the sign in the
equation properly takes this into consideration.

While Roto-Clones are rated on the basis of total pressure, many fans are rated in
terms of static pressure. Total pressure developed by a fan or Roto-Clone can be trans-
lated into static pressure developed by deducting the velocity pressure at the fan
-~ outlet
from the total pressure.

As indicated, confusion can sometimes be avoided by basing all calculations on ab-

solute pressure, and the total pressure of the fan will then be equal to the difference
in the absolute pressure on the discharge and suction side. As an example, let us assume
that an exhaust fan operates with a 3” static pressure at the fan inlet and a velocity
pressure of 0.5” w.g. The absolute total pressure at the fan inlet will then be (407-3) +
0.5 = 404.5”. Assume the static and velocity pressures on the discharge side are 2”
and 1” respectively. The absolute total pressure at the fan discharge will then be (407 +
2) + 1 = 410”. Then the total pressure against which the fan is operated will be 410 -
404.5” = 5.5”. The static pressure of the fan is then 5.5 - 1 (the velocity pressure at
the fan outlet) = 4.5” w.g.

Figures 3 through 8 inclusive show the pressure relationship for a Roto-Clone or fan
involving several different arrangements of entrance and discharge ducts. Figures 3 and
4 pertain to supply and exhaust conditions respectively and show the simple relationships
which exist between velocity pressure, static pressure, and total pressure. One must
keep in mind the fact that on the discharge side of a fan the value of static pressure
generally corresponds to the resistance pressure, or the sum total of the resistances
offered by coils, filters, dampers, fittings, straight duct, etc. On the suction side of a
fan the static pressure reading also includes the velocity pressure in the suction duct.
Therefore, the total pressure on the suction side of the fan corresponds to the resistance
pressure or the sum total of all the resistance to air flow. Figures 4, 5, 6, & 7 show
this relationship quite vividly where discharge and exhaust ducts of different sizes may be
involved. Figure 8 pertains to the pressure relations for shaped nozzles either at the
entrance to a duct or in a length of duct.

- 32 -
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Due to turbulence
Reading probably
Unreliable
S.P. BLOWING OR DISCHARGING
n (No Suction Duct)
T== v. P. = 1”
TP = SP + VP

Note: In actual fan test, Values

of TP and SP should be
- + 3” s. P. corrected for duct friction
v. P. = 1” from fan discharge to pitot
b
+ 4” T.P. tube.

FIGURE 3

EXHAUSTING

01
Fan
/j -4” S.P. (-SP + VP = -TP)

- VP = 1”
Since -SP + VP = -TP

Then TP = Res. Press.

on suction side

But total Suction = SP,= -4”

a -4” s. P. (Must include both VP, and
-. J v. P. = 1”
-3” T.P. TP, )

FIGURE 4

- 33 -
 - DISCHARGE & SUCTION DUCTS
c----c
I-

F VPD = 1” (Equal Area on Inlet & Discharge)

I I
(A)
u ‘-2” T P Absolute Press. - Discharge:
II 407
-3” s. P.
VPs = 1” + 1” VP
+ 3” s. P.c 408
d t 3” SP
(B) TPD = 411” WG
t 4” T. P.
ON SUCTION SIDE VpD = 4 - 3 = 1” TOTAL PRESSURE OF FAN:
-SP + VP = -TP
Static Press. is TPF = TPD - TPS
negative = 411” - 405” = 6” W.G.
= (SPD $ vp,) - wps + VP,)
Absolute Press. - Suction = (3” + 1”) - (-3” + 1”)
407 = 6” W.G.
-+- 1” VP Connecting points
408 (A) and (B) to
-3” SP differential gage
TPS = 405” W.G. should check TP of Fan
STATIC PRESS.
OF FAN =TPF -VPD=6-lz5”W.G. It should be noted that when inlet &
= SPD + SPS - VPS outlet areas are equal,
= 3” + 3” - l”= 5” W.G. the SPS + SPD = TPFan
(Disregard Sign) = 3” + 3” = 6” (Disregard Sign)

FIGURE 5

SUCTION DUCT LARGER THAN

- VPD = 1” L DISCHARGE DUCT

TOTAL PRESS. OF
- FAN:-
’ TPS = -2.5”
l.l u TPF = SPD + VPD + SPS ‘- VPS
SPS = -3” SPD = 2” c =2+1+3-0.5
= 5.5” W.G.
VPS- VPs=3 - 2 . 5 TPD = 3” Or =TPD + TPS
0.5” = 0.5” vpD= 3 - 2 =I” =3 + 2.5 = 5.5” W.G.
(VP always
1 considered STATIC PRESS. OF FAN:
positive) S P F = SPD + -%S-vPS
=2+3 - 0.5 = 4.5” W.G.
If VPs is negligible then: (Disregard Sign)
TPS = SPs (Because VPS approaches 0)
and SPFs SPD+ SPs (Disregard Sign)

FIGURE 6

- 34 -
DISCHARGE DUCT LARGER THAN SUCTION DUCT

SPD = 2”
n
VPD = 0. 5” r

407
+2
SPS = -4’E TPS = -3”
+0.5
407
SPD = 2°C Abs. TPD 409.5
-4 SPS = -4”
+1 TPD = 2.5”
Abs. TPS =404” -SPS + VPs = TPS
-4” + 1” = -3” VpD = 2. 5” - 2”
= 0.5”
(Resistance
Pressure)

TOTAL PRESS. OF
- FAN- STATIC PRESS. -OF FAN
~

= (sPD+ VP,) - (-sPs+ VPS) = TPF - VPD

= s,?,, + VPD + SPS - vps =5.5 - .5 = 5.0” W.G.
=2 + 0.5 + 4 - 1 = 5.5” o r = SPD + SPS - VPS
or = 409.5 - 404 = 5.5” W.G. =2+4 - 1 = 5 0”W .G .
or = TPS t TPD (disregard Sign)
3+2 . 5 =5 5” W . G.
(Disregard Sign)

The reason that in instances of this kind the differences in the static pressure readings
taken at the inlet and outlet will be greater than the total pressure produced by the fan
is due to the fact that a certain amount of static pressure may be produced by conver-
sion from velocity pressure.

SUM OF STATIC PRESS. READINGS = 2 + 4 = 6” (Disregarding Sign)

It should be noted that if the inlet is smaller than the outlet, the sum of the
static pressure on each side of the fan will be greater than the TP of fan.

FIGURE 7

- 35 -
 SHAPED NOZZLES & ENTRANCES

Impact tube reads 0 since

TPS = Resistance Pressure
= 0 inches W.G.

3 -SP = VP
TPS = 0

Resistance of Shaped Entrance = 0

Since TPS = -SPS + VPS
And SPS = VPS
Than TPS = 0

2
I Impact tube reads TP, and on
suction side will read resistance
of duct up to the point of the
impact tube location. Note posi-
tion of impact tube at throat of
nozzle.

Static Taps (1) and (2 ) read equivalent of VP when connected

differentially. This is due to a portion of the Static Pressure
at (2 ) being converted into VP. If the orifice were removed,
the SP readings at points (1) and (2 ) would be equal. (Friction
between (1) and (2) is negligible.)

FIGURE 8
 PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP IN A DUCT SYSTEM: As previously mentioned, a difference
in total pressure is required to cause a fluid to flow through a duct. Where the duct
system is uniform in cross section, the required difference is static pressure. If the
system involves changes in cross section, the energy necessary to produce the changes
in velocity must also be considered - or a difference in total pressure.

The resistance offered by a duct system may be divided into (a) “shock” or turbulence
losses due to eddy currents or internal friction of the fluid itself, and (b) the resistance
offered by the friction or drag of the fluid along the inside wall of the duct system.

In general the pressure required to maintain flow in straight duct work is simply
that pressure necessary to overcome the friction of the duct wall and can generally be
calculated from the DARCY and FANNING Formulae. The variables to be considered in-
volve the length and diameter of the duct, the velocity of the air, the configuration of
the duct system (generally referred to as hydraulic radius, which is the area divided by
the perimeter), and the friction factors which must be determined from experiment and
which will vary with different types of construction. It is generally not necessary to
evaluate the resistance of a piping system from equations, as most handbooks carry duct
friction charts which are based upon the formulae referred to above. Such charts are
found in your reference GUIDE and in our AAF literature and we will work several ex-
amples involving these charts in order to be familiar with the procedure involved. Air
flow charts are generally based upon standard air flowing through a clean, round, gal-
vanized metal duct having approximately 40 joints per 100 ft. and are designed to indicate
the resistance or friction loss in inches of water per hundred feet of straight duct.

The resistance of duct fittings is sometimes expressed in terms of ~~velocity head”

which is simply the resistance or static pressure loss expressed as a percentage of the
velocity pressure occurring in that section of the duct system. This is a very convenient
base and one with which we should become entirely familiar.

For example, let us consider a duct branch in which the air has a velocity of 2000
FPM per minute. Assuming standard air, the velocity pressure in this branch will be:
Velocity = 4005 J/E

or VP=(sj2= (E)” = 0.25” W.G.

which is the value of one (1) velocity head in that particular branch. If a specially con-
structed elbow located in this branch had a resistance loss of 0.6 velocity heads (or 0.6
VP) - the friction drop across this elbow only would then be 0.25 x 0.6 = 0.15” W. G.

Again let us assume a velocity of 4005 fpm per minute in a main duct. Assuming
standard air, the velocity pressure or velocity head will be 4005 = 1 in. W.G.
4005
l-7
If a dust trap having a resistance drop of 1 l/2 vel. heads is installed in this main,
the added resistance or friction imposed by the addition of this dust trap would be
1.5 x 1 = 1.5 inches W.G.

The pressure drop across duct fittings is also sometimes expressed in “equivalent
resistance in feet of straight pipe”. In solving for the added fitting resistance on this
basis it is simply necessary to total all the equivalent feet and then refer to any chart

- 37 -
 giving the friction loss in straight duct for the flow condition involved. Let us assume
we have 240 ft. of 12 in. diameter duct handling 1500 cubic feet of standard air per
minute. In this length of duct are two elbows - one is a 450 ell having an “equivalent
length” of 12 ft. of straight pipe, and the other is a right angle elbow having an “equiv-
alent length” of 25 feet. The total equivalent length of straight pipe is then 240 + 12 + 25
= 277 ft. Reference to a duct friction chart indicates that a 12” diameter duct carrying
1500 CFM has a friction drop of 0.44 inches w.g. per 100 ft. The resistance of the entire
length of duct including the two elbows, then becomes 0.44 x 277/100 = 1.11 inches w. g.

Although we should be familiar with the “equivalent length” method, present day prac-
tice involving exhaust hoods, dust collectors, etc. , seems to tend toward expressing the
resistance in terms of velocity head and you will be working with this factor a great deal
in problems involving dust control equipment. Many reference books carry an extensive
list of exahust hoods, duct fittings, etc.‘, together with the per cent velocity head loss of
each. Remember that this data must be determined by experiment and is dependent upon
such variables as the center line radius in the case of elbows; the size of slots or open-
ings in hoods; the angle of divergence or convergence in duct sections, etc.

Because the hydraulic radius is one of the variables in our friction loss formulae,
most friction drop charts are based upon round duct. However, a number of reference
books carry tables or charts showing the circular equivalents of rectangular ducts
- for -
equal friction and capacity. For example rectangular ducts measuring 19” x 16*‘, 26” x
12”, 38” x 9”, and 54” x 7” have the same friction drop as a 19” diameter round duct
when handling the same air volume.

In determining the friction drop of rectangular elbows, mention should be made that
the relationship between the width and depth, as well as the centerline radius, will in-
fluence the pressure loss. This ratio of width to depth is generally referred to as “as-
pect
- ratio”- and the lower this ratio the greater the resistance. This is easy to understand
because where air passes through a straight duct and then encounters an elbow, the air
tends to continue following the outside periphery of the ell and there is, therefore, a
great deal of turbulence created at that point. The more gentle the turn (a long center-
line radius) or the greater the ratio of duct width to depth (high aspect ratio); the less
will be the resistance or friction drop. Where it is necessary to install sharp elbows
(small centerline radius), it is generally desirable to equip such elbows with “splitters. ”
These are carefully spaced turning vanes which divide or “split” the air stream into
columns or paths, and each column is “tUrned separately so as to prevent the entire
volume from crowding to the outside of the ell. The use of splitters can materially re-
duce the friction drop in sharp or mitered elbows.

The classroom is equipped with a fan - duct demonstration system which will be used
to illustrate the use of pitot tube and orifices for determining air volume. Individual fit-
tings such as elbows, enlarged pipe sections, etc. , are available for resistance deter-
minations. Fig. 9 is a sketch of this demonstration equipment showing orifice dimensions,
pressure tap locations, etc.

Figs. 10 through 13 show some typical Roto-Clone (or fan) duct systems with a plot
of the velocity, static, and total pressure relationships. These should be studied care-
fully as a thorough knowledge of the pressure relationships illustrated by these diagrams
is most desirable.

- 38 -
NOTE: INSIDE DIAMETER OF BOTH INLET A DISCHARGE DUCT ;= 3& I N .

-
l,, + - - - 7
-, .I;I
L.

- - 1 i’ I
9 u -+‘. 1
U

I ’
2 i -’
-6EVERAL FITTINGS
AVAILABLE FOR
CONNECTING AT
THIS POINT TO
DETERMINE AIR
FLOW RESISTANCE.

ORIFICE
HOLDER

+SHARP E D G E
F U R PITOT
INLET ORIFICES
EDGE ORIFICE I “0~ TRAVERSE
O F l:2;A 3”ARE
A V A I L ABLE.

CLASSROOM DEMONSTRATION EQUIPMENT

FIGURE 9
 ORIF LOSS= \
1.78 V f? IN ORIF
-DUCT RES.=0.25” _

-I L J
FIGURE IO FIGURE I I

SHAPED ORIFICE
L
E:TsRAoNCE

FIGURE 12
TAKEN FROM
‘DESIGN OF ROTO-CaNE
DUST CONTROL SYSTEMS”
J.W.M. l2-2- 57

- 40 -
 EFF. TRANS. 507, RESIST. OF
LOSS=O. 125”
DUCT RES.= 0.25”
ORIF. LOSS
0.6V.F!=O.75’~
- v.l? =0.75”
1

4 B C F G t I K

+2
I I
+ I

O- ’ 0

1 -I
- l

- 2
- 2

-7 - 3

- 4

FIGURE 13_ TAKEN FROM

*DESIGN OF ROTO-CLONE ,,
l33.5; C;NFO$,SYSTEMS
. . * - -
EFFECT OF AIR DENSITY ON FRICTION LOSS: On occasions it may be necessary to
determine the friction drop in a duct system when handling air at a density which deviates
considerably from that of standard conditions. Problems of this nature require special
treatment and usually fit into one of the two following categories:
1. -Where the system is handling a given volume of air at some off-standard condition
of density - the resistance or pressure drop can be calculated by first determining
the friction on the basis of the same volume of air at standard conditions, using a
typical chart for determining friction drop in straight ducts. The value from the chart
must then be corrected by multiplying by the ratio of densities. Let us assume that
we have a system of duct work handling 1000 CFM of air at 250°F. through a 12”
diameter duct. Reference to a friction loss chart will indicate a drop of 0.2” w.g.
per 100 feet of straight duct for standard air at 70°F. You will recall that the density
of standard air is 0.075 lbs/cu. ft. Air at 250’F. and standard atmospheric pressure
has a density of 0.056 lbs. per cu. ft. The friction drop per 100 ft. of straight duct
for the 250°F. temperature air then calculates to be 0.2 x (0.056) = 0.15” w.g.
(0.075)
2 . -In the second condition let us assume that a duct system originally handled 3000 CFM
of 70° air through a 20” diameter duct with a resultant velocity of 1375 feet per min.
The friction drop under these conditions was 0.13” w. g. per 100 ft. of straight duct
(value taken from friction chart). Due to a change in the process, the duct system is
to handle the same weight of air but at an elevated temperature of 250°F., and our
problem is to find the new resistance of the system at the elevated temperature.
At the original conditions of flow the velocity = 1096.21 E
VW
or VP = .075 = 0.118” w.g.
Since the drop per hundred feet from the chart was 0.13” w. g. , then
0.13/O. 118 = 1.1 velocity heads loss per 100 feet.
From the ratio of densities, the new volume at 250’F. is
0.075
3ooo x 0.056 - 4020 CFM or a new velocity of 1845 FPM.
At this increased
the new VP = 0.056

Since the drop per 100 feet is 1.1 velocity heads, the resistance per 100 feet of
straight duct at the elevated temperature is 1.1 x 0.159 = 0.174” w.g.
Where extreme temperature conditions exist it may be necessary to consider the change
in the viscosity of the air since in gases the viscosity increases with an increase in tem-
perature.
CHECK: A simpler solution to Example 2 is to remember that the velocity pressure is
inversely proportional to the square of the ratio of densities (since it varies as the square
of the velocity). For the same velocity, however, the velocity pressure varies directly as
the ratio of densities. Therefore, in condition #2 where the velocity and density both vary
we will find that the influence of decreased density (first power) will partially offset the
influence of increased velocity (second power) and the friction drop will, therefore, vary
inversely as the ratio of densities:
or 0.075
- x 0.13 = 0.174” w.g. friction loss per 100 ft. of straight pipe.
0.056

- 42 -
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF FANS: There are two general classes of fans used
in heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning work:
1. Centrifugal
2. Axial Flow
Fans generally consist of an impeller (or fan wheel) rotating in a casing (or housing).
They may include guide vane, inlet cone, etc. as in the case of some centrifugal fans, or
they may consist simply of an impeller, as in the case of a disc type propeller fan. Each
of these two major divisions will be discussed separately with brief comments regarding
their more important performance characteristics.

Centrifugal Fans: In a centrifugal fan the flow of air is produced by the centrifugal force
generated in a rotating column of air and also by the tangential velocity imparted to the
air as it leaves the tip of the blades. The fan housing or casing is scroll-shaped as to
gradually transform the velocity pressure into static pressure. The fan wheel or impeller
usually consists of steel side rims between which are fastened blades of various design
depending upon the type of service for which the fan is to be used.

The blade design most frequently used in centrifugal fans can be classified into one of
three standard types:
(a) Forward Curve
(b) Backward Curve
(c) Radial or Turbine Blade
Figure 14 - (a), (b) , and (c) show vector diagrams
of forces in a forward curve blade, backward
curve blade, and radial blade, respectively. In
each of these Figures VI represents the tangen-
tial or peripheral velocity and V2 represents the
(a) Forward Curve radial velocity of the air between the blades, with
respect to the blades.
The resultant velocity is labelled R_. It will be
noted from an inspection of these diagrams that
the resultant velocity is largest with the forward
curve blade and smallest with the backward curve
blade. This explains why, for the same pressure
head, the backward curve wheel must operate at
a higher speed than the forward curve wheel.

(b) Backward Curve Assume an air-conditioning installation deliver-

ing standard air against 2-l/2” Resistance pres-
sure. The average tip speed required by each type
is (1) forward curve - 4100 FPM; (2) backward
curve - 7700 FPM; and (3) radial or straight
blade - 5500 FPM.

Additional data concerning the characteristics of

these three blade designs will be given with their
(c) Radial Curve respective performance curves. The references
made apply primarily to those fairs in general
FIGURE 14 use in heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning.

- 43 -
 Axial flow fans include those fans which produce motion of the air by the thrust
effect of the inclined blades. The air enters axially at the leading edge of the blade,
and the flow is essentially parallel to the impeller shaft. In addition the air is given a
rotating motion about the shaft axis as a center. Fans in this category are usually classi-
fied into (a) disc or propeller, (b) tubeaxial, and (c) vaneaxial. Most propeller fans
operate without a housing and consequently the static pressure developed is low as there
is little opportunity for the conversion of velocity pressure into static pressure.

A tubeaxial fan consists of relatively large hub with helical blades rotating within a
cylinder, and will operate against resistances of 2 or 3 inches of water. Vaneaxial fans
consist of an axial flow impeller within a cylinder, combined with a set of guide vanes
located either before or after the impeller. The presence of these guide vanes assist in
recovering the energy imparted as tangential acceleration and therefore fans of this design
are available which will operate against pressures in excess of 15 inches of water.

The following performance curves will illustrate some of the most important charac-
teristics of the different types of fans used in heating and ventilating work. In each figure
the static pressure, static efficiency, and horsepower are plotted as the ordinate and air
volume is plotted as the abscissa, all at constant speed. Each of the type fans discussed
will include references to identifying characteristics. Please remember that there are
many different types of blade designs which are available in both centrifugal and axial
flow fans, but this discussion will be limited to four basic types.

Typical characteristic of a FORWARD CURVE

BLADE centrifugal fan is shown in Figure 15.
This fan is perhaps the most widely used type
employed in general ventilating work. It oper-
ates at slow speed, is quiet and cheap, and is
light in weight with small space requirements.
The forward curve blade fan is slightly less
efficient than the other types and is somewhat
unstable at the middle operating range. In some
cases there is a hesitancy to use these fans in
parallel as one will tend to hog the load from
another. This, however, is for the most part
denied by the manufacturers. It will be noted
from the curve that there is a rising horse-
d power characteristic which would indicate that
ti an oversize motor be used as a precaution
against the motor being overloaded. This is
AIR VOLUME - C. F. M. perhaps not as serious as may first appear.
Assume that the static pressure of the system
FIGURE 15 is suddenly reduced which would immediately
cause the fan to handle more air. An increase
in the air volume would cause an increase in horsepower, but at the same time would
also cause an increase in static pressure with the subsequent effect of reducing the air
volume which in turn would influence the horsepower, so that the actual increase in horse-
power requirements due to the original decrease in resistance pressure would not be as
large as might be anticipated.

- 44 -
 Figure 16 shows a typical performance charac-
teristic of a BACKWARD CURVE BLADE cen-
trifugal fan. This type of fan is usually of
greater size and consequently is higher priced
than the other types. It operates at a high speed
(may be direct connected) and high efficiency.
The fan has a drooping horsepower character-
istic which indicates that the motor will not be
overloaded with an increase in air volume. As
a matter of fact, this fan is sometimes called
a “limit loading fan. ” One feature in this fanls
favor is that the maximum horsepower require-
ment occurs at or near the most desirable
operating point. As in the case of the forward
AIR VOLUME - C. F. M.
curve blade design, the sound created by the
fan operation is a minimum near the point of
FIGURE 16 maximum efficiency.

Figure 17 shows the performance character-

istics of a TURBINE OR RADIAL BLADE fan.
This is a compromise design between the for-
ward curve and backward curve blade centrifugal
fan. The efficiency is not quite as high as in
the backward curve, but the size is small and
the fan is operated at a comparatively high
speed. Radial blade fans are frequently used
where air with a high dust concentration is be-
ing handled. The design of the blades and wheel
lends itself to rugged construction and offers a
minimum of ledges, etc. for the accumulation
and retention of dust.

It should be mentioned that there are a great

AIR VOLUME - C. F.M. many variations in the design of fan blades as
made by the different manufacturers. These
various designs are referred to as radial tip,
FIGURE 17 partial backward, reverse curve, etc.

Centrifugal fan arrangements have been standardized by the Fan Manufacturers. There
are approximately seven different standardized arrangements for fan drives and twelve
different designations of the direction of rotation and discharge. The direction of rotation
is always determined from the drive side of the fan. For single inlet fans the driving
side is always considered to be the side opposite the inlet.

- 45 -
 Fig. 18 shows a typical performance curve
, for an AXIAL FLOW FAN of the propeller
type lAs previously mentioned, propeller
type fans are designed to handle large volumes
of air at very low resistance to flow. The
other designs of axial flow fans, however,
will operate satisfactorily against appreciable
resistance. One of the distinguishing charac-
teristics of axial flow fans is that they gener-
ally have a drooping horsepower curve, with
the horsepower being a maximum at no flow.
The inherent advantage of the axial flow fan
is its simplicity, which is, in turn, reflected
in a minimum of weight and in small size.
Since in most cases these fans are direct
AIR VOLUME - C. F.M. driven, the motor is in the air stream and
FIGURE 18 the use of totally enclosed motors is gener-
ally recommended - even when the air is
relatively clean. Air temperature is also a
limiting factor. The primary disadvantage of axial flow fans is that they are relatively
noisy. The noise problem is further aggravated by the fact that there is generally present
a distinct pitch note. Unfortunately the human ear appears unusually sensitive to this pitch
note and this fact has limited their use to some extent in public buildings.

The useful energy added to the flowing air

stream per unit of time is ordinarily desig-
p nated as air horsepower (X.H. P.) Air horse-
power is therefore the hp. output of the fan.
B C If a fan delivers X cu. ft. of air per minute
against Y resistance, the resulting product
. XY represents the ft. - lbs. of energy added
% to the air stream. This may be diagrammat-
z ically illustrated by means of a pressure-
PC volume diagram or indicator card. Volume
in C. F.M. is plotted horizontally and abso-
4 lute pressure in pounds per square foot ver-
tically. This is shown graphically in Fig. 19
AIR VOLUME - C. F. M. where the area ABCDEA represents the work
done on the air in compressing and moving
FIGURE 19 the volume of air. The area representing
work may be considered to be made up of
two parts; the work of compression BCDB, and the work of delivery ABDEA. The com-
pression phase from C to D follows the low of adiabatic compression so that the line from
C to D is a curve of exponential form (with n = 1.2 to 1.3). In actual performance the
area under the compression line CD is very small compared to the area under the delivery
line DE because of the low compression ratios encountered. For this reason it may be
neglected in horsepower calculations without introducing any appreciable error. Consider-
ing the indicator card to be rectangular, the work is given by the product of the length
in C. F.M. times the height in pounds per Square Foot. The resulting product is in foot-
pounds and may be readily converted to horsepower by dividing by 33,000. ( 1 H. P. =
33,000 ft. - lbs. per min.)

- 46 -
 Ft. lbs. per min.
Since Horsepower = 33) 000

Wg. of air per min. x H = C. F.M. x w x H

Then : A.H.P. = 33) 000 33) 000

Where w = density of air - lbs. per cu. ft.

H = head in feet of air

The value H may represent the static pressure, or the total pressure and when sub-
stituted in the above equation gives the static horsepower or total horsepower, respectively.

Assuming it is solved on a total pressure basis:

T. P. 62.3 Where T.P. = total pressure, inches of water

Then H = 12 x w 62.3 = density of water, lbs. /cu. ft.

CFM x w x T.P. x 62.3 = CFMxT.P.

Fan horsepower output (Air Horsepower - A. H. P.) = 33,000 x 12 x w 6356

H. P. output Air Horsepower

Mechanical Efficiency = H. P. input = Brake Horsepower Required by Fan

This mechanical efficiency (as derived) is expressed on a total pressure basis (Et). If
static pressure is substituted in the air horsepower equation, then the resulting mechanical
efficiency will be expressed on a static pressure basis (Es).

Figure 20 shows a typical performance curve for a No. 26 Type K radial blade ex-
hauster, having a wheel diameter of 42-3/4 It, an outlet area of 3.57 square feet, and
tested at a constant speed of 1105 RPM. This chart provides all the necessary information
concerning the fan characteristics but is not applicable to other fans of a similar proportion
or to other air densities or
speeds. The data for this per-
formance chart was taken from
a typical fan test (see ASHRAE
Fan Test Code ) and all data
was determined at a constant
fan speed.

The air delivery of 34,800 CFM

d at zero static pressure is re-
60
ti
ferred to as the free delivery
50 a volume. It represents the quan-
40 g tity of air which the fan can
30 E deliver when it is operating
20 s against no external resistance.
2 The static pressure of 10 in.
10 $ w.g. at zero air volume is re-
ferred to as static no-load de-
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
livery, or the static pressure
AIR VOLUME - THOUSANDS OF CFM which the fan can maintain un-
der conditions of no flow (zero
FIGURE 20 air volume ) .

- 47 -
it may be desirable t0 plot the results in SUCh a manner that the peITOrmaIICe 01 any
other fan having similar geometry and operating at any speed can be calculated. One means
of accomplishing this is shown in Figure 21 in whicEhe ratio of static pressure to total
pressure, and the ratio of outlet velocity to the tip speed of the wheel have been plotted
against air volume expressed in terms of per cent free delivery. The basic data used was
taken from Figure 20, including the static efficiency curve.

The following example will show the method used to plot Figure 21:
Assuming an air volume of 22,000 CFM from Figure 20 the:
static pressure (S. P. ) = 7.0” w.g.
total pressure (T. P. ) = 9.5” w.g.
and brake horsepower (B. H.P. ) = 52.0

With a free delivery volume of 34,800 CFM, the per cent free delivery for 22,000 CFM =

22pooo X 100% = 63.2%

34,800
7.0
the ratio of s = - = .738
. . 9.5
The static efficiency for 22,000 CFM = 48 %

Data for Figure 20 was determined at a fan speed of 1105 RPM. Since the wheel diameter
was 42-3/4 It, the circumference of the wheel = (42-3/4 f 12) x TT = 11.2 feet.
The exhauster tested in Figure 20 had an outlet area of 3.57 square feet. The outlet ve-
locity at this volume =
2;Y;;o = 6,160 FPM
.

Tip speed = 11.2 x 1105 = 12,370 FPM

Outlet velocity = 6160

- = 0.499
Tip speed 12,370

We have thus established a point

on each of the curves shown on
Figure 21 for a per cent free
delivery of 63.2 %. Sufficient
points for plotting Figure 21 were
obtained in a similar fashion.

In using Figure 21 to ascertain

the performance of any other fan
having similar geometry and op-
erating at any speed, it is logical
to choose a l1 per cent free de-
livery It range which will provide
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
maximum fan efficiency in order
PER CENT FREE DELIVERY to operate with minimum horse-
FIGURE 21 power requirements.
- 48 -
 c;plv1 aga.mb:L a SLa.LIc:prabaurc WI I& w . 111tz
g. tsiuUlilubu51- l b LU IJG 1;‘lUBtT“ LU UJxlI-aLc a.L

its maximum static efficiency of 66% (as indicated by Figure 20).

Determine : a) wheel diameter (or exhauster size)
b) fan speed
c) brake horsepower

At 66 % static efficiency the per cent free delivery = 35% and E = 0.935. (Fig. 21)
. .
12
Therefore, T. P. = oq5 = 0.935
- = 12.84” w. g.
.
Velocity pressure at the fan discharge = T. P. - S. P. = 12.84 - 12 = 0.84” w.g.

Outlet velocity = 4,005 v= = 4,005 v= = 3650 FPM.

air volume _ 28,000

Outlet area = = 7.67 sq. ft.
outlet velocity 3,650

From the Type K Exhauster bulletin, a size 38 has an outlet area of 7.75 sq. ft. and
would be chosen. The wheel diameter for this size exhauster is 62-‘7/16 inches.
From Figure 21 the ratio of outlet velocity to tip speed for 35% free delivery is 0.28.
Outlet velocity 3,650
Then : Tip speed = = - = 13,040 FPM
0.28 0.28

RPM = tip speed x 12 13,040 x 12

wheel diameter x TT = 62-7/16 x -IT = 800 RPM
x 12
Brake horsepower = 628,000
356 x o . 66 = 8 0 H . P.
9
SLIDE RULE METHOD: The Type K exhauster bulletin indicates that the volume handled by
any given size covers a wide range of outlet velocities. It will be noted that the average
outlet velocity where higher static pressures are required is in the order of 4,000 FPM.
For 28,000 CFM the outlet area would then be 28,000 /4,000 = 7 sq. ft. The nearest
standard size exhauster having this outlet area (or larger) is a size 38 which has an
outlet area of 7.75 sq. ft. and a wheel diameter of 62-7/16 inches (from bulletin),

base wheel diameter 2

Equivalent air volume for a size 26 exhauster = new wheel diameter x required CFM

x 28,000 = 13,200 CFM

Set the 12 It S. P. on Scale A (square scale) and set the equivalent air volume of 13,200
on Scale C (sliding scale). Move indicator until the relationship between S. P. and air
volume corresponds to the same relationship as read from Figure 20. This point is
12,500 CFM at 10.75” S. P. and 66% static efficiency. This is the only point which will
match the S.P. pressure-volume relationship of Figure 20, and is sometimes referred to
as the It Rating Point 11.
Fan speed of equivalent air volume base wheel diameter x base RPM
size 38 exhauster = rating point volume x new wheel diameter

= 13,200 42-3/4
1 2 , 5 0 0 x 62-7/16 x ‘lo5 = 8oo RPM
CFM x S. P. 28,000 x 12
Brake Horsepower =
6356 x M.E. = 6356 x 0 . 6 6 = 8o B*H.P*
In practice it may be desirable to check another size exhauster to arrive at the most eco-
nomical choice from the point of view of capital investment and horsepower requirements.

- 49 -
 There are certain well recognized laws which apply to the performance of both
centrifugal and axial flow fans, used either as blowers or exhausters. These laws
are based upon the relationship that for all practical purposes in the range used, a
fan may be considered a constant displacement machine. That is, against any given
resistance, each revolution of the fan will move the same quantity of air.

All fan laws are based upon the fundamental consideration that fan efficiencies re-
main constant and therefore when one or more conditions are varied the rest will vary
accordingly. Their use is necessarily restricted to fans of the same design and geo-
metrical shape. There are quite a number of useful fan laws which are given in most
handbooks and textbooks. Only a few of the more important relations will be mentioned.

For a given fan size, piping system, and air density:

QX=
Ql
- - - - - - (1) Q2
Ql
3
------ (4)

2
SP2 - - - - - - (2) SP2 ------ (5 )
SP1 spl

------ (3) e-_-m_ (6)

where Ql, SPl, and HP1 represent the volume, static pressure, and horsepower,
respectively, of the known conditions, and Q 2, SP 2, and HP 2 represent the desired con-
ditions. In E q&ions 4, 5, and 6, the value D represents the diameter of the wheel in
inches with Dl the known value.

It should again be pointed out that the characteristic fan performance curves shown
in Figures 15, 16, 17, and 18, are each plotted at constant speed. For performance
conditions at other speeds it is necessary to apply the -Fan Laws- as discussed above. This
can perhaps be best illustrated by an example involving Duct - Fan Characteristics as
shown in Figure 22.

Assume a duct system which is to handle 11,000 CFM, has a static pressure loss of
0.77 I1 w. g. This is indicated by Point (T) on Duct Resistance Curve I1 A It (Figure
22). Let us further assume that we have chosen a backward curved blade fan to supply
this air and that the fan is to be directly connected to a motor operating at 575 RPM.
Curve 11 D fY is the static pressure curve for the fan and is plotted for the chosen oper-
ating speed of 575 RPM. It is evident that only one condition satisfies both the fan
and duct characteristics, and this occurs at Point (R) where the two curves intersect
and represents a static pressure of 0.98 It at 12,400 CFM. At this air volume it will
be seen from curve ” E I’ that 3.08 horsepower will be required.

- 50 -
 83MOd 3StlOH
I I !2 I/ I I I I ww I Y I
- 51 -
 If it is desired to obtain the exact flow for which the duct system was designed
(11,000 CFM at 0.77” S. P.) either of two methods may be followed: Namely, by damper-
ing or by changing the fan speed. It will be found that changing the speed will result in
a lower horsepower requirement, but will necessitate a belt drive or a variable speed
motor. If we pursue the damper method it will be noted that at 11,000 CFM the fan
static pressure is 1.16” and, therefore, a damper equivalent to (1.16 - 0.77) = 0.39”
will be required. Curve “B” would be the new duct resistance curve if this damper was
added. The necessary horsepower from Curve “E” is 2.99.

If instead of dampering, we reduce the fan speed in the ratio of 11,000/12,400 it

will be found that a fan speed of 510 RPM will satisfy our requirements and the static
pressure relationship at this new speed has been plotted as Curve “C1’. It should be ob-
served that the rating Point (R) moves back along the duct resistance curve to Point (T).
At this point the fan will be delivering 11,000 CFM at a static pressure of 0.77” w.g.
and at a speed of 510 RPM. The new horsepower requirement at this condition must be
determined by applying the fan law and will amount to 2.15 horsepower.

*****

- 52 -
 APPENDIX-PROBLEMS

1. Convert 60° F. to degrees Centigrade. Convert 175’ C. to degrees F. Convert 290°

F. to absolute temperature on the Fahrenheit scale.

2. A copper ball weighing 14 lbs. is heated and immediately placed in a vessel which
contains 10 lbs. of water. The temperature of the water is raised from 60 to 120°F.
Using an average specific heat of copper 0.0951 BTU per lb. , determine the temper-
ature of the copper ball when it was placed in the water, assuming no heat loss from
the ball or water to the air.

3. A piece of marble weighing 12 lbs. and at a temperature of 150’ F. and a piece of

cast iron weighing 20 lbs. and at a temperature of 80° F. are put into a tank. Suffi-
cient water at 85’ F. is added to the tank to bring the temperature of the water,
marble, and cast iron to 92O. How much water is required, neglecting the heat lost
during the process. Assume specific heat of marble of 0.216 BTU/lb. and that of
cast iron of 0.12 BTU per lb.

4. Water at standard conditions weighs 62.3 lbs. per cubic foot. Determine the height
in inches of a water column equivalent to standard atmospheric pressure of 14.7 lbs.
per sq. in.

5. Convert the following: 20 inches of mercury gauge pressure to pounds per sq. in.
absolute; 10 inches of mercury vacuum to pounds per sq. in. absolute; 5 lbs. per
sq. in. gauge pressure to inches of mercury absolute pressure; 3 psig. to inches of
water gauge pressure; 12 lbs. per sq. in. gauge pressure to pounds per sq. in. ab-
solute.

6. Prove that 1 cu. in. of mercury = 0.491 lbs/sq. inch. If the barometer reads 29.2
inches of mercury, change 130 lbs. sq. in. gauge pressure to pounds per sq. in.
absolute pressure. With the same barometer reading, convert 27 inches of mercury
vacuum into pounds per sq. in, absolute pressure.

7. Convert a 20 inch column of oil having a specific gravity of 0.84 into inches
of water.

8. Find the height of an imaginary column of air having a uniform density of 0.075 lbs.
per cu. ft. and equivalent to the above inches of water pressure in the plenum chamber
in Example No. 7.

9. Give a room 20’ x 36’ x 7 l/2’ containing dry air at a barometric pressure of 29”
Hg. Find the weight of air in the room assuming the air temperature is 75’ F.

10. Air at an initial volume of 3 cu. ft. and a temperature of 65’ F. is heated at constant
pressure until the volume is doubled. What is the resulting temperature in degrees
F. ?

- 53 -
 Appendix - Problems

11. Given air an initial pressure of 28 lbs. per sq. in. absolute and an initial temper-
ature of 90° F. It is cooled at constant volume to a temperature of 50° F. What is
the resulting pressure?

12. A tank whose volume is 60 cu. ft. contains air at a pressure of 100 lbs. per sq.
in. absolute and a temperature of 80° F. How many pounds of air does the tank
contain?

13. An automobile tire has a mean diameter of 32” and a width of 6”. It is inflated to
a pressure 50 lbs. per sq. in. gauge at a temperature of 70° F. Atmospheric
pressure is 14.2 lbs. per sq. in.

a. How many pounds of air does the tire contain?

b. Assuming there was no change in volume, what would be the gauge
pressure of the air in the tire if it was heated by the sun to a tem-
perature of 120’ F. ?

14. A given quantity of air at a temperature of 60° F. and a pressure of 16 lbs. per
sq. in. absolute has a volume of 4 cu. ft. What would be the new volume of the
same air if the pressure is increased to 60 lbs. per sq. in. absolute with the tem-
perature being held constant?

15. Given 10 cu. ft. of air at a temperature of 700 F. and at a pressure of 16 lbs. per
sq. in. absolute - What is the pressure of this air if the volume is increased to
50 cu. ft. at a constant temperature of 70° F. ?

16. A tank contains 180 cu. ft. of air at a temperature of 90° F. and a pressure of 170
lbs. per sq. in. absolute.
a. What is the weight of air in the tank?
b. How many cu. ft. would this air occupy at a standard atmospheric
pressure of 14.7 lbs. per sq. in. absolute and at a temperature
of 95O F. ?

17. The volume of a quantity of air at 80° F. and a pressure of 14 lbs. per sq. in.
absolute is 18 cu. ft. What would be the temperature of this air if the volume is
reduced to 5 cu. ft. and the pressure is increased to 70 lbs. per sq. in. absolute?

18. If 3600 BTU is added to 3 lbs. of water which is at a temperature of 180°F. and
at a pressure of 20 lbs. per sq. in. absolute, what are the resulting temperature
and state of fluid?

19. If 5 lbs. of steam at 212O F. and 20 lbs. of water at 70’ F. are mixed together at
atmospheric pressure, what is the resulting temperature and state of the mixture?

20. Assume .lO lbs. of steam at a pressure of 28 lbs. per sq. in. absolute and a tem-
perature of 290° F. is mixed with 10 lbs. of water at 180’ F. If the pressure re-
mains constant, what is the resulting state of the mixture?
 Appendix - Problems

21. a. Calculate the weight of water vapor per pound of dry air saturated at 80° F.
and having a vapor pressure of 1.03” Hg. Use the perfect gas equation for
water vapor and check your answer by substituting in the equation near the
bottom of Pg. 12.

b. Determine the volume occupied by 1 lb. of the mixture.

22. a. Given air at 90° F. and 50% saturated, calculate the total heat content.

b. If the air is saturated at 90° F. calculate its total heat content. The weight of
moisture involved in the parts (a) and (b) may be taken from a chart or table.

23. Air at 78O F. and 50% saturated is conditioned to a saturation temperature of

650 F. Calculate the sensible and latent heat content before and after cooling. How
do they compare?

24. The outside air is at a temperature of 450 and has a percent saturation of 75%. When
this air is delivered into a building it is heated to 70° F. Calculate the percentage
saturation at the delivered air temperature and check from the psychrometric chart.

25. Given air at a dry bulb temperature of 80° and a wet bulb temperature of 65’. Find
its dew point temperature, percent saturation, and moisture content.

26. Air at 90° F. is 66% saturated. When cooled to 65’ what is its final moisture con-
tent?

27. Air passes thru an air washer with the moisture being added adiabatically. The
entering condition of the air is 85O dry bulb and 70° wet bulb. The final dry bulb
temperature of the air is 75O F. How much moisture was added per pound of dry
air?

28. What would be the dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature, dew point, and
percent saturation if the following quantities of air were mixed; 5000 cu. ft. at 90’
F. and 50% saturated; 3500 cu. ft. at 75O dry bulb and 65’ wet bulb temperature;
and 2500 cu. ft. at 50°F. and saturated.

29. What is the total heat of air at 75O F. dry bulb and 60° wet bulb? Check by calcu-
lating.

30. A building having a volume of 40,000 cu. ft. is ventilated at the rate of three air
changes per hour. When the outside temperature is 35O F. and saturated, how much
heat and how much water must be added to the entering air per hour if it is to be
introduced into the building at 70° F. and 35% saturated?

31. It is desired to provide a percent saturation of 45% at a temperature of 72O F. in a

building. If the air washer is theoretically designed for 100% effectiveness, what
should be the temperature of the air leaving the washer?

- 55 -
 Appendix - Problems

32. Given air at a barometric pressure of 29.2” Hg. and a dry bulb temperature of
85O F. Calculate the velocity and volume of air in a 12” diameter duct having an
average velocity pressure of 0.54” w. g.
33. Given an inlet orifice 6” in diameter and handling standard air. The orifice pressure
drop 1.7” w.g. and the coefficient of the discharge is 0.61. Determine the volume
of air being handled.
34. Given a fan discharge duct of 8” diameter, in which the velocity pressure is 2.6”
w.g. The air then expands through a transition piece into a 9-l/4” diameter duct
with a resulting velocity pressure of l-1/2” w.g. If the transition piece has a 40 %
loss, determine the static pressure and total pressure relationships in the small
and large duct sections if the pressure loss due to friction is 0.5” and 1” respec-
tively.

35. Given a fan having an inlet duct and discharge duct. The inlet duct has a friction
loss of 1” of water and a velocity pressure of 2” w.g. The discharge duct has a
friction loss of 2-l/2” of water and a velocity pressure of 2” w.g. Determine the
following:
a . Static pressure at the fan inlet
b. Static pressure at the fan outlet
c. Total pressure at the fan inlet
d. Total pressure at the fan outlet 6
e. Static pressure across fan t
f
f. Total pressure across fan
g. If the volume of air handled is 50,000 CFM and the fan efficiency is 68%,
what is the air HP and ,what is the brake HP of the fan?

36. What is the friction loss in 120 ft. of 45” diameter duct having two long radius
elbows and carrying 15,000 CFM of air?

37. A fan delivers 12,000 CFM against a static pressure of l-1/4” w.g. , at a speed
of 420 RMP, and draws 4 horsepower. It is desired to increase the fan output to
15,000 CFM. What will be the speed, horsepower, and static pressure for the
increased output?

38. A fan delivers 3,000 CFM of air at a static pressure of 1.0” of water. What is
the static air horsepower, and how much shaft horsepower is required if the static
fan efficiency is 60% at this load?

39. A fan is delivering 23,000 CFM against a static pressure of 2” of water. The brake
horsepower is 11.6 and speed 377 RPM. It is desired to increase the delivery to
27,400 CFM through the same piping system. What are the new speed, horsepower,
and static pressure?
40. A fan exhausts 27,000 CFM through a 29.3” diam. duct connected to the suction side
of the fan. At the fan inlet the SP measures -3.87” W.G. If the speed of the fan is
increased so that it exhausts 32,400 CFM - what is the friction loss through the ex-
haust duct at the increased volume? Calculate all values.
 Blue Circle Cement

PROCESS ENGINEERING
TRAINING PROGRAM

Module 4

Section 5

Conversion Factors and Tables

 Conversion Table
cubic metre cubic metre US gallon per
Volumetric per second per hour litre per minute cubic foot per minute (US UK gallon per
Flowrate (m3/s) (m3/h) (l/min) minute (cfm) gpm) minute (gpm)
cubic metre per
1 = 1 3600 60000 2119 15850 13200
second (m3/s)
cubic metre per
1 = 0.000278 1 16.667 0.5886 4.4029 3.6667
hour (m3/h)
litre per minute
1 = 1.66667E-05 0.06 1 0.03531 0.2642 0.2200
(l/min)
cubic foot per
1 = 0.000471921 1.69901 28.32 1 7.4805 6.2305
minute (cfm)
US gallon per
1 = 6.30915E-05 0.2271 3.7854 0.13368 1 0.8328
minute (US gpm)
UK gallon per
1 = 7.57576E-05 0.2727 4.5455 0.16050 1.2008 1
minute (gpm)
 Conversion Table
Power & Specific metric kilocalorie per Milion Btu per
Fuel horsepower horsepower kilogramme Btu per pound short ton
Consumption kilowatt (kW) (hP) (hP) (kCal/kg) (Btu/lb) (MBtu/st)

1 kilowatt (kW) = 1 1.360 1.341

metric
1 = 0.7355 1 0.9863
horsepower (hP)
1 horsepower (hP) = 0.7457 1.0139 1
kilocalorie per
1 kilogramme = 1 1.8 0.0036
(kCal/kg)
Btu per pound
1 = 0.55556 1 500
(Btu/lb)
Milion Btu per
1 short ton = 277.778 0.002 1
(MBtu/st)
 Conversion Table
millimetre pound per
kilopascal atmosphere inch water water gauge square inch
Pressure millibar (mbar) (kPa) bar (atm) gauge (in wg) (mm wg) (psi)

1 millibar (mbar) = 1 0.1 0.001 0.0009869 0.40146 10.20 0.01

1 kilopascal (kPa) = 10 1 0.01 0.00987 4.0146 101.97 0.14504

1 bar = 1000 100 1 0.98692 401.4629 10197.16 14.504

atmosphere
1 = 1013.25 101.325 1.01325 1 406.782 10332.27 14.696
(atm)
inch water gauge
1 = 2.4909 0.2491 0.0025 0.00246 1 25.4 0.0361
(in wg)
millimetre water
1 = 0.09807 0.00981 0.0001 0.0000968 0.03937 1 0.001
gauge (mm wg)
pound per square
1 = 68.9476 6.89476 0.0689 0.068046 27.680 703.07 1
inch (psi)
 Conversion Table
Length Millimetre Metre inch foot yard mile
1 Millimetre = 1 0.001 0.03937 0.0033 0.0011 6.21371E-07

1 Metre = 1000 1 39.370 3.2808 1.0936 0.000621

1 inch = 25.4 0.0254 1 0.0833 0.0278 1.57828E-05

1 foot = 304.8 0.3048 12 1 0.3333 0.00019

1 yard = 914.4 0.9144 36 3 1 0.00057

1 mile = 1,609,344 1,609.34 63,360 5,280 1,760 1

 Conversion Table
metre per kilometre per foot per foot per minute mile per hour
Linear Velocity second (m/s) hour (kph) second (fps) (fpm (mph)
metre per second
1 = 1 3.6 3.2808 196.8504 2.2369
(m/s)
kilometre per hour
1 = 0.27778 1 0.9113 54.681 0.6214
(kph)
foot per second
1 = 0.3048 1.0973 1 60 0.6818
(fps)
foot per minute
1 = 0.00508 0.0183 0.01667 1 0.0114
(fpm
mile per hour
1 = 0.44704 1.6093 1.4667 88 1
(mph)
 Conversion Table
kilogram per metric tonne pound per pound per short ton per
Mass Flowrate second (kg/s) per hour (te/h) second (lb/s) hour (lb/h) hour (stph)
kilogram per
1 = 1 3.6 2.2046 7936.64 3.968
second (kg/s)
metric tonne per
1 = 0.27778 1 0.6124 2204.62 1.1023
hour (te/h)
pound per second
1 = 0.4536 1.63293 1 3600 1.8
(lb/s)
pound per hour
1 = 0.0001260 0.0001260 0.0002778 1 0.0005
(lb/h)
short ton per hour
1 = 0.2520 0.9072 0.5556 2000 1
(stph)
 Conversion Table
Mass kilogram (kg) metric tonne ounce (oz) pound (lb) short ton (st)
1 kilogram (kg) = 1 0.001 3,527.40 2.2046 0.001102

1 metric tonne = 1,000 1 3,527,399 2204.62 1.102311

1 ounce (oz) = 2.83E-04 2.83E-07 1 0.0625 3.125E-07

1 pound (lb) = 0.45359 0.000454 16 1 0.0005

1 short ton (st) = 907.185 0.90719 3,200,004 2000 1

 Conversion Table
cubic metre
Volume (m3) litre (dm3) cubic inch cubic foot cubic yard UK pint UK gallon US pint US gallon

1 cubic metre (m3) = 1 1000 61023.61 35.3147 1.3080 1759.75 219.97 2113.38 264.17

1 litre (dm3) = 0.001 1 61.0236 0.035315 0.00131 1.760 0.2200 2.1134 0.2642

1 cubic inch = 1.64E-05 0.0164 1 0.000579 2.14335E-05 0.02884 0.00360 0.03463 0.00433

1 cubic foot = 0.02832 28.317 1728 1 0.03704 49.83058 6.2288 59.8440 7.48049

1 cubic yard = 0.76456 764.555 46656 27 1 1345.43 168.178 1615.789 201.9734

1 UK pint = 0.00057 0.568 34.6774 0.02007 0.000743 1 0.125 1.2010 0.1501

1 UK gallon = 0.00455 4.546 277.42 0.16054 0.005946 8 1 9.6076 1.20095

1 US pint = 0.00047 0.473 28.875 0.01671 0.000619 0.8327 0.104084 1 0.125

1 US gallon = 0.00379 3.785 231 0.13368 0.004951 6.6614 0.8327 8 1

 Conversion Table
Area square metre square inch square foot square yard acre square mile
1 square metre = 1 1550 10.7639 1.19599 0.000247 3.86102E-07

1 square inch = 6.45E-04 1 0.00694 0.00077 1.59423E-07 2.49098E-10

1 square foot = 0.09290 144 1 0.11111 2.29568E-05 3.58701E-08

1 square yard = 0.8361 1296 9 1 0.000207 3.22831E-07

1 acre = 4046.86 6272640 43560 4840 1 0.00156

1 square mile = 2,589,990 4,014,490,000 27,878,400 3,097,600 640 1

 Blue Circle Cement

PROCESS ENGINEERING
TRAINING PROGRAM

Module 4

Section 6

Back To Cement Basics

 Blue Circle Cement

PROCESS ENGINEERING
TRAINING PROGRAM

Module 4

Section 7

Test Method Formulae and Nomenclature

GEL
 NOMENCLATURE

Symbol Description Unit

An Area of the Nozzle Square feet (ft2)

As Area of the Stack Square feet (ft2)
Bws Water vapor in the stack gas Proportion by volume
Cp Pitot tube coefficient Dimensionless
Csd Particulate concentration Grains per dry
standard cubic feet (gr/dscf)
Dn Diameter of the Nozzle Inches (in.)
Ds(width) Width of the stack Inches (in.)
Ds(depth) Depth of the stack Inches (in.)
Kcf Constant Correction Factor Constant
Kp 85.49 Unit Conversion Constant

Md Molecular weight of stack gas, dry basis Pound per pound-mole (lb/lb-mole)

Mn Mass pollutant found in sampling train Micrograms (µg)

MnC Mass pollutant (VOC) determined with parts per million (ppm)
JUM FID (as carbon)
MnP Mass pollutant (VOC) determined with parts per million (ppm)
JUM FID (as propane)
Mp Total pollutant mass emissions rate Pounds per hour (lb/hr)
Mpro Total pollutant mass emissions rate Pounds per ton (lb/ton)
based on production rate
Mp (Off) Total pollutant mass emissions rate, Pounds per hour (lb/hr)
while the scrubber is Off
Mp (On) Total pollutant mass emissions rate Pounds per hour (lb/hr)
while the scrubber is On
Ms Molecular weight of stack gas, wet basis Pound per pound-mole (lb/lb-mole)

MW Molecular weight of pollutant Grams per mole (g/mole)

Pbar Barometric pressure Inches of mercury (in. of Hg)

 NOMENCLATURE
(continued)

Symbol Description Unit

Pg Pressure of stack gas (static pressure) Inches of water (in. of H20)

Ps Absolute stack gas pressure Pound per pound-mole (lb/lb-mole)

Pstd Standard pressure, 68oF Inches of mercury (in. of Hg)

Qgw Wet volumetric stack gas flow rate at Actual cubic feet/hour (acf/hr)
actual conditions

Qsd Dry Volumetric Stack Gas Flow Rate Dry standard cubic feet per hour
corrected to Standard Conditions (dscf/hr)

Qsd(avg) Dry Volumetric Stack Gas Flow Rate Dry standard cubic feet per hour
corrected to Standard Conditions (dscf/hr)
Flow average of, before and after flow
measurement

Tm Absolute dry gas meter temperature Degrees Rankine (oR)

(oF + 460) = oR

Ts Absolute stack temperature Degrees Rankine (oR)

(oF + 460) = oR

Tstd Standard temperature (528oR) Degrees Rankine (oR)

Vlc Volume of water vapor condensed in Milligrams (mg)

the impingers

Vm Volume of gas sample as measured by the Dry cubic feet (dcf)

dry gas meter

Vmstd Volume of gas sample as measured by the Dry standard cubic feet (dscf)
dry gas meter, corrected to standard
conditions

Vmstd (Total) Volume of gas sample as measured by the Dry standard cubic feet (dscf)
dry gas meter, corrected to standard
conditions
 NOMENCLATURE
(continued)

Symbol Description Unit

Vs Average stack gas velocity Feet per second (ft/sec)

Vwsg Volume of water vapor condensed in Grams (g)

silica gel
Vwstd Volume of water vapor in the gas sample, Standard cubic feet (scf)
corrected to standard conditions

Vwcstd Volume of water vapor condensed in Standard cubic feet (scf)

impingers, corrected to standard
conditions

Vwsgstd Volume of water vapor condensed in Standard cubic feet (scf)

silica gel, corrected to standard
conditions

Y Dry gas meter calibration factor Dimensionless

∆H Average pressure differential across Inches of water (in. of H2O)

the orifice

∆P Average velocity head of stack gas Inches of water (in. of H2O)

∆P Average squareroot velocity head of Inches of water (in. of H2O)

stack gas

%C Percent Capture Efficiency Percent (%)

%CO Percent carbon monoxide by volume, Percent (%)

dry basis

%CO2 Percent carbon dioxide by volume, dry Percent (%)

basis

%DRE Percent Destruction Reduction Efficiency Percent (%)

%I Percent Isokinetics Percent (%)

%N2 Percent nitrogen by volume, dry basis Percent (%)

%N2 = 100-%C02-1%02-%CO
 NOMENCLATURE
(continued)

Symbol Description Unit

%02 Percent oxygen by volume, Percent (%)

dry basis
%02 Corr Percent oxygen Correction Factor Percent (%)

%Scrubber Percent Scrubber Efficiency Percent (%)

Total sampling time Minutes (min)

pi, 7c = 3.1416 Constant

 TEST METHODS FORMULAS

I. AREA

Area of Stack, Square feet (Round Stack)

 Ds 2ð  ft 2 
As =   2

 4  144 in 

π = 3.1416

Area of Stack, Square feet (Square Stack)

 ft 2 
As = (Ds(width ))(Ds(depth )) 2

 144 in 

Area of Nozzle, Square feet

 Dn 2 ð  ft 2 
An =   2

 4  144 in 

π = 3.1416

II. TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS

Dry Gas Meter Temperature, Degrees Rankin

Tm[oR] = Tm[oF] + 460

Stack Temperature, Degrees Rankin

Ts[oR] = Ts[oF] + 460

III. VOLUME OF AIR COLLECTED

Volume of Dry Gas Sample, Corrected to Standard Conditions

 ∆Η 
 Pbar + 
Vmstd = (Vm )(Y ) 13.6 
 Pstd 
 
 

IV. MOISTURE DETERMINATION

Volume of Water Vapor Condensed in Impingers, Corrected to Standard Conditions

Vwcstd = Vlc x 0.04707

Volume of Water Vapor Condensed in Silica Gel, Corrected to Standard Conditions

Vwsgstd = Vwsg x 0.04715

Water Vapor in the Stack Gas, Proportion by Volume

 Vwcstd + Vwsgstd 
Bws =  
 Vwcstd + Vwsgstd + Vmstd 

V. TOTAL VOLUME

Vmstd TOTAL = Vwcstd + Vwsgstd + Vmstd

VI. MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF STACK GAS

Nitrogen Content of Stack Gas, Percent

% N 2 = 100 − %CO 2 − %O 2 − %CO

Dry Molecular Weight of the Stack Gas

Md = 0.44 (% CO 2 ) + 0.32 (% O 2 ) + 0.28(% N 2 + % CO )

Wet Molecular Weight of the Stack Gas

Ms = (Md)(1-Bws) + 18(Bws)

VII. FLOW DETERMINATIONS

Absolute Stack Gas Pressure

 Pg 
Ps = Pbar +  
 13 .6 

Average Stack Gas Velocity, Feet per Second

Vs = (Kp)(Cp) ∆Ρ( ) Ts
Ps × Ms

 
(inches Hg )
lb

ft  lb − mole 
Kp = 85.49
sec o
( )
R (inches H 2 O )

Wet Volumetric Stack Gas Flow Rate, Actual Conditions, cubic feet per hour

 3600 sec 
Qaw = (Vs)(As) 
 hr 

Dry Volumetric Stack Gas Flow Rate, Corrected to Standard Conditions, cubic feet per hour

 3600 sec   Ps  Tstd 

Qsd = (Vs)(As) (1 − Bws )  
 hr   Ts  Pstd 

VIII. ISOKINETICS DETERMINATION

Isokinetics Sampling Rate, Percent

 Ts Vmstd Pstd 
%I =   × 100
 60 Vs Ps èAn (1 - Bws ) Tstd 

IX. POLLUTANT DETERMINATIONS

Conversion from Parts per million (ppm) to Micrograms (µg)

 µg   1g H 2 O 
Mn (µg ) = (Pollutant (ppm )) (Vcatch ml) 
 g   ml H 2 O 

Concentration of Pollutant, gr/dscf → lb/hr

 Mn  15.432 gr  g 
Csd =    
 Vmstd  g  1,000,000 ìg 

Emission Rate for Pollutant, gr/dscf → lb/hr

 lb 
Mp = (Csd)(Qsd) 
 7000 gr 

Emission Rate for Pollutant based on Production Rate, lb/hr → lb/ton

 Mp 
Mpro =  
 P 

Emission Rate of Compounds, Standard Flowrate, Corrected to Standard Conditions, ppm → lb/hr (dry basis)

 Mn   m3  mole  MWg  lb 
Mp =  (Qsd )  3   
 1,000,000   35.315 dscf  0.02404 m  mole  453.6 

Emission Rate of Compounds, Standard Flowrate, Corrected to Standard Conditions, ppm → lb/hr (wet basis)

 Mn   m3  mole  Ps  Tstd  MWg  lb 

Mp =  (Qaw )  3     
 1,000,000   35.315 dscf  0.02404 m  Ts  Pstd  mole  453.6 

Concentration of Carbon Monoxide, Corrected for Carbon Dioxide, ppm

 %CO 2 
Mn[co] = (Mn[co])1 − 
 100 

Concentration of Pollutant, Corrected for Moisture, ppm

 Mn 
Mn =  
 1 − Bws 

Concentration of Volatile Organic Compounds, Corrected to Standard Conditions, ppm as Carbon

   3 Carbon  
 (Mnp ) 
  Propane  
Mn[voc] =  
1 − Bws
 
 
 

Concentration of Pollutant (CO, Nox), Corrected for Carbon Dioxide, ppm

 %CO 2 
Mn = (Mn )1 − 
 100 

Emission Rate of Pollutant (SO2,Nox), ppm → Pounds per Hour

Mp = (Mn)(Qsd)(Kcf)

Kcf(SO2) = 1.660 x 10-7

Kcf(NOx) = 1.194 x 10-7

X. TITRATION EQUATIONS

Sulfuric Acid Mist Emissions, mg

 V 
C H 2SO 4 = K H 2SO 4  N(Vt − Vtb ) so ln  
  Va 
K H 2SO 4 = 49.04mg / milliequivalent

Sulfur Dioxide Emissions, mg

  V 
C SO 2 = K SO 2  N(Vt − Vtb ) so ln  
  Va  
K SO 2 = 32.03mg / milliequivalent

XI. CAPTURE AND DESTRUCTION REDUCTION EFFICIENCY

Percent Destruction Reduction Efficiency (DRE) for Scrubber

 Mp(off ) − Mp(on ) 
% Efficiency =   × 100
 Mp(off ) 

Percent Capture Effiency

 Mp(out )
% Capture = × 100
Mp(in )

Percent Destruction Reduction Efficiency (DRE)

Mp(in ) − Mp(out )
% DRE = × 100
Mp(in )

XII. ADDITIONAL EQUATIONS

∆H Determination

per EPA:

 2 Md Tm Ps 
∆Η = 846.72 Dn 4 ∆Η @ Cp 2 (1 - Bws ) ∆P
 Ms Ts Pm 

Nozzle Diameter

0.0358 Qm Pm Ts Ms
Dn =
Tm Cp (1 - Bws ) Ps ∆P
where : Qm = 0.75

Excess Air

 %O 2 − 0.05 (%CO ) 
%EA =   × 100
 0.264(N 2 ) − %O 2 + 0.5 (CO) 

Leak Rate Adjustment

 N

Vm = Vm − (Ll − La )è - ∑ (Li − La )θi - (Lp - La )θp 
 i=2 

Raw Isokinetics

  Vm  ∆Η  
 (0.002676 ) Vlc +   Pb +  
   Tm  13.6  
%I = 100
 60 θ An Vs Ps 
 
 

Expressing Concentration as ppm

  mg  24.45 liters  mole  Pstd  T F + 273
o
ppm =  3    
 m  mole  MWg  Ps  Tstd
where : Pstd = 760 mmHg , Tstd = 298 o K

Sulfuric Acid Mist and Sulfur Dioxide Calculations

  
 N(Vt − Vtb ) Vsolution 
 V 
C SO 2 = K1   aliquot 
 Vmstd 
 
 

where K1 = 0.03203 g/meq (metric)

-5
= 7.061 x 10 lb/meq (English)

  
 N(Vt − Vtb ) Vsolution  
 V 
C H 2SO 4 = K 2   aliquot  
 Vmstd 
 
 
where K2 = 0.049.4 g/meq (metric)
-4
= 1.08 x 10 lb/meq (English)

Fc Factor

 100 
E = Fc c s  
 %CO 2 

Fd Factor

 
 [Dry Basis]
20.9
E = Fd c sd 
 20.9 − %O 2 

 
 
E = Fd c sd  20.9  [Wet Basis]
 %O 2 
 20.9(1 − Bws ) −
 (1 − Bws) 

Inlet VOC as Carbon, lb/hr

  gals ker osene  6.84 lbs kerosene  60 mins  0.86 lbs VOC 
C voci =     
 run time (mins)  gal kerosene  hour  lb kerosene 

Outlet VOC as Carbon

 measured ppm - background  cf  m 3  mole  12g carbon  lb 

C voco =     3   
 10 6 parts  hour  35.315 cf  0.02404 m  mole  453.6g 
 Blue Circle Cement

PROCESS ENGINEERING
TRAINING PROGRAM

Module 4

Section 8

Combustion and Efficiency

3695 Interstate Park Way
Rivera Beach, FL 33404-5998

Phone 407-842-1900
Fax 407-842-0742

COMBUSTION & EFFICIENCY

Understanding combustion and the measurements of combustion are essential in determining proper and
economical operation of a boiler. Guides are provided for various fuels to assist you in evaluating your boiler.
Periodic evaluations will aid you in keeping fuel and operating costs at a minimum.

CS600/9-86
INTRODUCTION

Flue gas analysis has been commonly used for many years, but with todays increasing fuel costs, it is more
important than ever to be familiar with the basic principle of combustion and analysis. This knowledge, even in
the smallest of boilers and furnaces, can reduce operating costs, fuel consumption, and other maintenance
considerations included. To understand why and how, one must first take a look at the basic principles of
combustion. Then, the virtues of analysis become meaningful.

FUEL

Many fuels are available, but they all share some common principles; that is, typically that they are
hydrocarbons (any compound that is comprised of atoms of hydrogen and carbon) or compounds (or free)
hydrogen or carbon. Natural gas, fuel oil, coal, wood, bagasse, and others all fall into this category. These fuels
differ in their ratios of hydrogen to carbon and in how they are bound together. A less common fuel is sulfur,
and although it will not be discussed, there are small amounts of it in the heavier (less pure) fuel oils and in
most coals.

AIR

When air is used for combustion to provide the necessary oxygen, consideration must be given to nitrogen since
air is mostly that. It is generally accepted that air is 79.05% nitrogen with other minor constituents and 20.95%
oxygen. This represents a ratio of 79.05:20.95 or' 3.773:1 parts of nitrogen to oxygen in air. Another way of
stating this is that for every one mole of oxygen required for combustion, 3.773 moles of nitrogen will be
present (mole % equals volume %). While nitrogen is generally inert (excepting some generation of oxides
categorized as NOx), it still must be accounted for.

THEORETICAL AIR REQUIREMENT

To first understand combustion, the theoretical air requirements for completely burning carbon and methane are
given as examples.

The air requirement for completely combusting one mole of carbon is one mole of oxygen and 3.773 moles of
nitrogen. Combustion changes the carbon (C) and oxygen (02) to carbon dioxide (CO2) while releasing heat
(expressed as BTU's or calories). The nitrogen remains unchanged. The gaseous product of combustion are then
one mole Of C02 and 3.773 moles of N2. Compared to the total combusted volume (1 mole CO2 + 3.773 moles
N2 = 4.773 total moles), C02 represents (1 / 4.773) x 100 = 20.95%. No excess oxygen is present. See Figure 1.

The air requirement for completely combusting one mole of methane (CH4) is two moles of oxygen and 2 x
3.773 = 7.546 moles of nitrogen. Combustion changes the carbon and half the oxygen to C02 and the remaining
oxygen with hydrogen to water vapor (H20). The nitrogen again remains unchanged. The gaseous products of
combustion are therefore one mole of C02, two moles Of H20, and.7.546 moles of nitrogen. Compared to the
total combusted volume (1 + 2 + 7.546 = 10.546), C02 constitutes (1 / 10.546)x 100 = 9.48%. Since water was
included in the calculated analysis, the 9.48% C02 is on a "wet" basis. A C02 analyzer that did not cool the
products of combustion below condensing temperatures would make this analysis. However, an analyzer such as
the Orsat can condense (by cooling) most of the water from the sample before analysis. This "dry" analysis for
C02 would be computed from a total volume of 1 mole C02 + 7.546 moles N2 = 8.546 total moles. Dry
CO2 = (1 / 8.546)x 100 = 11.70%. Again, no excess oxygen is present. See Figure 1.

In both of the examples, complete (stoichiometric) combustion was attained. Just enough air was supplied to
burn all of the fuel without having any excess oxygen. If less air had been provided, all of the fuel would not
have been combusted (and hence wasted). If more air had been provided, extra volumes of combustion gases
would have been generated. The more volume of flue gas there is, the harder it is to capture the heat in it.

NOTE: Unless stated otherwise, all data and calculations are at standard conditions.

EXCESS AIR AND HEAT

While it would be theoretically desirable to operate a boiler at stoichiometric conditions, it is not possible to do
so due to inadequate mixing of fuel and air at different firing levels and due to safety related factors. Poor burner
mixing can lead to complete combustion (0% excess air) in some parts of the flame, while other parts are fuel
rich (< 0% excess air) or air rich (> 0% excess air). Therefore, to keep from losing unburnt fuel, burners are run
at greater than zero excess air levels. How high, is a function of the burner and boiler design and maintenance.

To illustrate the effects of various excess air levels, return to the example with methane at -10%, 0% and +50%
excess air levels.
 At -10% excess air, 90% of the air required for stoichiometric combustion is used. See Figure 2. Because there
is less nitrogen (with less air), less heat is lost in it. However, since there is not enough oxygen for complete
combustion, all of the fuel hydrogen and carbon cannot be changed to H20 and C02. Some of the fuel becomes
free hydrogen (H2) and free carbon monoxide (CO). Instead of just losing BTU's up the stack as unrecovered
heat, BTU's are also lost as unburned fuel (H2 and CO)t As shown in Figure 2, while methane has 1013
BTU's/CU.FT. available for combustion, 64.4 BTU's have been lost as CO and 65 BTU's have been lost at H2
(a 13% fuel loss). The remaining 883.6 BTU's (per cubic foot of methane) are released as heat in 9.791 cubic
feet of flue gas.
At 0% excess air, no BTU's are lost in combustible gases. All 1013 BTU's (per cubic foot of methane) are
released as heat in 10.546 cubic feet of flue gas.

*NOTE: In the heat loss tables in this publication, fuel losses have been included with total heat loss for
excess air levels below 0%.

At +50% excess air levels, notice that the mole quantities Of C02 and H20 are the same as at 0% excess air
levels. What has changed is that now there is excess oxygen (02) and more excess nitrogen (N2). See Figure 4.
One mole of oxygen and (11.319 - 7.546) = 3.773 moles of nitrogen have been added that did not have to be
heated at 0% excess air levels. All 10131BTU's (per cubic foot of methane) are available, but in 15.319 cubic
feet of flue gas.

It becomes evident that at higher excess air levels the heat of combustion gets diluted into increasing volumes of
flue gas (mostly N2 and 0-2). As flue gas volume (and velocity) increases, less heat can be captured through
heat exchange surfaces within a boiler (a loss in efficiency has developed). It is therefore desirable to operate as
close to 0% excess air as it is practical and safe to without generating smoke* or significant gaseous
combustibles (as CO or H2).

Only one loss decreases when operating at below 0% excess air levels, the amount of heat lost in the water (of
combustion) as steam** (over 1000 BTU's per pound). It is normally impractical to recover this heat since it
requires cooling to condensing temperatures. When condensate forms in flue gas, corrosion becomes more of a
problem.

**NOTE In the heat loss tables in this publication, steam losses in the water of combustion have been included
with the total heat loss.

*NOTE Smoke (or soot) is carbon in its solid form (ie, a solid combustible). Every pound of carbon generated
is a loss of over 14,000 BTU's.
THEORETICAL EXCESS AIR CURVES

In calculating excess oxygen and carbon dioxide for several excess air values of methane combustion, it
becomes apparent that this data can be more meaningful if plotted in graph form. A useful form of graph is
shown in Figure 5.

By using a graph like this (made for the specific fuel being used), it can be seen that if you can analyze either the
percent oxygen or carbon dioxide in the flue gas, you can determine the percent excess air at which a particular
boiler is being operated. It can also be seen that ideally, operation should be at the point of maximum carbon
dioxide and zero oxygen (near the stoichiometric point). However, there are some things to watch for in doing
this.

Most burner/boiler combinations are limited in how close they can be adjusted toward stoichiometry. This is
particularly true in many older designs. Due to conditions such as poor fuel-air mixing and flame temperature
variations, combustible gases can be generated when there is still an excess of oxygen. Therefore, for optimal
efficiency and safety, it may be necessary to operate at 5 or even 10% excess air. An example of curve shifting
then can occur is given in Figure 6.
Notice (in the encircled area of Figure 6) that oxygen exists to the left of stoichiometry and combustibles exist
to the right. Since conditions of overlap can (and do) occur, the user of analytical instruments must be careful to
know all of the information (and not just part) when making critical adjustments to a boiler or burner.

ANALYZER SELECTION

Flue gas analyzers have been in use over a century now, so they are nothing new. Probably the first analyzer on
the market was the Orsat (Joseph Hays sold his first one in 1908). While it is a relatively simple analyzer, it can
provide the user with relatively dry measurements of carbon dioxide (C02), oxygen (02) and carbon monoxide
(CO).

How dry any analysis of wet gasses can be is a function of temperature. At 5o C (41oF) a saturated gas sample
contains about 1% water vapor . . At 20oC (68oF) it is 2% H 0, at 30oC (86oF) it is 4% H 0 and at 40 oc
(104oF) it can contain 7% water vapor.

The Hays Republic model 621 Orsat operates by removing a gas sample from the flue with a rubber squeeze
bulb (hand pump). The sample is cooled, trapped, and its volume measured in a glass burette. The sample is
then passed through absorbing chemicals that have an affinity for C02, then O2 and then CO. After each
absorption procedure the gas sample is measured and its volume compared to that of the original sample. The
difference in volume before and after absorption gives the exact measurement of the percentage of gas in the
sample. See Figure 7.
Because of the construction of the hand Orsat, it is a useful portable analyzer for making boiler tune-ups when a
cost justification for an on-line analyzer can not be made, or when a "standard" analysis is required.

The next evolutionary analyzer to follow the Orsat was the automatic C02 analyzer. It provides a continuous
analysis Of C02 for indication (or recording) and for manual adjustments to the fuel-air ratio (% excess air).
While an analysis of C02 is very useful if one also knows combustibles (CO or CO and H2), the CO2 analyzer
has limited use as a lone analyzer when operating a boiler near stoichiometry. C02 peaks at a maximum value at
stoichiometry, and decreased to the left (inefficient combustibles side) and right side. In our methane example,
dry C02 values peak at 11.7%. At -10% excess air, dry C02 is 10%. Dry C02 is also measured at 10% at +15%
excess air. Therefore, if you controlled to 10% CO2 you may be fairly efficient (at +15% excess air) or fairly
inefficient (at -10% excess air).

Another drawback to C02 monitors, is that as the hydrocarbon make-up of a fuel changes, so does the peak value
of carbon dioxide in the flue. For the fuels in the excess air curves in the back of this publication, C02 (dry)
peaks at 12.1% for natural gas, 15.6% for #2 Fuel Oil, 16.8% for #6 Fuel Oil, 18.5% for sub-bituminous coal,
and at 18.7% for semi-bituminous coal. This means that there should be a change in control point for boilers
that change from one fuel to another. Even worse, if a boiler is fired with two fuels simultaneously, the control
point shifts as the ratio of the two fuels changes.

HYDROCARBON RATIO

The hydrocarbon ratio is a useful tool for those that monitor C02. It is simply the ratio of hydrogen to carbon
(by weight) in the fuel. Fuels that have a large amount of hydrogen (compared to carbon) have a relatively large
hydrocarbon ratio. The natural gas listed in the excess air curves in this publication has a H:C Ratio of 0.309.
Fuels that are mostly carbon have a low ratio. The semi-bituminous coal has a H:C ratio of 0.058.

In using a set of excess air curves that do not have a close match in chemical composition to the fuel being
used, select the fuel that has a hydrocarbon ratio closest to your own. Then the C02 curves will be a close
approximation to what you can expect.

OXYGEN ANALYZERS

Oxygen analyzers have some advantages over carbon dioxide analyzers for monitoring or control. Regardless of
the fuel being used, stoichiometry is achieved at zero O2, and O2 does not increase again at negative excess air
levels. Also, measured O2 for various fuels correlates very closely to the same excess air levels. This means that
for boilers that alternate fuels (or fire multiple fuels) the oxygen control point may shift very little or not at all.
The chief limitation to this is that in a particular boiler, the oil burners may not be as efficient as the gas
burners. Then the oxygen control point for oil will not be as low as for gas (in order to avoid generating
combustibles).

There are several different types of oxygen flue gas analyzers on the market. It has already been mentioned that
the Orsat measures oxygen through a chemical absorption process.
Paramagnetic designs rely on the composition of the oxygen molecule to cause it to be attracted towards large
magnets (N2 and C02 are not paramagnetic molecules). Inaccuracies of analysis can be caused by the
diamagnetic properties of certain background gases. While these analyzers can be quite reliable, they require
rather complex sample systems to condition the gas for the analyzer. These sample systems can be rather costly
to purchase and maintain. Also, depending on the particular design of any one analyzer, the oxygen reading can
be affected by the presence of combustible gases. When using one of these analyzers for low excess air levels, a
sensitive combustibles analyzer should also be used.

Another common oxygen analyzer is the electro-chemical type with disposable semi-permeable membrane cell.
The cells are quite compact and usually do not require a power source (they generate their own output in the
presence of O2). However, because of their galvanic nature, the sensors typically have a life of about six months.
Their chief use is in portable analyzers. Like the Orsat, their O2 analysis is generally unaffected by combustibles.
Therefore, a good portable should include a sensitive combustibles analyzer. Their analysis may be affected by
CO2 and oxides of nitrogen and sulfur.

The oxygen analyzers discussed so far all require sample systems; complex ones for on-line analyzers or simple
ones for portables. (these sample systems can be responsible for significant errors in analysis due to leaks and
insufficient cooling). They also should be used with sensitive combustibles analyzers when used for making low
excess air level adjustments. However, one type of analyzer needs neither of these;..the in-situ Zirconium Oxide.

ZIRCONIUM OXIDE ANALYZERS

The heart of these analyzers is a ceramic (Zirconium Oxide) cell with porous platinum electrodes. In the
presence of high temperatures, the sensor will allow oxygen ions to pass through it (provided there is a
difference in oxygen partial pressure across it). This ionic flow can be measured with' suitable electronics to
provide indication and outputs for control and recording purposes.

The successful Hays Republic OXYPROBETM , OXY-MIZERTM and high temperature analyzer all use the
same zirconium oxide sensor assembly. The cell is controlled to a very precisely held temperature near 1500oF
(815 oC) that allows it to respond very closely with theoretical outputs. This makes these analyzers extremely
stable and easy to calibrate.* Also, their modular characteristics make them extremely flexible (see Figure 8).

One feature of zirconium oxide analyzers is that since they operate at relatively high temperatures, they can be
inserted directly into a flue duct or stack without a conventional sampling system. The sample system is part of
the analyzer and not an add-on requirement for analysis. The in-situ analyzers require no more than an effective
filter to protect the cell from soot and fly ash. The Hays Republic OXYPROBETM and OXY-MIZERTM have
even been designed with a filter deflector and air foils to keep their filters clean.

* For further information on these analyzers, call or write Hays Republic regarding Models A10007,
A10018, and A10021 zirconium oxide analyzers.
When using a ZRO2 analyzer for low excess air measurements, another important feature surfaces. That is, that
the analyzer reports NET Oxygen, and not GROSS O2 (as do the. Orsats, semi-permeable membrane analyzers
and some paramagnetic analyzers). Because the ZR O2 sensor is hot and platinum coated, it acts as a catalyst to
allow free combustible gases (H2 & CO) to combine with available oxygen (gross O2) to form H2O and CO2.
The analyzer then reports the amount of oxygen AFTER catalysis. This analysis is actually for slightly lower
oxygen than Net O2, due to the different diffusion characteristics of O2, N2, H2, and CO. This net O2 analysis is
thesame as gross O2 if there are no combustibles, but is lower than gross O2 if there are combustibles. In fact, at
low excess air levels (with combustibles), a ZRO2 analyzer can report zero percent oxygen (or part per million
levels) while a GROSS O2 analyzer may still indicate 1% O2. It is not desirable to operate a boiler at 1% O2
with combustibles (since an. excessive BTU loss exists). The ZRO2 analyzer can prevent this, since manual or
automatic reaction to zero percent measured oxygen is to increase the excess air level until excessive
combustibles are diminished (until an acceptable net oxygen level exists).

Since the zirconium oxide analyzer reports nearly net oxygen levels, it can be realized to be an efficiency
analyzer. When other oxygen and carbon dioxide analyzers are difficult to use at very low excess air levels
(when CO and H2 are present) without also using a CO analyzer, the ZRO2 analyzer can be used accurately
(without low level combustible analyzers) to determine (and control to) a desired theoretical excess air level.

HEAT LOSSES AND FUEL SAVINGS

The following charts give theoretical excess air curves with oxygen and carbon dioxide for selections of natural
gas, oil, and coal. Additionally, they chart percent combustion heat losses against excess air levels. By using
these charts with an O2 or CO2 analyzer, excess air levels may be determined. When the flue gas exit
temperature and room temperature (combustion air temperature) are also known, combustion heat losses may be
determined. Note that these are "combustion" heat losses only, and do not take into account heat losses from
leaky valves, leaky steam traps or feedwater blow down, these are losses only in heat going "up the stack" (or
wherever the temperature measurement was made).

A combustion efficiency analyzer such as the Hays Republic Model A10022 makes the assumption that percent
efficiency is 100 minus the combustion heat loss. While this is not a measure of the total boiler efficiency, it is a
measure of the combustion heat "use efficiency" of the boiler. These efficiency computations are automatically
made and can be used to calculate fuel and money savings, just as done in the following explanation and
example.

PROCEDURE

At a given boiler load:

1) Measure the percent O2 or CO2 in the flue gas.

2) Measure the temperature of the flue gas.
3) Measure the combustion air inlet temperature.

With these measurements, refer to the appropriate chart for the fuel being used. If you know the actual
composition or hydrocarbon ratio of your fuel, use the chart for the fuel closest to your own. Otherwise, use the
chart with the appropriate fuel name.

1) Locate the percent gas volume (measured with the flue gas analyzer) on the lower side scale, and
draw a line across the chart to intersect the curve for the gas measured. Note that the dry O2 and CO2
curves for the Orsat are for fully condensed samples (use of 40oF cold water in the burette jacket and
in the leveling bottle will allow within 1% of reading of a truly dry analysis). The wet O2 curve is for
the OXYPROBETM or OXY-MIZERTM (or other in-situ analyzer) with dry combustion air.

2) From the gas intersect point, draw a vertical (up and down) line to intersect the ∆T curves and the %
Excess Air scale. The percent excess air may now be read.

3) Subtract the measured room temperature (combustion air) from the measured flue gas temperature to
obtain the differential temperature (∆T) across the boiler. Draw a horizontal line across from the
intersect point with the proper ∆T line and the vertical line made in the previous step. It may be
necessary to interpolate the ∆T curves to obtain the best accuracy. Read the % Combustion Heat
Loss where this line intersects the scale. This number subtracted from 100 is the combustion heat
use efficiency of the boiler.
EXAMPLE:

Natural gas is being used that has approximately the same composition and BTU value as in the natural gas
chart. A check with the Orsat indicates 12% O2 (or about 11% O2 with your OXYPROBETM on a non-humid
day). 11 Draw a line across the chart from the measured % to the proper O2 curve. 2) Draw a vertical line from
the intersect point and read 121% excess air. 3) The flue gas temperature is 680OF and the room temperature is
800F, the 8T is 680o- 80o = 600oF. From where the vertical line intersects the ∆ 600oF curve, draw a horizontal
line across to read the Combustion Heat Loss as 34.9%. The combustion heat use efficiency is 100 - 34.9 65.1%.
See Figure 9.

How much of this total heat loss is preventable depends upon how low the oxygen and temperature of the flue
gas may be reduced without producing combustibles (CO and H2), smoke (carbon, a non-gaseous combustible)
or cause other boiler operating problems.

Continuing the example: If, through calculations or testing, it is determined that at the same boiler load, the
oxygen level can be decreased to 4% by Orsat (or 3.4% by OXYPROBETM) and the ∆T can be reduced to
400oF. (See Figure 9) The new Combustion Heat Loss is 19.2%, or the new combustion heat use efficiency.is
100 - 19.2 = 80.8%. This represents a Heat Savings of 34.9 - 19.2 = 15.7% (or an increase in efficiency of 80.8
- 65.1 = 15.7%).

FUEL SAVINGS

The savings in Fuel is even greater than that for heat. In the example, our initial heat usage (efficiency) was
65.1% and the new usage was 80.8%. The fuel consumption is therefore 65.1 ÷ 80.8 = 80.6% of what it was,
or potential fuel savings are 100 - 80.6 = 19.4%. The general formula is:

% Fuel, Savings = 100 - (100) x (initial combustion heat efficiency)

( new combustion heat efficiency)

DOLLAR SAVINGS

Percent fuel savings are dollar savings. Assuming that the previous example was done under realistic (average)
boiler load conditions, 19.4% could be subtracted from the annual fuel bill. If the annual gas bill for the boiler is
$150,000 then $29,100 could be saved annually if the boiler was set up to operate under the more efficient
conditions. Even if only 2% savings could be realized, it would amount to $3,000 annually (where the example
shows savings on a very badly adjusted boiler, 2% savings can be realistic when manual or automatic
adjustments are made periodically, rather than yearly tune-ups).
 Blue Circle Cement

PROCESS ENGINEERING TRAINING

PROGRAM

PRESENTATION

The Physics of Air

The Physics Of Air
 Cement Manufacturing Process
■ Big Rocks - Bash to bits make powder
■ Burn powder until semi-molten
■ Cool (almost) molten material to little rocks
■ Little Rocks - Bash the living daylights out
of - add some gypsum
■ = Product to sell to customer - Cement
Cement
■ Customer adds water and aggregate

■ Makes Big Rocks again !!!

■ (One) Common denominator

■ AIRFLOW
Units
■ Imperial - SI - US - Need to be able to
convert between
■ Temperature
– Celcius - Fahrenheit
– C = (F*5/9) - 32
■ Pressure
– inches / mm wg, mbar, kPa, atm
– 1 Atm = 101.325 kPa = 1013.25 mBar = 10330
mm wg
Units / Air
■ ‘Normal’ Conditions
■ NTP = 0 C, 1 Atm
■ Air Composition
– 78.1% N2
– 21% O2
– 0.9% Ar, + Trace other gases - CO2, H2, O3, Ne
etc.
■ Dry air acts as a ‘Perfect’ gas
Gas Laws
■ Boyles Law
– T Constant - Volume Decreases as Pressure
Increases
■ Charles Law
– P Constant - Volume increases directly with
absolute Temperature
■ Ideal Gas Law
– PV = nRT
Airflow
■ Air moves from High Pressure to low
pressure, requires certain P to start &
maintain flow in a duct
■ Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Velocity
Pressure
■ Static Pressure - overcomes friction /
obstacles -
■ Velocity Pressure - Pressure needed to
maintain air movement
 Bernoulli’s Theorem
■ Conservation of energy
– PE1 + KE1 = PE2 + KE2 + Losses
– Potential Energy ~ Static Pressure
– Kinetic Energy ~ Velocity Pressure

2
v1 v 2
z1 + h1 + = z 2 + h2 + + hl 2
2g 2g
Airflow
■ Static & velocity Pressures interchangeable
- but not 100% efficient due to friction
losses
■ Pressures measured as ‘Gauge’ - relative to
atmospheric
– Static - at right angles to flow
– Velocity - in line with flow
Pressure loss / regain
■ Static & velocity Pressures interchangeable
- but not 100% efficient due to friction
losses