Mod 10-Raw Milling

Process Engineering
Training Program
MODULE 10
Raw Milling
Section Content
1 Crushing – paper 7
2 Size Reduction- some basic problems
3 Mill Design Principles
4 Milling Systems- paper 11
5 Wet Milling – paper 12
6 Raw Mill Operations
7 Milling Fundamentals
8 The influence of Hold-up, Residence Time and Residence Time
Distribution on Cement
9 Design Guideline- Vertical Spindle Mills for Raw Material Grinding
10 The Roller Grinding Mill – Its History and Current Situation
11 Upgrading Raw Mills
12 Dry Raw Milling
HBM Process Engineering Conference

Drying and Grinding Limitations on Raw Mills
A Raw Mill Bottleneck Example – HIMA CEMENT
Presentations
RAW MILLING- Colin Paxton
DRY RAW MILLING- C J Holt
VERTICAL SPINDLE MILLS
Blue Circle Cement
PROCESS ENGINEERING TRAINING

PROGRAM
Module 10
Section 1
Crushing – paper 7
1 INTRODUCTION
For the manufacture of cement, the necessary raw materials must be reduced by crushing and raw milling. In
general, these raw materials arrive from the quarry, at the start of the size reduction process in lumps of
anything up to 2 meters at their largest dimension. In order to burn a good quality clinker in a cement kiln,
these lumps will have to be reduced to a particle size of about 0.2mm. It is therefore not surprising that this
drastic size reduction cannot be attained in a single operation. This paper deals with crushing and the
associated plant required to ensure a proper feed, in quantity and quality, to the milling plant.
2 REDUCTION RATIO
The overall performance of a crushing plant can initially be expressed in terms of its reduction ratio, that is,
the ratio (n) of the largest linear dimension of the material before crushing (D) to the largest linear dimension
after crushing (d), it is expressed as:-
D max
n=
d max
e.g. if the linear dimension of the crusher feed equals 1000mm and that of the crushed material is 50mm then
the reduction ratio
1000
n= = 20
50
However, the following definitions for the degree of reduction are also employed, some being more suited to
particular types of crushers than others.
a) Degree of reduction using a size of which 95% of particles are smaller than
D 95
n 95 =
d 95
In the U.S. 80% particle size ratio is in use.
b) Degree of reduction which refers to the mean particle size
D ma
n ma =
d ma
c) Effective degree of reduction of a size reduction machine
D max
ne =
s
Where s = width of discharge opening of the size reduction machine.
d) Apparent degree of reduction of a size reduction machine.
m
na =
s
Where m = feed opening of the size reduction machine.
It is worth mentioning that recently two definitions are in use i.e. "reduction ratio" and "degree of reduction".
According to this, the degree of reduction expresses the difference between initial and final surface of the
crushed material whereas the reduction ratio denotes the relation between the initial and final particle size.
3 CRUSHING STAGES
Within the crushing (coarse size reduction) process there can be two or three distinct stages depending upon
the type of material to be crushed and the size at which it is delivered from the quarry. The three stages are
referred to as primary, secondary and tertiary crushing. If all these stages are included in a crushing process,
typical reduction ratio figures would be as follows:-
PRIMARY n=5
SECONDARY n=8
TERTIARY n=6
Assuming a primary crusher feed size of approx. 1200mm and a required raw mill feed size of 5mm.
However, the usual raw mill feed size required is in the region of 20 - 25mm and therefore tertiary crushing is
not usually necessary. Hence a typical figure for the overall required reduction ratio of a crushing plant is n =
50.
As a general rule, it can be said that if the material to be crushed is abrasive, it will require two stages of
crushing. The only crushers that can achieve a reduction ratio of 50 or more in a single operation are those
which function on the impact principle to achieve the necessary size reduction and if fed with an abrasive
material, their rate of wear would be unacceptable. The alternative is to employ a crusher which functions on
the compression method to achieve size reduction and typically has a reduction ratio of around 4 - 6.
It should be pointed out that blasting in the quarry and primary crushing can substitute each other within wide
limits. The more comprehensive the blasting operation, the smaller the maximum boulder size the crusher
needs to be designed to accept. The ideal balance can only be determined by a detailed investigation into the
economics of each situation.
The foregoing general limits ascribed to each crushing stage can easily be varied if the primary requirement is
not to reduce the quarried material to mill feed size in the fewest possible stages; as highlighted at the new
works being built in Togo. Here, from nominal run of quarry feed of 1000mm primary crushing achieves a
reduction ratio of 3.3 (i.e. to 300mm approx.) secondary crushing operates to a reduction ratio of 3 (i.e.
100mm approx.) this is to produce a convenient particle size to facilitate easy stacking. Tertiary crushing to a
reduction ratio of 4 (i.e. 25mm approx.) is located immediately prior to the mill.
4 CRUSHING THEORY
The whole range of size reduction from coarse (crushing) through to fine (grinding) is expressed in the same
theoretical terms, namely the theory of comminution, this being concerned with the relationship between
energy input and the product particle size made from a given feed size. There have been various formulae
derived to express this relationship some more valid than others, but it is true to say that none of them can be
said to represent what precisely takes place during the process of crushing and cannot be applied blanket
fashion to every crushing operation. The theory of comminution is dealt with in some detail in a later paper on
milling theory in which field it bears more relation to what actually happens in practice, therefore it is not
proposed to duplicate it here. Crushing remains more of an art than a science and great emphasis must be
placed on experience when solving crushing problems or selecting a new crusher.
There have been numerous empirical formulae derived for the calculation of the capacity or power
requirements for particular crushing machines, and an example of one of these has been shown in the section
on jaw crushers. This paper in general, however, avoids other empirical formulae that can be found, as their
accuracy is open to question and could result in misleading those attempting to use them.
5 CRUSHING PLANT
There are many different types of crushers and the main ones are described below. However, there are only
two basic principles upon which the crushing process operates, namely compressive and impact (inc. sledging)
crushing. Although impact tends to be the method commonly favored more recently (because of its ability to
reduce run of quarry feed to mill feed size in one machine) it certainly-is not the answer to all crushing
problems as there are many instances when it is entirely unsuitable.
5.1 JAW CRUSHERS
5.1.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The jaw crusher applies compressive force to the feed material to achieve size reduction. It is in general use in
our industry and its main attractions are its relatively simple design and low maintenance cost.
The size reduction of crusher feed is carried out between two crushing jaws, one stationary and the other
moved by toggle pressure. These two jaws are mounted between massive fixed vertical side frames, the
moving jaw, and in some cases the stationary jaw, being angled towards one another to cause the cross section
between the crushing faces to diminish towards the discharge gap.
Jaw crushers may be divided into two major groups, namely the single and double toggle types.
5.1.2 SINGLE TOGGLE JAW CRUSHER

In the single toggle crusher (Fig. 7.1) the movable crushing jaw is hung from an eccentric shaft and the lower
end is held in position by a single toggle plate fitted in a groove. The other end of the toggle plate rests in a
groove on the rigid back of the crusher frame.
Fig 7.1 SINGLE TOGGLE JAW CRUSHER
The crushing motion is generated by the rotation of the eccentric shaft, this being fitted with a suitably large
flywheel to create sufficient momentum for the crushing operation.
It can be seen from Fig. 7.1 that the motion is a 'rocking' one. When the swing jaw is rising, it is opening at the
top during the first half of the stroke and closing during the second half, whereas the bottom of the jaw is
closing during the entire up stroke. A reversal of this motion occurs during the down stroke.
5.1.3 DOUBLE TOGGLE JAW CRUSHER
In the double toggle crusher, the moving jaw is suspended from a cross shaft at its upper end.
Fig 7.2 DOUBLE TOGGLE JAW CRUSHER
The actuating mechanism consists of the eccentric shaft from which is suspended the pitman, and a pair of
toggles which span from the swing jaw to pitman and from pitman to the back of the crusher frame. The
motion of the rotating eccentric shaft causes the pitman to move up and down and to transmit, via the toggle
plates, a lateral (effectively) movement to the bottom end of the swing jaw, creating the crushing motion, Fig.
7.2.
Both types of jaw crusher work on the principle that on the opening stroke the feed drops further into the
throat of the crusher and is crushed on the closing stroke and therefore it is apparent that the rate of feed to a
jaw crusher needs to be closely controlled as choking could occur.
5.1.4 OVERLOAD SAFETY DEVICE
In the event of choking or where tramp iron or digger teeth etc. enter the crusher, overload safety devices
incorporated in all jaw crushers prevent serious damage. There are two types of these safety devices, as
described below:-
Fig 7.3 SAFETY TOGGLE PLATES.
1) Here the toggle plates as shown in Fig. 7.3 are so designed to shatter, or the bolts holding it together
shear, if the crusher is over loaded. After cracking however, the toggle plates have to be replaced, this can
result in an extended interruption of production time.
Fig. 7.4 HYDRAULIC SAFETY OVERLOAD DEVICE.
2) Here the stationary jaw as shown in Fig. 7.4 is designed to give way if the machine is overloaded, pivoting
on the shaft on which its top end is mounted. The lower end is supported on three hydraulic cylinders the
pistons of which are in the extracted position when the jaw is closed. When subject to an overload, the
hydraulic system opens the jaw and allows the cause of the overload to fall through. Subsequently the
hydraulic cylinders move the jaw back into the normal operating position. During this procedure the feed
to the crusher is automatically interrupted. However this device can increase the capital cost of the crusher
by around 25%.
5.1.5 LINER PLATES
The faces of the crusher jaws are fitted with liner plates of manganese steel. These are not only wear resistant
but are ribbed to enhance the crushing action.
Fig. 7.5 CRUSHING ACTION OF RIBBED LINERS.
The ideal spacing and depth of these ribs vary with the material to be crushed.
Fig. 7.6 VARIOUS STYLES OF JAW CRUSHER LINERS.
To crush hard, semi-hard and brittle rocks, ribbed liners as shown in Fig 7.6a are used. The included angle of
the ribs amounts to 90 – 100°. For the crushing of coarser and harder rocks,the ribs should be as shown in Fig.
7.6b here the rib angle should be 100 – 110° . For large and very hard rocks, liners with more widely spaced
ribs should be used as in Fig. 7.6c.
The most effective ratio between the rib width and its height as shown in Fig. 7.6a is expressed as:
t = 2/3 h
For the case shown in Fig 7.6c
t = 4/5 h
Depending on the size of the crusher feed, the width of the ribs in jaw crushers employed as primary crushers
is 50 - 150mm. Jaw crushers employed as secondary crushers have ribs with a width of 10 - 40mm.
The width of the crusher discharge opening 'e' in Fig. 7.6a and b is measured from the top of the rib of one
liner to the opposite notching on the other liner, at Fig. 7.6c it is the distance between the planes.
Sometimes on primary limestone crushers, liner plates that have every third or fourth rib elevated will be used
to prevent the formation of lamellar or needle shaped pieces.
The greatest wear on the liner plates occurs at the lower part of the jaws, and turning the liners through 180°
obtains maximum life out of each set of liner plates.
In some cases, curved liner plates are used (Fig. 7.7) either on one or both jaws. The purpose of this is to
extend the discharge opening, this results in more even wear of the liner plates and gives a more uniform size
of crushed material, due to the extension of the narrowest point between the two jaws.
5.1.6 SPEED OF ROTATION
To obtain the optimum throughput for a given size of machine, it is essential to determine the correct speed of
rotation of the eccentric shaft. The crushing motion of the jaw must be regulated so as to allow the crushed
material time to discharge.
The following empirical formula has been derived to assist in ascertaining the optimum R.P.M. of the
eccentric shaft:
TAN x
n = 600
s
Where n = number of revolutions per minute

x = angle of the crusher jaws; degrees
s = Amplititude of swing jaw centimeters
Assuming x = 20° which generally applies to jaw crushers, the formula can be simplified thus:
360
n=
s
5.1.7 CAPACITY
There have been various empirical formula de rived to assist in the calculation of the capacity of any given jaw
crusher, but in the final analysis, the only accurate figure would be that given by the manufacturer against each
machine after he has assessed the use to which it will be put and analyzed a typical sample of the feed.
Below is an example of an empirical formula derived for capacity calculations:
Q = 150. n. b. s. d.µ.γ. (LEVENSON)
Where Q = Crusher capacity t/h

N = R.P.M. of the drive shaft
B = Width of the swing jaw; meters.
S = Amplitude of the swing jaw; meters.
D = Mean size of the crushed material; meters
(Taken as discharge setting for this example).
µ = Loading factor of the crushed material,
depending upon its physical properties about
0.25 to 0.50
(Tends towards 0.25 for larger mean size
of crushed material i.e. bigger machines
and towards 0.5 for smaller mean size of
crushed material i.e. smaller machines)
γ = spec. gravity of crusher feed
The following examples are taken from each end of the range of jaw crushers offered by a particular
manufacturer:
1) LARGE CRUSHER:
Feed opening = 2500mm x 1600mm

Speed = 1-20 R.P.M.
Min. and Max. discharge setting = 250mm to 300mm
Rated output at min. setting = 600-650 t/h
Rated output at max. setting = 700-800 t/h
Spec. gravity of limestone = 2.68
To find S (amplitude of swing jaw) :
2
360  360 
n= ∴S =   ∴ S = 9cm
s  120 
To find Q (capacity) at min. and max. settings:
0.25 min
Q = 150 x 120 x 2.5 x 0.09 x x 0.25 x 2.68
0.3 max
Q min. = 678 T/h (manufacturer's rating 600-650 t/h)
Q max. = 814 T/h (manufacturer's rating 700-800 t/h)
2) SMALL CRUSHER:
Feed opening = 600mm x 150mm

Speed = 400 R.P.M.
Min. discharge setting = 25mm
Max. discharge setting = 65mm
Rated output at min. setting = 9-11 T/H
Rated output at max. setting = 15-22 T/H
Spec. gravity of limestone = 2.68
To find S (amplitude of swing jaw)
2
360  360 
n= S=  ∴ S = 0.81cm
s  400 
To find Q (capacity) at min. and max. settings:
0.025 min
Q = (150 x 400 x 0.6 x 0.0081. x x 0.5 x 2.68
0.065 max.
Q min. = 9.77 t/h (manufacturer's rating 9-11 t/h)

Q max. =25.4 t/h (manufacturer's rating 15-22 t/h)
5.1.8 OBSERVATIONS
The jaw crusher is essentially a primary crusher, although small high speed machines are sometimes used to
reduce say 150mm cubed lumps of material to around 25mm cubes. These are sometimes more suitably
referred to as granulators.
The main advantages of a jaw crusher are its simplicity of construction, and relatively low wear rate and
maintenance costs, the main disadvantages are its low reduction ratio and tendency to clog up when fed with
wet dirty material.
Typical output figures for varying sizes of jaw crushers are shown in Appendix 1.
5.2 THE GYRATORY CRUSHER
In the gyratory crusher, the size reduction of the feed is achieved mainly by the application of compressive
stress, but also partially by flexural stress. The crushing takes place between the sides of an inverted cut-off
cone and a smaller upright cone gyrating in its center, Fig. 7.8.
Fig 7.8 GYRATORY CRUSHER
As can be seen from the diagrammatic view in Fig. 7.8, the main crushing cone (1) mounted on the main shaft
(2) oscillates in the stationary conical crushing bowl (3). The main shaft is suspended on a flexible joint (4)
located in the upper crusher housing (spider) the lower end of the shaft is located eccentrically in a mounting
(5) rotated by a bevel wheel drive (6) which generates the gyratory motion of the crushing cone.
The crusher shaft is typically at about 2 – 3° from the vertical and when rotated causes the crusher cone to
periodically approach and recede from the stationary conical crushing bowl, this applies pressure to the
material trapped between the two surfaces thus affecting size reduction. The crusher shaft does not rotate
about its own axis.
5.2.2 LINER PLATES
Both the conical crushing bowl and the crusher cone are fitted with liner plates normally made of manganese
steel. As this material spreads in work, it is important to leave a gap of say 6mm between each plate. Failure to
do this has been known to cause the bowl to burst. After some use, the plates wi11 need to be trimmed, i.e.
have excess material removed from the edges.
The gyratory crusher tends to be more expensive on liner plates than the jaw crusher mainly because they
cannot be inverted when the lower edge is worn.
5.2.3 SIZE DESIGNATION
The method for designating the feed opening size of gyratory crushers varies from country to country. In the
U.S. the dimensions A.B. in Fig. 7.9a are used, in Europe generally dimensions A.D. and in the Soviet Union
just A.
FIG. 7.9 SIZE DESIGNATION OF GYRATORY CRUSHERS.
Another numerical size designation used for gyratory crushers is the use of dimensions E and F shown in Fig.
7.9b .
To compensate for wear on the liner plates around the bottom edge of the crusher cone or to change the
discharge slot setting, (i.e. the gap between the bottom edge of the crushing cone and the crushing bowl) a
vertical adjustment of the main shaft is possible. This, depending upon the machine, can be achieved in two
ways:
1. By adjusting the nut from which the shaft is suspended.
2. Hydraulically raising the shaft from the mounting at its lower end.
5.2.4 OBSERVATIONS
The gyratory crusher again is essentially a primary crusher although as with the jaw crusher, small high
R.P.M. machines are used for secondary crushing. Compared to the jaw crusher, it has a two or three times
higher capacity with the same size of feed opening. Its manufacturers claim that it can be choke fed, i.e. the
direct tipping of the feed into the crusher from dumper trucks or rail wagons. However with the large dumper
trucks in use today, this method of feeding can be inadvisable as if the machine stalls, it is a big job to clear it
for re-starting. As with the jaw crusher, the gyratory is not suited to sticky materials.
The gyratory crusher does not perform idle motions, as does the jaw crusher (on its return stroke) but works
continuously during the gyration of the crushing cone. On the basis of energy consumption, the capacity of a
gyratory as compared to a jaw crusher is 1.3 times higher in smaller machines and up to 3.6 times higher in
larger machines-per kWh. When idling they only use about 30% full load energy to the jaw crushers 45 - 50%.
The gyratory crusher generally gives a more consistent product size than a jaw crusher, the latter tending to
allow through more lamellar or needle-shaped pieces. Adversely, as mentioned before, liner wear is greater
and the plates are not reversible, and the capital cost for the crusher building tends to be high because of the
crusher depth. An arrangement of a typical installation is shown in Fig. 7.10.
Fig. 7.10 TYPICAL ARRGT. OF CHOKE FED GYRATORY CRUSHER.
Primary gyratory crushers operate to a reduction ratio of about 5 or 6. Typical output figures for varying sizes
of crushers are shown in Appendix 2.
5.3 THE SYMONS CRUSHER
The principle of crushing in the Symons or Cone Crusher is identical to that of the gyratory crusher i.e.
compression crushing between a stationary and a gyrating cone. However in this machine the stationary
conical bowl is mounted large end downwards over the gyrating crushing cone, the main shaft to which the
crushing cone is attached being supported in an eccentric mounting at its lower end; the top end acting as a
dispersion table for the crusher feed. The gap between the stationary cone and the gyrating cone diminishes
towards the outlet gap.
Fig 7.11 SYMONS / CONE CRUSHER
it can be seen from Fig. 7.11 that at their closest section, the two cones form a parallel discharge slot (1) of
width "d". To achieve a reduction of the crushed material to the size d, every crushed particle must pass the
discharge slot through this smallest dimension. Consequently, the time of passage of each crushed particle
along the length of the slot must not be less than for one full revolution of the crushing cone around its
eccentric. This requirement demands crushing cone speeds higher than that of gyratory crushers.
5.3.2 OBSERVATIONS
The Symons crusher is a secondary or tertiary crusher and gives a consistent product size. It typically operates
to a reduction ratio of about 10, for example reducing say 300mm feed to 30-25mm product. Again, as with
the two previous crushers described, it is not suitable for sticky materials.
Closed circuit crushing is often used with Symons crushers and typical output figures are shown in Appendix
3.
5.4 ROLL CRUSHERS
In a roll crusher, size reduction is achieved by the passing of the material between two rotating rolls which
crush the material by compression. The particle size of the crushed material depends upon the distance of the
rolls from each other. Depending upon the properties of the crusher feed, the surface of the crushing rolls can
be smooth, ribbed (axially or circumferentially) or toothed.
Fig. 7.12 SINGLE ROLL CRUSHER
Fig. 7.12 shows a typical arrangement of a roll crusher. One of the rolls (1) is rigidly fixed to the crusher
frame (2), the other being mounted so as to allow it to move horizontally under spring pressure (3). This is to
allow uncrushable material (digger teeth, tramp iron etc.) to pass through without damaging the machine. Both
rolls rotate at the same speed* and are driven via a V-belt (4) and gear wheel (5) to the fixed roll with suitable
linkage to the sliding roll. Sometimes the sliding roll is driven by its own motor.
For a roll crusher with a single set of rolls, a reduction ratio of between 5 and 7 can be expected. However this
can be improved upon by using a double roll or triple roll crusher, the rolls arranged one above the other as
shown in Fig. 7.13.
* Sometimes, if the material is sticky, the rolls are designed to rotate at different speeds, so setting up a scraping action between
the rolls in an effort to dislodge material that may be clinging to them.
Fig. 7.13 DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW OF DOUBLE & TRIPLE ROLL CRUSHERS.
Here the top pair of rollers acts as a primary crusher and the lower pair as a secondary crusher. Triple roll
crushers are only used for specialist crushing operations.
5.4.2 SLUGGER ROLL CRUSHERS
A further variation on the roll crusher is the Slugger roll crusher. It is different in that it uses a sledging action
as well as compression to effect size reduction. Although sledging is the application of an impact force, in this
contact it is not referred to as impact crushing.
Impact crushing is customarily taken to mean the breaking of a piece of material by a sharp blow delivered
with sufficient force to shatter the piece while it is in a free position, i.e. not restricted from moving away from
the blow other than by its own inertia. Sledging, while the blow may be just as violent as the impact blow, is a
stroke delivered against the material while it is prevented from moving away from the applied force by reason
of being in contact with an opposing crushing surface, either fixed or moving.
There are two types of Slugger Roll Crushers, one having a single and the other double rolls as shown in Fig.
7.14.
Fig, 7.14 SLUGGER ROLL CRUSHERS.
In the single roll crusher, the crushing is done between the roll and the heavy back plate, which is pivoted at
its top edge and adjustable at the point of discharge. The back plate is spring mounted so as to yield to allow
the passage of uncrushable material.
The roll design is usually the same for both single and double crushers. The roll center is made of cast steel
and the teeth are of manganese steel inserted into coned pockets in the surface of the roll-center. These teeth
as can be seen in Fig. 7.14 are of different lengths, the larger teeth being known as "slugger teeth" and the
lower ones as "regular teeth". The slugger teeth are arranged to take an initial grip on the larger stones,
dragging them between the crushing faces.
5.4.3 OBSERVATION
The normal roll crusher is used as a secondary crusher or for the crushing of coal.
Slugger roll crushers are suitable for use with sticky materials of medium hardness. It should be remembered
that the slugger teeth are subject to considerable wear and it is important that they should be built up by
welding to maintain their true profile.
It is good practice to make profile templates of the different types of teeth before any wear takes place. This
not only provides a wear measurement gauge but also gives a permanent record of the true profile.
The tooth pattern has the advantage of eliminating the production of slabs, and the velocity of discharge
requires some form of protection for the product conveyor beneath the crusher.
Typical outputs for single slugger roll crushers are shown in Appendix 4.
5.5 IMPACT CRUSHERS
The principle of impact crushing expressed as a formula is:
MV 2
E=
2
Where E = Energy
M = Particle mass
V = Velocity
As the name denotes, this crusher uses impact force to achieve size reduction of the feed material. The
hammer mill (described later) is also an impact crusher but when a machine is referred to as an 'Impact
Crusher', it is generally assumed to be of the fixed blow bar type unless otherwise specified.
5.5.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
There are many different configurations of impact crushers but generally, their principle of operation can be
described thus. The material is fed on to a rotating rotor fitted with fixed blow bars at its circumference,
mounted in a housing of massive construction. Consequently the feed material is hurled against impact plates
secured inside the housing and size reduction is affected by the force with which the material strikes these
rigid plates or is struck by the rotating blow bars. A typical primary impact crusher, is shown in Fig. 7.15.
The feed material enters the crushing chamber along the chute "A" and is struck by the rotor' blow bars at
point 'B'. The height , at this point is determined by angle 'C' which can be varied depending upon the
application. If the angle is small as shown in Fig. 7.15c the material swirls at point 'B. This results in a high
degree of crushing but causes increased blow bar wear and reduced throughput. If, on the other hand, the angle
is large as shown in Fig. 7.15d the material spends comparatively little time in the crushing chamber. This
reduces the amount of crushing and consequently wear. It also increases throughput. The throughput is
increased still further when the lower edge of the impact plate is moved an amount V as shown in Fig. 7.15d.
When contact is made at point 'B' Fig.(7.15a) the smaller feed particles are struck near their cen tre of gravity
and thrown tangentially along the direction of the dotted line. The majority of particles are however struck on
their edge and are deflected by the amount of angle 'E'. The gravity hung retractable impact plates are arranged
in such a manner that most of the particles impinge against them at right angles. It should be noted that the
angled section of the front impact plate 'F' is normally mounted at approximately the highest point on the rotor
circle.
Fig. 1.15 CRUSHER PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The greater part of the reduction takes place when the particles are struck by the blow bars, and to a much
lesser extent when they strike the impact plates. A certain amount of reduction also takes place when one
particle strikes another.
Material is retained in the front crushing chamber above section 'G' much longer than in the rear chamber
above section 'H'. The gap settings ‘J’ and 'K' assist in controlling the particle retention time within the crusher
and consequently the degrees of crushing. The gap setting 'K' is used primarily to control the amount of
product oversize particles.
The design of the impact plates provides protection against tramp metal and other uncrushable items. When
struck by material of this type, the impact plates retract allowing the material to pass through the open
discharge of the machine.
5.5.2 CONSTRUCTION (TYPICAL)
The casing is a fabricated, extremely robust steel box, fitted with abrasive resistant steel liners. Access doors
are provided for maintenance.
The rotor, which can be fitted with a varying number of blow bars depending upon its size, has a high inertia
and requires careful balancing. The slots that retain the blow bars are designed such that the blow bars can be
reversed when one edge is worn.
The blow bars themselves are cast in manganese steel and are located in the slots provided around the
periphery of the rotor. They are designed with two wearing edges, a typical example is shown in Fig. 7.16,
these have a high utility factor (i.e. the amount of material available for useful work).
Fig. 7.16 ‘S' TYPE ROTOR DESIGN WITH REVERSIBLE BLOW BAR.
The impact plates can be of mild steel with fitted manganese liners or of reversible one-piece manganese steel
castings. These are known as monobloc units.
As mentioned before, there are many different configurations of single impeller impact crushers, four of which
are shown in Fig. 7.17.
a) is mainly used as a primary crusher for all cement raw materials; it will take large maximum lump size
of feed (e.g. 1600mm) and reduce it to - 150mm at high capacities (i.e. 1000 tons/hr.)
b) is more suited to maximum feed lump sizes of say 750mm, reducing it to around say -50mm at 1400
Tons/hr.
c) this machine is fitted with a grinding path and guarantees a more even product shape.
d) this machine is designed to cope with hard rocks but only of a limited size around 500mm and reducing
to say -35mm.
It should be mentioned that some impact crushers are equipped with breaker bars rather than breaker plates, a
double impeller version of which is shown in Fig. 7.18.
Fig. 7 18 DOUBLE IMPELLER IMPACT CRUSHER WITH BREAKER BARS
The breaker bars do not act as a grid. They are part of the size reduction system in that the rock shatters when
dashed against them by the impellers.
The breaker bars are fitted with manganese liner sleeves which are easily replaceable when worn.
5.5.3 COMPOUND IMPACT CRUSHERS
The compound impact crusher (Fig. 7.19) was designed to produce -25mm product from run of quarry feed
(reduction ratio of 50 approx.). By virtue of its double rotors primary and secondary crushing are carried out
simultaneously in the same machine.
Fig. 7.19. COMPOUND IMPACT CRUSHER
In operation the rock is generally reduced from a feed size of up to 1000mm to approximately -125mm in the
first crushing chamber. The secondary lower rotor then has to further reduce this material. The position of the
rotors, both vertically and horizontally, plays an important part in the 'take over' of the pre-crushed rock from
one rotor to the next. Final crushing is carried out on a grinding path which can be set to control the maximum
product size.
Some compound impact crushers have the facility for low temperature oil heating of the impact aprons and
inlet chute. This enables sticky high moisture content materials to be crushed and reduces the attendant
problems of material build up and clogging within the machine.
5.5.4 IMPACT CRUSHER DRIERS
This machine as the name implies, crushes and dries the feed material simultaneously. It can be of the single
or double rotor type and have capacities of up to 350 T.P.H., and is capable of drying from an initial moisture
content of 20% down to a product moisture content of 0.5%. To avoid the finer material being swept up
through the feed inlet chute and to economize on heat, a mechanically operated double pendulum gate valve
may be used. Fig. 7.20 shows a typical single rotor impact crusher dryer with a double pendulum valve for the
inlet.
5.5.5 OBSERVATIONS
The impact crusher is versatile in that a wide variation of product gradings can be obtained within the confines
of a single machine. For a given feed size, the product grading analysis is mainly controlled by the peripheral
speed of the rotor which normally operates at 20-50 meters/second on a single rotor machine. For a double
rotor machine, the peripheral speed of the upper rotor is usually about 35 meters per second. the speed of the
lower being variable to meet the final product grading requirements, but is usually around 45 meters per
second.
The main reason for adjusting the gap settings between the impact bars and impact plate is to control the
passage of material through the crusher and to restrict oversize in the product gradings. Severe reduction of
the front gap setting however, will result in increased power consumption and a reduced throughput. If the
design feed rate is exceeded, a coarse product grading will result.
Although some impact crushers are manufactured to handle abrasive materials, they. are normally of low
capacity. Impact crushers generally are not suited to high capacity crushing of abrasive material, due to the
excessive wear caused 'and the consequent "down time" required for re-building of the impact surfaces. A
distinct advantage of the impact crusher in the cement industry is that it produces a high percentage of fines in
the product.
Typical output ratings for impact crushers are shown in Appendix 5
5.6 HAMMER CRUSHERS (HAMMER MILLS)
The Hammer crusher uses impact force to achieve size reduction and there its similarity with the "impact
crusher" ends. Instead of having fixed blow bars mounted on the rotor, it has swing hammers pivotted at the
periphery of the rotor and, in these machines, it is the material that is restrained and the hammers that are free
to move away from the impact force.
The principle of impact crushing still applies as expressed in the formula:
MV 2
E=
2
Where E = Energy
M = Mass of the hammer
V = Velocity of the hammer
Fig. 7.21 SCHEMATIC VIEWS OF HAMMER CRUSHER

As can be seen from Fig. 7.21 both the single and double rotor machines are designed such that the hammers
strike the feed material against a restraining member. In the case of the single rotor against a solid back plate.
In the case of the double rotor, against an anvil mounted between the two contra-rotating rotors.
Across the lower arch of the hammer4s swing is positioned a grate made up of bars trapezoidal in section. The
feed material, already pre-crushed against the anvil is further crushed against the grate-bars until it is small
enough to drop through the predetermined gap between them.
The grate bars are trapezoidal in shape to avoid the crushed material jamming up between them, and are
sometimes triangular shaped to suit the crushing of stickier materials.
The rim speed of the hammers is in the range of 25-50 m/s and they are pivotted on the rotor such that should
they strike a piece of uncrushable material against the anvil, they will swing completely out of the way. The
rotor consists of a series of equispaced discs and the hammers are pivotted in the gaps between them. Fig. 7.22
shows varying types of swing hammers.
Fig 7.22 TYPES OF SWING HAMMERS
5.6.2 REVERSIBLE HAMMER CRUSHERS
With normal hammer crushers, to achieve maximum life out of the hammers, they need to be turned around in
their mountings so as to present what was their back face, as the impact face, and this demands periodic shut
downs.
The reversible hammer crusher was designed so that this could be avoided. It is naturally only a single rotor
machine and both sides of the-crushing chamber are identical with the feed inlet over the center of the rotor.
Fig. 7.23 REVERSIBLE HAMMER CRUSHER.
As can be seen in Fig. 7.23 there are breaker plates and a grid each side. When one face of the hammers and
side of the chamber is worn, the direction of rotation of the rotor is reversed requiring negligible down time.
5.6.3 IMPACT HAMMER CRUSHERS
This crusher (Fig. 7.24) is a combined impact and hammer crusher. It is supplied with an adjustable jaw plate
and discharge grate. Run-of-quarry limestone can be reduced in a single operation to a finished product size of
95% - 25mm.
Fig 7.24 IMPACT HAMMER CRUSHER

The crusher can be fed with rocks of up to 2m³ . To reduce the impact on the hammer rotor from large rocks in
the feed, the crusher is provided with two rotating feed rotors, to absorb this impact. The slot between the two
rollers serves for scalping off the undersize from the coarse feed.
As the feed approaches the clockwise rotating rotors, it is struck from underneath-and fragments are thrown
against the breaker plates and the inside casing where secondary crushing takes place. Final crushing is
performed between the hammers and the outlet grate.
The hammers rotate at a rim speed of around 38-40 m/s and weigh in the range of 90-250kgs each.
By adjusting the jaw plate and the discharge grate as well as the spacing between the grate bars, the size of the
crushed product can be varied.
5.6.4 COMPOUND IMPACT/HAMMER CRUSHERS
This machine is essentially a compound impact crusher with swing hammers in place of fixed blades on the
second rotor as shown in Fig. 7.25.
Fig. 7.25 COMPOUND IMPACT/ HAMMER CRUSHER

5.6.5 OBSERVATIONS
Hammer crushers can accept large feed material but are even more susceptible to wear than the fixed blade
impact crushers and therefore should not be selected for crushing abrasive feed material. They are also
susceptible to blocking when handling sticky material.
Because of the grate through which all crushed particles must pass, a consistent product size can be expected.
The replacement of hammers when worn tends to be a longer process than the replacement of fixed impact
blades.
The double rotor swing hammer crusher can achieve reduction ratios in the 60's, and typical output figures can
be seen in Appendix 6.
5.7 FEEDER BREAKERS
Feeder Breakers or Low Head Crushers, as they are sometimes referred to, have only limited application in the
cement industry. Originally developed for the breaking of coal underground, hence the emphasis on low head,
they have been adapted for use with particularly soft and sticky chalk.
As the name Feeder Breaker-implies, the material is fed continuously through the crushing section of the unit.
The structure across which it is transported is a series of very substantial anvil plates situated under a single
rotor breaker head working in the horizontal plane across the width of the machine.
The feed material is broken when the hammers, fixed (not swinging) to the periphery of the rotor strike the
material against the anvils underneath. The structure supporting the anvil plates directly below the rotor is
designed to "give" if a piece of unbreakable material is struck.
The principle of the crusher, which does not incorporate a flywheel to assist the drive motor to overcome
power surges as with conventional crushers, is to use the full available power from the drive motor to provide
the impact for each striking head, theoretically this means that only one striking head or hammer) should come
in contact with the material to be crushed at any one time.
The feed system to carry the material over the anvil plates under the rotor is a chain scraper conveyor of robust
dimensions.
Fig. 7. 26 shows a typical plan and elevation on a Feeder Breaker, or Low Head, or Continuous Flow, Crusher.
Fig. 7.26 FEEDER BREAKER
6 PRIMARY CRUSHING IN THE QUARRY (MOBILE CRUSHERS)
Cement raw material, once blasted loose in the quarry, needs to be transported to the primary crusher, which,
if it is stationary, requires a stream of dumper trucks to keep pace with the requirement of the Works.
With the moving of the quarry face as the raw material is used up, the distance to transport the material
becomes greater, and the expense of maintaining and operating a fleet of dumper trucks increases.
For these reasons, mobile crushing plants are being used more-and more for the primary crushing of the raw
material. All types of crushers described previously in this paper can be mounted on mobile platforms with the
exception of large gyratory crushers.
It is impossible to generalize as to what form these mobile crushing plants may take, each different quarrying
operation could require a different type of plant. Some plants could be multiple units, some a single unit, and
others could incorporate the secondary crusher or a second crusher for the processing of two different raw
materials from the same quarry. Some stack the pre-crushed material, others feed it on to long conveyor belts
transporting it directly to the cement plant. Most importantly, different crushing plants have different levels of
mobility depending upon the requirements of the quarrying operation. Some are fitted with permanently
attached wheels, which are lowered by hydraulics when the plant is to be moved, others have hydraulically
operated walking feet. A plant that only needs to be moved say every 2 to 3 years may be designed with
removable wheels and drive assembly; sitting on its chassis during normal operation.
As an illustrative example, the following is a description of the mobile crusher recently installed at the Ashaka
Works in North-East Nigeria.
6.1 ASHAKA WORKS MOBILE PRIMARY CRUSHING PLANT
The quarry at Ashaka consists of a shallow bed of limestone overlain with shale and overburden.
The average face height is approximately 7 meters with an initial length of 290 meters. The face advances at a
rate of 12 meters per month.
The final face length will be 450 meters and this will advance at a rate of 9 meters per month.
Therefore, it can be seen that a mobile crusher was essential if future long haul distances to a fixed crusher
were to be avoided.
The crusher is best described as a "semi mobile" unit requiring to be moved say every 3 or 4 years and
consequently it was not thought necessary to make the transport mechanism a permanent feature of the unit.
The unit consists of two sections, a feed unit and a crushing unit which are repositioned when required, by a
fork lift piggy-back transporter, one at a time.
The reception hopper on the feed unit is designed to be fed by dumper truck and requires that a new ramp be
built when the crusher is moved.
The crusher is a 'Hazemag' compound impact crusher with a nominal rated output of 450 tons per hour of 95%
minus 25mm product from minus 1 meter cube maximum feed size, and weighs 105 tons. Figures 7.27 and
7.28 show the units individually and assembled.
The transporter when carrying the crushing unit will have an all in weight of 335 tons and travel at a speed of
470 m/h.
7 SELECTING THE PRIMARY CRUSHER
The term "Primary Crusher" by definition might embrace any type and size of crushing machine. The term
implies that at least two stages of crushing are involved, but in many cases the machine which performs the
function of initial crushing is the only crusher in the plant. The factors influencing the selection of a crusher
for this service are much the same, regardless of how many crushing stages there are in the flow sheet,
therefore the term "primary crusher" by common usage is applied to the crusher which takes up the job of size
reduction where the blasting operation leaves off.
In terms of the crushing of raw materials for the cement industry, roll crushers (excluding slugger roll
crushers) and Symons crushers are used almost exclusively for secondary crushing, and the single rotor and
compound impact crushers for primary crushing. As for the others, they are manufactured in ranges wide
enough to make them suitable for both crushing stages.
7.1 ECONOMICS
Size reduction in the coarse range by the use of crushers, is considerably less expensive per ton of product for
the same ratio of reduction, than in the fine range. Therefore, as a general rule, one can stipulate that the
crushing process (as opposed to grinding) should be taken to the point where the cost of fine crushing
becomes too high, or the energy saving during grinding is counteracted by the increased cost of wear-parts in
the crushers. In other words, the crushers should be selected with the aim of producing as fine as possible feed
material for the grinding mills, with crushing installations which are simple and require little maintenance.
Typically crushing represents about 10% of the total production costs for raw material preparation and
homogenisation in the wet process and 15% in the dry.
A mistake in the selection of the crushing equipment can usually only be properly remedied by its
replacement. For example, it would not take long for the cost of maintaining a crusher, for which the feed
material was too abrasive, to overtake the cost of replacing it when its unsuitability was first discovered,
despite the relatively high capital cost of a crushing plant.
Aside from the cost of the actual crusher, there is the necessary housing structure to suit easy feed to and
extraction from it. However, it is difficult to generalize as to which type of crusher is less expensive to install
as different sites might lend themselves more easily to different types of machine.
Another major cost consideration is whether or not a feeder is required and if so, what type?
Appendix 7 shows a relative comparison of the capital cost of the different crusher types.
7.2 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED
The following factors all have an important bearing on the choice of the primary crusher.
1) Characteristics of the material

2) Average output capacity required
3) Product size or crusher discharge setting
4) Blasting methods-and quarry equipment (i.e. expected max feed size)
Taking these individually
7.2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MATERIAL
These must be ascertained before any meaningful assessment of the type of crusher best suited to the
application can be made. They include the geological classification of the rock, its physical structure, its
chemical analysis (particularly in terms of its abrasiveness and moisture content) and at least a qualitative
evaluation of its resistance to crushing i.e. whether soft, medium, hard or very hard. These factors are best
determined by the crusher manufacturer in laboratory tests as it is he who will have to guarantee his machine
for its particular application.
It is never safe to make blanket assumptions even of such a material as limestone, which can sometimes prove
to be quite tough, as well as to contain significant amounts of abrasive silica.
The physical or geological structure of the deposit often has an important bearing upon selection of size or
type or both. If the deposit is stratified, as many raw materials are, it is safe to assume that the rock can be
blasted economically into a condition for feeding to a gyratory crusher of medium proportions, or, if the other
characteristics are suitable, a slugger roll crusher. If, on the other hand, the formation is of massive character,
the gyrating crusher might be ruled out in favour of a jaw crusher.
Appendix 8 shows three charts giving a comparative view of the suitability of the different types of crusher for
the three material characteristics, abrasiveness, moisture content and hardness.
7.2.2 AVERAGE OUTPUT CAPACITY REQUIRED
This factor is determined by production requirements but there are other allowances that have to be made on
top of the basic tons per hour figure.
Most crushers have varying throughput capacities depending upon their output setting. For example, a jaw
crusher processing 750 t.p.h. at a setting of 150mm will only do 600 t.p.h. at a setting of 80mm.
Just how much the rated capacity of the primary crusher (at the required discharge setting) should exceed the
average capacity of the plant depends upon how uniformly the crusher is fed, that is, what percentage of the
total operating period the crusher will operate at full rated capacity, and quarry working hours.
In the average quarrying operation, the only surge capacity between the quarry and the primary crusher
consists of whatever quantity of rock may be, at that moment, loaded in dumpers and usually this is not large.
For that reason, any operating delays occurring in the loading, transportation or primary crushing quickly
affects all three of them, with the result that the feed to the following crushing and grinding plant would be
interrupted if the primary crushed material was not stockpiled. Therefore the primary crusher should be sized
so as to be able to replenish the stockpile at a reasonable rate as well as meet the requirements of the preceding
process. This normally means a crusher that can exceed daily production demands by between 25 to 70%,
depending upon hours of operation.
It should be pointed out that if any batch of feed material-contains an excessive amount of fines, this will be
passed through the crusher at a much higher rate than the machine is rated at (e.g. a gyratory crusher rated at
400 t.p.h. could produce up to 800 t.p.h. given abnormally fine material) and therefore handling plant out of
the crusher should be sized accordingly.
Appendix 9 shows the normal capacity range that different types of crushers cover. However, there are
machines available outside these ranges.
7.2.3 PRODUCT SIZE AND CRUSHER DISCHARGE SETTING
This factor is dictated by the requirements of the grinding mills and, considered in conjunction with the
material characteristics and the expected maximum feed size, will determine the number of crushing
stages required. However when the primary crusher is decided upon, it will, more often than not, be set at
or near the minimum permissible setting to achieve the maximum reduction ratio, giving the optimum
combination of throughput and reduction ratio.
7.2.4 BLASTING METHODS AND QUARRY EQUIPMENT
As mentioned earlier, the geological structure of the deposit has an influence on what size of crusher feed to
expect. The second major influence on this is the blasting method. When considering the economic aspects
influencing the methods of blasting, a major factor to consider is the effect different methods will have on the
crushing process. Generally speaking, the larger the crusher feed size the more expensive is the purchase and
running of the crushing plant.
When using an excavator to win the raw material, it should be sized to suit the crushing process, for the rock
size that an excavator can pick up is a function of the passing opening of the bucket or vice versa, and
therefore can be sized so as not to pick up rocks too large for the crusher.
A graph showing maximum feed size related to mean product size for the different types of crusher is shown
at Appendix 10. The maximum feed size range shown against each crusher covers what most crusher
manufacturers can offer, however there are machines available outside these ranges.
8 CRUSHER FEED CONTROL EQUIPMENT

All types of crushers will operate at their highest efficiency if the material to be crushed is presented to the
crusher at a rate as near as possible to its design throughput. Apart from large gyratory machines which can be
choke fed, a suitable feeder is really essential for reliable operation. There are certain conditions under which
it is an advantage to remove undersized material from the feed to the crusher. If for instance a crusher is set to
produce 150mm product, there is nothing to be gained by putting stone through the machine which is already
down to that size. This is particularly true when there is a danger of crusher blockage due to the presence of
clay and moisture in the smaller material. This principle can sometimes make possible the use of a smaller
crusher than would otherwise be acceptable. Also where the fines of the feed may have a much higher silica
content than the large lumps. This.could affect the choice of crusher.
On the other hand, when a crusher is designed to take a feed containing very large rocks, sometimes weighing
several tons each, there is usually no difficulty, so far as capacity is concerned, in taking the run of quarry feed
without pre-screening.
Where screening is desirable, it is possible to use a type of feeder which will remove the bulk of the undersize
material as well as regulate the rate of feed, and these will be considered below.
8.1 CHAIN FEEDER
One of the simplest feeders, which is not too expensive to install and which requires a minimum of structural
facilities is the Ross type of chain curtain controller as shown in Fig. 7.29.
Fig. 7.29 ROSS TYPE CHAIN FEEDER

This consists basically of a row of very heavy endless chains which are suspended from a drum situated well
above the feed chute.
The chains are long enough to allow several links to lie on the floor of the chute, and must be heavy enough to
stop the surge of material even from the largest tipping vehicle. The overhead drive revolves in the direction
which causes the chain to drag the material towards the crusher inlet. It is usual to provide a means for the
variation of chain speed to suit crusher conditions. Normally the drum is of square section with sides equal to
the length of a chain link. A further advantage of this type of feeder is that it does not have to carry the weight
of the material being fed to the crusher, but a serious disadvantage can be the build up of sticky material in the
feed chute above the chains.
8.2 APRON FEEDERS
This type of feeder (Fig. 7.30) is also suitable for the heavy duty imposed at the primary crushing station,
where heavy pieces of rock have to be handled. The machine comprises a series of narrow rectangular plates
or castings hinged together in an endless belt, or the plates can be attached at each end to roller chains. At each
end of the loop, there are sprockets engaging either directly with the specially shaped plates or with the
hinge-pins connecting them, and in the case of the roller chain type, with the chain. In the former the plates are
usually of cast steel and in the latter are rolled plate or cast steel.
The feeders are of extremely rugged construction and are specifically designed to withstand the shock loading
of large lumps or raw material being dumped into the hopper above the feeder. Apron feeders have a
considerable effect on the efficiency of the crushing operation as they ensure that the feed is introduced to the
crusher over the full length of the crusher opening at a steady controlled rate.
When sticky material is handled, it will be found that some of it will be carried back on the return strand in
such quantities as to be a nuisance and it may be necessary to provide a spillage hopper or scraper conveyor
beneath the feeder. Frequently, the plant can be so arranged that the hopper discharges on to the same
conveyor that receives the crusher product.
Fig 7.30 APRON FEEDER
8.3 ROSS DROP BAR FEEDER
This is one of the types of feeder which combine the requirements of a constant rate feeder, and a means of
removing the undersize so that it may by-pass the crusher. The machine is made up of a series of heavy round
steel bars hinged at their extremities so that they form an endless belt of bars carried on sprockets at each end,
the front sprocket being the drive so that the top deck moves forward towards the crusher. The bars are spaced
at a distance from each other related to the size of undersize required to be removed. In order that the
undersize falling through the top strand of the feeder may pass freely through the lower or return side,
alternate bars are carried by a pair of links inside the others and hinged at the center line of the bar
immediately in front, so that when these bars pass over the-front (or drive) sprocket, the links hang vertically
from their hinges, thereby doubling the space between the bars on the return or lower side. A typical design is
shown at Fig. 7.31.
Fig. 7.31 ROSS DROP BAR FEEDER
As with the apron feeder, this type of feeder will carry the material uphill but the angle of inclination should
not exceed 15°.
8.4 ROSS TWO ROLL GRIZZLY
In practice when using a drop bar feeder, it is generally found that only the undersize material which lies near
the feeder surface is removed and because of this, the feeder is frequently followed by a Ross type roll screen,
this often takes the form of a two roll unit as shown at Fig. 7.32.
The Ross Two Roll Grizzly is a high capacity machine that separates by a "roll-vibro" action. As the stream of
material passes over the screen the larger pieces are lifted and vibrated by the serrated roller, whilst the
undersized material falls through .the gap between the rolls.
Fig 7.32 ROSS TWO ROLL GRIZZLY
The aperture between the rolls can be regulated over a wide range by the mere turning of a hand wheel. This
can be done whilst the machine is running or stationary.
Fig. 7.33 below shows two examples of the use of a Two Roll Grizzly with other mechanical handling
equipment.
8.5 JAR-BAR GRIZZLY FEEDER
The Jar-Bar Grizzly Feeder is essentially a heavy duty machine for feeding coarse material and at the same
time screening out a large proportion of undersize material. The feeder consists of a series of elliptical rolls or
bars, rotating in the same direction with the major axes of adjacent bars at right angles. They are spaced to
give slots of equal size between the bars and are so shaped that the size of the aperture remains constant
throughout the whole circle of -rotation, its width being adjustable within certain limits up to 215mm. The
feeder is normally set at a slight slope downwards, but it can operate horizontally if required. The bars are
chain driven and run with a complete absence of vibration and with very little noise.
A diagrammatic view of the principle of operation of a Jar-Bar Grizzly Feeder is shown in Fig. 7.34.
Fig. 7.34 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION. JAR BAR GRIZZLY FEEDER
In operation, as the material is fed into the hopper the lumps in contact with the bars are alternatively lifted
and dropped and at the same time, moved forwards as the tips of the elliptical sections rise and turn over.
As the major axes of the ellipses are at right angles, the pieces of rock over adjacent bars are moved in
opposite directions, one rising while the other is falling. The result is that a rocking motion is generated with a
rubbing as well as a sifting action, which has the effect not only of shaking the fines rapidly downwards but
also breaking up any lumps of clay and working them downwards as well. On reaching the bars, the fines pass
through freely. The clay tends to stick but it is forced down between the bars by the weight of rock continually
dropping on top of it. The whole mass is in a condition of mobility that induces a rapid forward travel with
complete absence of any tendency to pack or bridge the feeder.
Appendix 11 shows a comparison of the different types of feed equipment, for primary crushers.
9 HANDLING OF CRUSHER PRODUCT
When dealing with crushers with a high velocity discharge, the necessity of protecting the product conveyor is
important. This need also arises with large gyratory machines particularly when operating with a wide
discharge opening which can allow large sharp edged pieces of product through that can cause considerable
damage to the belt if allowed to fall directly on to it.
As mentioned before, the product conveyor from the crusher should be rated to handle 50% more than the
normal rated output of the crusher to compensate for batches of fine feed material which pass straight through
the crusher or when a large lump of stone(>lm³ ) is passed quickly through the crusher at a rate well in excess
of its rated output.
Further it is desirable to have a means of protecting the conveyor from the direct impact of the product.
Whether or not there is a scalping grizzly ahead of the crusher, it is good practice on any course operation to
have a chute delivering into the product conveyor in the form of a grid of say 30mm to 50mm to provide a
protective bed of small material on the belt at the point of loading as shown in Fig. 7.35.
Fig. 7.35 METHOD OF PROCTECTION OF CONVEYOR LOADING POINT
There are other methods of protecting the conveyor such as using resilient idlers to cushion the impact of large
pieces, or to dispense with the idlers just below the crusher allowing the flexibility of the belt to absorb the
impact. A refinement of this is the 'hammock belt' consisting of a short length of belt 3m to 3.5m in length
extending from the tail pulley forming a double thickness at the feed on point as shown in Fig. 7.36.
Fig 7.36 DIAGRAMMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF HAMMOCK BELT

Probably the most efficient way of minimizing expenditure on belt repair or replacement, if headroom permits,
is to discharge the product from the crusher on to a short length of conveyor running at the same speed as the
main conveyor and discharging on to it. This conveyor belt, say 3.5m to 4.5m, being much less expensive to
replace than the main conveyor belt.
10 SCREENING
The purpose of screening can be summarized as follows:
a) To scalp off the coarse fraction of a mixed product, usually for further reduction.
b) To remove the finest fractions from the crusher feed in order to reduce power consumption or avoid the
further reduction of material which is already small enough.
c) To grade the product of the crusher into its varying commercial sizes.
The fundamental principle of screening to grade sizes of particles is to separate the particles which will pass
through an aperture of a given size but will not pass through a smaller given aperture. These limits are usually
expressed as 'passing' and 'retained on', referring to the greater and lesser apertures. For example if a stone is
classified as -20mm +15mm or< 20mm> 15mm, this denotes that the stone has passed through a 20mm square
aperture but has been retained on a 15mm square aperture. If round apertures are used, this must be clearly
stated when describing the operation.
10.1 SCREENING EFFICIENCY
As the expression 'screening' is taken to mean the separation into size groups of the bulk material of mixed
sized fed on to the screen, screening efficiently simply describes the degree of exactitude with which the
screen performs this operation. As perfection is not possible in practice, there are upper and lower limits laid
down as standards for various applications and various materials for each size of particle.
Efficiency is expressed as a percentage and 'refers to the percentage of undersize in the original feed which has
actually passed through the aperture:
weight of undersize passed

i.e. x 100
weight of undersize feed
For example, if 100 tons/hour of mixed feed contains 90 tons/hour which is undersize and 10 tons/hour which
is oversize, and it is found afterwards that 87 tons/hour has passed through the screen and 13 tons/hour has
passed over, then the efficiency is:
87
x 100 = 96.6%
90
Conditions which can adversely affect the efficiency are as follows:-
1) Excess moisture.
2) Excess quantity of feed.
3) Insufficient quantity of feed enabling particles which should pass through, to bounce on the screen deck
and be carried over with the oversize (this particularly affects near size particles)
4) Excessive amplitude of the vibration of the screen causing too much activity and having the same effect
as 3) above.
5) A high proportion of large pieces which can cover the apertures and impede the passage of the undersize.
6) Presence in the feed of difficult-shaped pieces such as those which are only just under the size of the
apertures and conical-shaped pieces which tend to become pegged in the apertures.
10.2 THE VIBRATING SCREEN
This is the most common type of screening plant used and a typical illustration of one is shown in Fig. 7.37.
Fig. 7.37 A TYPICAL VIBRATING SCREEN

The combined effect of the vibrating mechanism and the method of supporting the screen frame in the base
frame must fulfill two functions, namely to cause the bed of the material to move along the screening surface
and to agitate the particles so as to statify them and to permit the undersize particles to pass through the
apertures as quickly as possible.
The following are factors which determine how efficiently these two functions can be carried out:-
1) Feeding to the screen a bed of material of a depth which will stratify rapidly and so enable the smaller
pieces to get down to the screening surface at an early stage of their travel along the deck with the larger
pieces on top to hold them down and help their passage through.
2) Correct amplitude or stroke, so that there is sufficient agitation to stratify the bed and still present the
undersize to the apertures at a sufficiently slow speed.
3) Correct inclination, if there is a sloping deck, so that the material does not travel too fast causing undersize
to be carried over the oversize.
4 Sufficient width to accommodate the tonnage per hour to be dealt with.
5 The material should be dry enough to prevent the small particles sticking to the large, or blocking up the
apertures.
11 SUMMARY
A major point, and one that hopefully has been highlighted in this paper is that there is no standard crushing
process. Every different quarrying situation and raw material quality must be assessed to determine the ideal
crushing process for that particular application.
As has been described, there are a variety of different types of coarse size reduction machines on the market
all varying in their principle of operation, some significantly and others negligibly. It is hoped that all the
major variations in crushing equipment have been covered in this paper, but there are, particularly in the field
of impact crushing, a number of variations on the same theme; almost as many as there are manufacturers.
Crushing remains an essentially primitive operation and as such, is extremely inefficient in its utilization of
energy. The mechanism of breakage has never been successfully reduced to a mathematical model. In spite of
numerous attempts, no mathematical statement exists which satisfactorily explains rock breakage, in respect to
the nature of the broken product.
APPENDICES
Appendix 1 Typical capacities for jaw crushers for medium hard to hard materials
Appendix 2 Typical capacities of gyratory crushers for medium hard to hard materials
Appendix 3 Typical capacities of Symons crushers for medium hard to hard materials
Appendix 4 Typical capacities of single slugger roll crushers for medium hard to hard materials
Appendix 5 Typical capacities for single rotor impact crushers for medium hard to hard materials
Appendix 6 Typical capacities for double rotor hammer crushers for medium hard limestone
Appendix 7 Relative comparison of capital cost of the different crusher types
Appendix 8 Relative comparison of crusher suitability to material characteristics
Appendix 9 Comparison of normal capacity range of the different crusher types
Appendix 10 Comparison of maximum feed size related to mean product size for the normal range of the
different crusher types
Appendix 11 Comparison of different types of feed equipment for primary crushers

Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
Module 10
Section 2
Size Reduction – some basic problems

9
Size Reduction
- some basic problems
F. J. Hiorns
1 INTRODUCTION
Size reduction or comminution is one of the few technologies whose development has had to proceed without
an adequate scientific background. The reasons for this lie in the complexity of the mechanical process - it is
difficult to formulate a mathematical or physical description of a multitude of forces acting on an assembly of
particles - and this is made more difficult because:
(1) each particle breaks into numerous other particles covering a range of sizes.
(2) real solids have a wide range of chemical physical and mechanical properties, both within a single
particle and between particles.
(3) there is a large variety of mills, and each operates in a different way.
Essentially, a grinding mill has two performance features which are of practical interest; the degree of size
reduction that it is able to bring about, and the amount of energy that it demands in doing so.
The purpose of the this paper is to suggest in simple terms why mills behave as they do, and indicate how the
application of a physical picture of this kind can help in improving operational efficiency.
2 CHARACTERISATION OF SOLIDS
Solid materials may be characterized in a number of different ways, but when considering the size reduction
process, we are usually thinking in terms of the response of the materials to mechanical force. There are
various descriptions of solid properties in common use which are particularly relevant; these include the basic
terms elasticity, plasticity and viscosity, and the derived terms hardness, toughness and brittleness. Most solids
may be described broadly in terms of combinations of these concepts: both rubber and glass are elastic,
because provided they are not overloaded they return very quickly to the original shape after a load is
removed. But glass is brittle; it will undergo very little deformation before it fails, and the fragments when put
together will form the original shape. Rubber not only shows extensive deformation before it fractures, after
fracture the fragments may take an appreciable time to recover from the dimensional changes. Some metals -
cast iron for example - are brittle and fracture readily when strained more than a small amount. Others such as
mild steel may show the behavior known as ductility so that a bar will deform permanently when pulled
sufficiently, and ultimately fail by stretching and thinning down. Various combinations of these qualities are
possible but some tend to be mutually exclusive. For example it is very difficult to produce a hard metal which
is not brittle, because hardness is essentially a measure of the tendency of a material to resist plastic
deformation, and brittle behavior, by definition, excludes ductility. This is an important factor in designing
mills with materials which must withstand high impact forces - i.e. not be unduly brittle - but be sufficiently
hard to be long lasting. The materials used to make cement can be regarded as essentially brittle, but one
qualification must be applied to this statement: the way that a substance behaves when it is loaded depends on
the loading system used, and the condition of the solid. Some examples to show this are:
(1) The condition of the solid:

Rubber is very elastic at room temperature and can be broken only by applying considerable deformation.
But rubber reduced to liquid air temperature becomes brittle and breaks with very little deformation.
Cement clinkers, and coals, can also show temperature effects.
(2) Type of loading:
(a) Some crystalline materials show considerable ductility when subjected to a slow increase in load, but
rapid loading may induce brittle fracture.
(b) Most importantly so far as milling is concerned, it is extremely difficult to reduce particles to less
than a critical size by simple compressive loading. This fact was first observed experimentally by
Boddy (1943) with a number of materials including the very hard material sapphire; the range of
solids tested was later extended by Bangham and Berkowitz to include among others, particles of
Canada balsam, china clay, silica gel, asbestos, copper, iron, silicon carbide, various glasses, and a
number of organic and inorganic chemicals. In every case it was found that when particles smaller
than about 30µm were compressed between flat surfaces they either deformed directly into sheets, or
shattered into fragments which then aggregated together. Qualitatively we can express this by saying
that with such small particles the surface frictional forces acting at the loading faces modify the
distribution of stress through the volume of the particle and set up a system of stresses for which
brittle fracture cannot take place: compressive failure, if it occurs, must be by flow. A quantitative
explanation of this effect was given by Parish (1967) who derived a formula for the critical particle
size of coals; the particles are idealized as cubes:
1
 CX r
d C = x 
 H(1 + f (µ )) 
where d C is the size above which plastic deformation will not occur, x is a reference size, C X the
compressive strength of size x, H the microindentation hardness of the material, f (µ) is a function of
the coefficient of friction between the material and the loading surface and r is a constant for the
material relating particle strength and size, typically having a value of 0.5 . Similar equations will
apply to other materials: note in particular that behavior is determined by the physical quantities
friction, hardness and strength. The importance of such properties in determining the behavior of a
solid in a mill should not be forgotten. This work has also considerable practical importance in
relation to the so-called 'grind limit' often encountered in ball milling, where it is found that
reduction below a certain particle size cannot be achieved; the finest product particles deform and
aggregate together. Special milling techniques must be used for ultrafine grinding, for this and other
reasons.
3 STRENGTH OF SOLIDS
The above discussion of the properties of solids in terms of elasticity, ductility, brittleness and so on has
described the strain behavior in response to the application of a load. In terms of practical milling problems
however that is only half the story. We have also to consider the magnitude of the load that must be applied to
achieve breakage, because this determines the energy that must be expended in the milling process.
The effect that various factors may have on the mechanical behavior of solids under load shows that a solid
does not have a unique strength, and therefore the energy needed to break the solid will also vary. Indeed the
energy needed to break regular specimens in different loading systems has been measured and compared.
What we want to do is to minimize the breakage energy, but we must do it in a practical way. The solids that
we have to grind are weakest in tension, and the most economical way to break a particle is to pull it apart, but
in practice we must achieve breakage by slow compression, as in a ball mill or ring ball or ring roll mill, or by
impact as in an Atritor, or by more complex stress systems. The principles that determine whether a mill uses
a lot of energy or only relatively little to achieve breakage are fairly straightforward, and mill design is often a
compromise between maximizing energy efficiency and meeting other demands of the process. Before looking
in detail at mill performance however, a brief account is given of the factors that determine solid strength and
behavior under load, and this is used as a starting point for an analysis of how the input energy is allocated in
the operation of a particular type of mill.
4 THE THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL STRENGTHS OF SOLIDS
The atomic or molecular structure of solids is generally very complex, and a theoretical analysis of the forces
holding the solid together is correspondingly difficult. There are some simple crystalline solids however for
which it is possible to make an estimate of-the theoretical strength. When this is done, it is found that the
practical strength is only of the order of 0.1 to 1% of the theoretical strength; solids, in fact are much weaker
than they should be. The generally accepted theory of the reasons for this, so far as brittle or semi-brittle solids
are concerned, was formulated by A. A. Griffith in two well known papers (1920, 1924). To understand the
principles of that theory it is necessary to refer to two basic ideas. The first of these is the concept of surface
energy. When a brittle solid is slowly cleaved into two pieces, the system remaining after the cleavage has
been completed is distinct from the original system only in that two new surfaces have been created. Now it is
characteristic of solid and liquid surfaces that they have a certain energy associated with them, arising from
the molecular attractions in the interior of the solid, so that when new surfaces are created, energy must be
supplied. In an ideally efficient breakage process, that is the only energy that is needed, but the absolute value
of that energy will of course depend on the strength of the solid - i.e. on its molecular structure together with
any grosser irregularities - such as crystal boundaries or defects, inhomogeneities, cracks and other
discontinuities.
In practice we can measure an approximate value of the surface energy of solids by fracture experiments (Fig.
9.1) (English and Hiorns 1966), although the measurements which involve typically the slow propagation of a
crack in a bar specimen are difficult-and there is some disagreement -about their interpretation. It is preferable
to refer to such a measurement as the minimum fracture energy. These measurements show that it is possible
to produce unit area of new surface for not more than 1 to 5% of the energy that has to be supplied to a mill to
achieve the same task.
The second basic idea on which Griffith's theory of the fracture of solids rests is that of stress concentration. It
was noted earlier that simple crystalline solids for which a strength can be calculated are much weaker than
theory says they should be. If two planes of atoms are separated by a distance a, the fracture stress σ f will
operate over a distance of this order when the atoms are pulled apart, so that the work done i.e. the energy
supplied, is (σ f )(a ) and we have shown that this is equal to the surface energy γ. Thus the fracture stress σ f is
given by the ratio λ a , both of which can be measured, and as noted, practical values of σ f are only 0.1-1% of
the values given by the measured ratio λ a . Griffith's theory for this discrepancy is based on the fact that if a
sharp crack or notch exists in a brittle material (Figure 9.2), the level of stress at the root of the crack may be
many times that existing in the bulk of the solid. Thus a specimen might be loaded in tension to, say, only one
tenth of the theoretical fracture strength (as calculated from molecular properties), but if there was a crack in
the specimen the stress concentration at the end of the crack might result in local stresses well above the
theoretical fracture strength, causing the crack to propagate and the specimen to fail.
4.1 GRIFFITH'S THEORY OF SOLID STRENGTH

Griffith postulated that the surface of any normal brittle solid was covered with a multitude of microcracks
which could act as stress raisers when the solid was loaded. From the considerations set cut above, we should
expect that the strength of a solid would depend on the surface energy and the elastic properties of the
material. By a theoretical analysis Griffith showed that the fracture strength of a solid containing a sharp crack
is given by
1
 2 E γ 2
σ= 
 πcν 
where E and v are elastic constants, ϒ the surface energy, and 2c is the length of the crack. The existence of
these microcracks is difficult to demonstrate in practice, but it is now generally accepted that Griffith's theory
is correct, and it has been refined over the years in a number of ways. In particular it is known that semi-brittle
solids capable of plastic deformation do not show stress-concentration factors greater than three times,
because the stress around the crack tip is relieved by the plastic flow.
Since failure under stress is a consequence of the propagation of these cracks, the way in which they propagate
affects both the energy requirement of the milling process, and the size distribution of the fragments. It has
been shown both by high speed photography and theoretically that an uncontrolled brittle crack accelerates to
a maximum velocity and then tends to fork. Figure 9.3 is not a photograph of a fracture, but of an electrical
discharge in a sheet of plastic. It is, nevertheless, a good two-dimensional representation of the kind of
three-dimensional failure mechanism that may occur when a solid is crushed. Notice the tendency for [the
'cracks' to fork at a constant angle. Breakage of a mineral is much more complex than this because of
discontinuities, boundaries between different phases, inclusions and other irregularities all of which can divert
the progress of the cracks.
It may be helpful at this point to summarize two features of the above remarks in a table:
It will be seen that whereas the first of these factors works to our advantage, the second is adverse. In
particular, it suggests that mills are grossly inefficient, and it is of interest to enquire whether there is any
prospect of improving this situation.
5 THE DISTRIBUTION OF ENERGY IN THE MILLING PROCESS
Theories of energy distribution in milling go back at least a hundred years, although the early 'laws' which will
be found in the text books are in fact only arbitrary statements which experience has shown to have some
practical use over a limited range of mill operation. The analysis of mill breakage summarized here (Bown
1966), which was developed as part of a considerable program of work on coal breakage (Brown 1941, Brown
and Hiorns 1963, Callcott and Broadbent 1956, 1957, English and Hiorns 1966, Hiorns 1966) also contains a
large number of simplifying assumptions, but it fits reasonably well with observations of mill behavior.
It was noted earlier that although the most efficient way to break a particle is in tension, practical mills apply
compressive forces. If a particle is compressed between flat plates, it has been shown experimentally that the
energy for production of new surface is least when the following limitations apply:
(1) compression is slow
(2) the reduction ratio is limited to about 1.2 to 1.3:1
(3) after crushing the fines are removed before the next crushing stage
This regime was first postulated by Carey and Bosanquet (1933) and is known as 'free crushing'. It was
advocated at one time (Carey and Stairmand 1952) as a practical measure of the minimum energy needed to
break a solid, and thus as a yardstick of mill efficiency. Unfortunately the technique is slow and laborious, and
it could not compete in practice with the relatively simple grindability tests developed by Bond and others,
which are described elsewhere, but the ideas on which free crushing is based are worth including in any
history of the development of size reduction processes, and together with Griffith's theory were the basis for
the analyses summarized here. The physical reasons for the criteria given above are :
(1) slow compression is more controllable than rapid loading and reduces the kinetic energy losses that are
associated with -
(2) an excessive reduction ratio; and -
(3) if fines are not removed as formed, a situation analogous to that described earlier in the loading of
ultrafine particles may arise: fragments are formed which cannot escape from the loading system so that
energy is wasted in compressing the material without subsequent fracture.
These criteria may be used as a guide to mill design and operation but how important are they in practice?
There are a number of energy-demanding physical mechanisms which must operate in any compressive
breakage process, and the analysis already referred to by Bown attempted to give quantitative assessment of
the relative importance of these. I have suggested that the mechanisms will include:
(1) Internal vibration losses in solid particles resulting from sudden unloading when fracture occurs.
(2) Frictional heating between particles, and between particles and loading faces.
(3) Deformation and aggregation of ultrafine particles.

(4) Plastic deformation of particle tips, at the roots of cracks, of contact points between particles, and of the
loading surfaces.
(5) Kinetic energy of particles ejected at brittle failure.
By a combination of experimental observation and some considerable simplifications, Bown was able to
arrive at estimates of the relative amounts of energy required by these mechanisms in free crushing, and then
by the equivalent mechanisms in a vertical spindle mill. To these had to be added:
(6) The energy characteristic of the new surfaces formed in the mill, or in this case the minimum fracture
energy
(7) Metallic frictional losses
(8) Wear
For purposes of calculation I have assumed a ring-ball mill with a total electrical energy input of 15kWh/t,and
I have further assumed that the motor and other mechanical losses in the mill drive (but not in the grinding
elements) amount to 20% or3kWh/t.
The results given in Table 9.1 are for coal grinding, because a measured typical value of minimum fracture
energy is available for a typical hard coal (English and Hiorns 1966), but the proportional energy distribution
for example when grinding a limestone in this type of mill to a fineness similar to that of pulverized coal,
should correspond approximately to that given in the Table.
These figures have been arrived at from a combination of measurements of the mechanical and surface
properties of the solid being milled, and assumptions about the way that assemblies of particles behave when
mechanically loaded in a mill. Some of the assumptions may be appreciably in error, and the models used to
calculate energy demand are in general unduly simple. Nevertheless there is a range of circumstantial evidence
to support the view that the distribution of energy in a vertical spindle mill is not grossly different from that
shown in Table 9.1.
The most noteworthy result of these calculations is the very high proportion of the input energy that is used in
overcoming frictional forces of various kinds and is thereby converted into heat. Of the 12kWh/t assumed
available at the grinding elements, 1.2 kWh/t are used in overcoming grinding element friction (10%) and no
less than 5.3kWh/t or 44% of the available input energy in overcoming particle friction. It is for this reason
that the technique of free crushing, with its insistence on a limited amount of size reduction per stage, and
frequent removal of fines, is much more efficient than any milling process. If a group of fine particles is
loaded, the factors favoring high energy losses are
(1) generally, fine particles are stronger than coarse
(2) fine particles provide a large surface area for the operation of frictional forces in relative motion
(3) there is a tendency, as noted earlier, for losses to occur by particle deformation and flow.
It can be argued therefore that one reason why an air-swept tube mill uses less energy for specific size
reduction than does an overflow mill is because the air tends to remove the fines as they are formed, and so
reduce the energy losses. In fact, a basic principle of mill design, and operation, is to minimize the delay in
removing fines.
The Table also suggests however that there is a limiting energy consumption below which we are unlikely to
be able to go. If over 40% of the input energy to a vertical spindle mill is lost as frictional heat, it seems
unlikely that this figure could be reduced to, say, less than 20% by design changes. It is not possible at this
time to forecast the ultimate efficiency of any particular mill type, but if Table 9.1 is right it should be possible
to achieve a limited improvement in efficiency with the vertical spindle mill, which is one of the more
efficient of modern mills. The scope of possible improvements, as with all mills, is dictated by the basic
features of mill design.
6 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS
The title of this paper is 'Size Reduction - some basic problems', and the distribution of particle sizes
obtainable from a mill represents a problem of equal importance to that of energy demand. The problem of
deciding why a distribution takes a particular form is mathematically difficult because it is concerned with
transforming one range of particle sizes to another, usually wider, range. The physics of the problem is also
difficult because there are numerous interfering factors, one or two of which have been referred to above. For
example, the plastic deformation of very small particles may distort the fine end of the size distribution as may
the removal of a range of sizes by air sweeping. The distribution of sizes obtainable from an impact mill will
differ from that obtained from a tube ball mill, because a mill may break particles of a particular size range
preferentially, and so on.
7 DESCRIPTION OF SIZE DISTRIBUTION

7.1 PARTICLE SIZE
Because broken particles are irregular in shape, the size of a particle can be measured in a number of different
ways. Apart from the sieve and sedimentation diameters, the most commonly used in the cement industry,
there are many others determined by microscopic and other methods. The particle diameters given by these
different methods will only be equal if the particles are spheres.
Note also that the methods usually measure the mean or extreme size of a series of size ranges, and it is often
necessary to make assumptions about the distribution of sizes in each range. Thus the sieve analysis, for
example, may run as shown in Table 9.2 (the figures are arbitrary, but not too far from a real broken product).
SIEVE ANALYSIS
Sieve size(mm) -8+4 -4+2 -2+1 -1+0.5 -0.5+0.25 -0.25

in size 2 16 30 25 15 12
Size interval(mm) 4 2 1 0.5 0.25 0.25
Mean size(mm) 6 3 1.5 0.75 0.375 0.125
If we now wish to represent this distribution graphically, there are several ways in which this can be done. The
simplest (Figure 9.4) is to plot the amount in each size interval-against the mean size, on arithmetic scales, and
join up the points to form a smooth curve. Note that by doing this we are assuming that the arithmetic mean
size is a reasonable average for all the particles in each size interval.
The figure shows (1) that the arithmetic scales are not very convenient -the points are well spread out at the
coarse end, and bunched at the fine end, although the sieve intervals are obviously about right because the
amounts in each interval are not very different at the two ends of the spectrum. It is apparent that the sieve
sizes have been chosen in a descending scale of 2, and it is easy to see that the size intervals, and the mean
sizes, also decrease by a factor of 2 (except for the smallest interval). (2) the curve suggests that the maximum
particle size in the system is around 7mm, and that the most frequently occurring size is somewhere in the
region of 1.4 - 1.5m.
However Figure 9.4 has a disadvantage apart from its arithmetic scales the size intervals are not all the same
and the amounts in each fraction are therefore not strictly comparable.
This effect can be corrected by dividing the percent in each interval by the width of the interval, obtaining (in
this case) the 'percent per mm' which is shown in Table 9.3. For convenience of comparison I have divided the
results by 2.
TABLE 9.3
The figures of Tables 9.2 and 9.3 are replotted on a semi-logarithmic scale in Figure 9.5. It is easy to see that
any conclusions about the distribution of particle sizes need to be drawn with care, unless the %/mm curve is
used. The mode from Table 9.3 is now seen to be around 0.25mm. Note the superiority of the
semi-logarithmic plot over the arithmetic. Finally we transform these figures yet again to the cumulative
oversize or cumulative undersize form (Table 9.4).
TABLE 9.4 DERIVATION OF CUMULATIVE DISTRIBUTION
Sieve fractions mm -8+4 -4+2 -2+1 -1+½ -½+¼ -¼

% in fraction 2 16 30 25 15 12
Size mm 4 2 1 ½ ¼ Undersize
Cumulative oversize % 2 18 48 73 88 (12)
Size mm 8 4 2 1 ½ ¼
Cumulative undersize % 100 98 82 52 27 12
Since the cumulative curve is bounded at the lower end by zero, there is extra information in the undersize
curve as quoted here because it includes a statement of the top size, which is often of practical importance.
This difficulty with the oversize curve can of course be overcome by the explicit statement '0% + 8mm',but if
this is not done the upper size limit is left uncertain. These data have been plotted in Fig. 9.6, in the
semi-logarithmic form, and in Fig. 9.7 which shows the characteristic curvature at the coarse end, and the
relatively straight 'tail', of a log-log plot.
7.2 SIZE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS
Numerous attempts have been made to derive expressions to fit observed size distribution curves, because it
should then be possible to define a distribution by one or two parameters and use these for purposes of
comparison. The main disadvantages of using distribution functions are (1) that they rarely provide adequate
fits for the extremes of the distributions and (2) that there is often a temptation to extrapolate beyond the
experimental data.
For present purposes it will be sufficient to refer to four common functions; detailed information will be found
in Herdan (1953) and Beke (1964).
7.2.1 THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
If a large number of separate readings are taken of a physical constant such as a length L, it is a matter of
common experience that the results will show a spread about a central mean value, so that if the total number
of readings at each discrete value of L is plotted against L, the result will be a bell-shaped curve with most
readings occurring at or near the 'true' or mean value of L, = L , with progressively decreasing numbers of
smaller and larger values on either side. The central or mean value is then the most probable value, and the
curve representing the distribution of readings is known as the Normal Probability Curve or Distribution.
The equation of such a curve for any variable x, having a mean or most probable value x , is given by:-
1 −
1
2
[( ) ]
x −x / σ
2
p (x) = e
σ 2π
where p(x) δ x is the probability that a value of x falls in the range (x, x+ δ x), and is a characteristic
parameter which can be shown to be identical to the standard deviation of the distribution.
The Normal curve is in fact rarely relevant to particle size distributions, because the frequency of occurrence
of the individual particle sizes is not distributed symmetrically about the mean. It is worth noting however that
the number of particles between specific limits x, x2 can be obtained by integrating the distribution function
between those limits; by introducing particle density and shape as additional factors in the equation, the
weight distribution between limits can likewise be obtained.
7.2.2 LOG-NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Examination of the make-up of typical particle assemblies and consideration of the mechanisms of the
breakage of solids to produce these assemblies, lead to the expectation that the range of particle size is more
suitably dealt with by a logarithmic scale rather than an arithmetic one. The unsuitability of an arithmetic scale
of particle size has been demonstrated in Figures 9.4 and 9.5. Examination shows that whereas the Normal
Distribution law rarely describes particle size distributions well, this is no longer the case when the variable x
- the particle size - is entered in the equation as log x. We then have for the distribution function the
log-Normal law:
1
[( )
log x − log x g log σ ']2
P(x ) =
1 2
e
log σ' 2π
where x g , the geometric mean, has replaced the arithmetic mean x .
The log-Normal Distribution often gives quite good representation of broken materials. The equation for the
weight distribution between diameter limits x,x2 is given, for spherical particles, by:
 ρ ∑ x i 3 n i  − 1 [(log x −log x g ' ) log σ '] 2

y= e 2
 log σ' 2π 
 
where x’,x2’, =x/log σ’ and 7' is the weight geometric mean (Herdan 19:53). 9
In examining the possibility of characterizing an unfamiliar particle size distribution, it is worth while to plot
it on the special graph paper known as log probability paper; a distribution obeying a log-Normal law will plot
as a straight line.
7.2.3 ROSIN RAMMLER DISTRIBUTION
This function is given by:
 − d  
n
R = 100  e  d  
 
 
or log log (100 - R) = log d + n log d
This equation has found wide acceptance for the description of moderately finely ground products. It is of
interest that although it is essentially an empirical equation, a theoretical derivation based on a three-
dimensional distribution of Griffith flaws has been achieved. As with the statistical functions, special graph
paper is available for plotting size distributions, and Figure 9.8 shows the results of Table 9.3 on this paper.
Incidentally the starting figures for this distribution (Table 9.2) were chosen more or less arbitrarily, as being
of the right order for an experimental distribution. It is characteristic of the insensitivity of the log-log/log plot
of a Rosin Rammler distribution that quite a good straight line is obtained.
7.2.4 THE GAUDIN - SCHUHMANN DISTRIBUTION
This is an empirical distribution law extensively used in the U.S. It arose from observations by Gaudin that
distributions obtained from a Tyler series of screens (i.e. having a 2 aperture ratio) followed a power law:
δy = ax m
where δy is the weight between two sieve sizes, x the mean size and a, m are constants. The commonly used
form of the cumulative distribution, given by Schuhmann, is
log R = m (log x - log k)
where m is the slope of the line and k the maximum particle size. The distribution is easy to use but has the
disadvantage that it is a straight line function and does not represent the coarse end well, although this is often
unimportant. Figure 9.9 shows three Gaudin plots with m values of 0.5, 1 and 1.5 at a, b and c respectively. In
practice, m usually lies between about 0.5 and 1.
7.3 CONCLUSIONS
The only reason for plotting size distributions, or testing them by means of distribution functions, is that
valuable information can be obtained (a) in the comparison of mills and products, and (b) in analyzing the
performance of a specific mill. It is unfortunate that the most useful part of a distribution - the fine end - is
often not available, and equally unfortunate that there is no single method available to cover the whole size
range of a mill product. In particular the slope of the cumulative distribution can be a useful guide as to
whether overgrinding or agglomeration are taking place, but all too frequently the sieving technique used is
inadequate at the finest sizes, or there is a break at the change from sieving to sedimentation which is not
properly, corrected before conclusions are drawn. There is still room for improvement in the techniques of
experimental size analysis.
REFERENCES
Beke, B. 1964 'Principles of Comminution'; Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest.
Boddy, R.H.G.B., ' Microscopic Observations of the Crushing of Coal'; Nature 151, 54~
Bown, R.W., 1966, 'Energy Distribution in Pulverising'; Trans Inst. Min Met 75, C173 - 80.
Brown, R.L., 1941: 'Generalised Law of Size Distribution', 14, 129.
Brown, R.L. and Hiorns F.J., 1963; 'Mechanical Properties' in 'Chemistry of Coal Utilisation', Supplementary
Volume.ed. Lowry. Ch 3~ pp 119 - 149: Wiley, N.Y.
Callcott, T.G. and Broadbent, S. R. 1956, 'Coal Breakage Processes; Part 1: A new analysis of coal breakage
processes'. J. Inst, Fuel 29, 524, 528; ibid 1957 ; 30, 18, 21 'Part 4 An exploratory analysis of the cone mill in
open circuit grinding'.
Carey, W.F., and Bosanquet, C.H. 1933; J. Soc. Glass Technology, 17, 384 - 410.
Carey, W.F., and Stairmand, 1952; 'Recent Developments in Mineral Dressing' Inst. Min. Metall., London. p
117 - 136.
English, P.E. and Hiorns, F.J. 1966; 'Measurement of the Specific Fracture Energy of Coal'; Trans Inst. Min.
Metall. 75, C87 - 94.
Griffith, A.A., 1920; 'The Phenonena of Rupture and Flow in Solids', Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 221A, 163 - 198.
, 1924; First Int. Cong. Appl. Mech, Delft, p55.
Herdan, G. 1953; 'Small Particle Statistics'; Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Hiorns, F.J., 1966; Proc 2nd Int. Conf. on Comminution, Amsterdam : Dechema Vol 57.
Parish, B.M., 1967, 'The Plastic Deformation of Small Particles', Brit J. Appl. Phys. 18, 233 - 240.
Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
Module 10
Section 3
Mill Design Principles

1 INTRODUCTION
Having dealt with the more theoretical aspects of grinding in Paper 9

we turn to the more practical aspects of milling. Milling is one of the
basic processes used in the cement industry for raw material preparation,
coal grinding and for finish grinding of cement. Cement making is a
continuous process industry with in some instances very high throughput
rates and the mills employed reflect these requirements. Four main
types of mill are used:-
Ball mills used for raw materials, coal and cement

Vertical spindle - used for raw materials and coal
mills
Aerofall mills - used for raw materials
Impact mills - used for coal grinding
Each of these mill types will be discussed separately in more detail

but some basic principles of design apply to them all.
2 B A S I C PRINCIPLES
Grinding involves the size reduction of a feed material to a given
product size at a specified throughput rate. Mills have to be sized
and designed to enable sufficient energy to be applied to fulfill
the above requirements in as efficient a manner as possible. In
considering any particular milling problem a series of questions
need to be answered:
2,l WHAT FEED NATERIAL IS TO BF GROUND AND TO WHAT FINENESS
Raw materials are usually ground to a fineness (Z residue on a

specified sieve) determined from chemical analyses and combinability
tests dependent on the type of clinker to be manufactured.
Coals are also ground to a specified % residue based on the firing

requirements of the kiln and the ash absorbtion rate expected in the
burning zone.
Cements aregroundto a surface area dependent on the fineness required

by the product standard.
2,2 How Much GROUND MATERIAL IS NEEDED

The quantity of raw material needed is calculated to match the feed
requirement of the kiln including sufficient overtaking capacity to
allow for mill downtime compared to the kiln running time.
The mill is usually sized to take account of the potential output of

the kiln over and above the guaranteed performance.
A cement mill output would be calculated to match the clinker output

of the kiln, including an allowance for gypsum addition and any other
additives, such as blast furnace slag or pozzolan. Maxi mum demand
limitations on the power supply are taken into account as these may
affect the mill running times.
2,3 How LARGE A MILL L IS NEEDED
An examination of the feed material is necessary to determine its

grindability at the fineness required in terms of kWh/tonne of product.
The mill power may then be calculated from the expression:
Mill power = Grindability x Throughput
kW kWh/t tph
The mill size chosen which is a function of the mill power, can
be calculated for most ball mills. Special grindability tests
can be made for roller mill sizing using a laboratory sized test
mill.
2,4 WHAT IS THE BEST TYPE OF MILL I FOR THF JOB

2.4.1 RAW MATERIAL GRINDING
The type of raw material to be ground is the most important

factor in determining the choice of milling system and the
following points have to be considered:-
(a) Moisture Content of the Basic Raw Materials
Raw material moistures vary considerably both in their intrinsic

moisture content and as a result of seasonal variations in the
climate (i.e. precipitation). The variation in intrinsic
moisture may range from 2-4% for a limestone in a dry climate
up to 24% in a soft chalk. Secondary raw materials such as
clays and shales may have high moisture levels but their
lower proportion in the mix reduces their overall contribution
to the raw material moisture.
(b) Size and Hardness of Raw Materials
Some mills, such as the Aerofall and roller mills are able to
accept larger feed sizes than ball mills and this is an advantage when
planning the crushing stages of a raw material preparation scheme.
Care has to be taken to ensure that the feed to a ball mill is
kept below a specified size (usually 25 mm) to match the maximum
ball size in the first chamber. If the raw material contains
a very hard fraction the mill may tend to fill up if the crushing
section is overloaded by large sized feed.
Grindability Tests:
______------------
Raw material hardness and grindability are measured by special tests
which are designed to suit particular applications. Details of the test
methods are available elsewhere but the main tests used at present are:
Hardgrove Test:
____ __-------
Material (50 gm) is ground in a miniature roller mill under standardised
conditions. The - 200 mesh (75 urn) fines produced are weighed and the
Hardgrove index is calculated from the expression:
Hardgrove Index = H.I. = 13 + 6.93 W

(where W = weight of material passing 75 urn)
The Hardgrove test was originally devised for coal testing but is now
also used for raw material component assessments. It is a useful quick
test which fits any new material into an existing league table of
hardness. It is worth n;tinS that harder materials have lower Hardgrove
Indexes. (See Appendix 1).
Ball Mill Tests:

_____-__-------
The standard Blue Circle test uses an 18" ball mill for raw material
and cement grindability testing. Different sized balls are used at different
stages of the fineness of grind to simulate the passage of feed through
a full sized mill. The resulting grindability figure jkWh/t for a
specified fineness) reflects the performance which wou Id be expected
from an efficiently run production mill. Correlations have been deve loped
over a number of years to enable scaling up methods to be established
for any particular application.
The above procedure is followed for cement grinding and raw material
grinding but further tests are made to reinforce the standard ball mill
tests.
Bond Rod Mill and Ball Mill Tests:
---------------------------------
F.C. Bond devised these two tests to estimate the power needed for the
crushing and grinding stages of a closed circuit wet raw milling
system.
The tests involve grinding a standard quantity of material in 12"

diameter mills under simulated closed circuit grinding. After each
stage of grinding the mill product is screened on a specified sieve
("mesh of grind") and the fines are replaced by fresh feed. A series
of stages enables an equilibrium condition to be reached after which
the final fineness of the product is measured. A "work index" Wi
is calculated which represents the power needed for grinding from a
known feed size to a known product size (measured as the 80% passing
size).
By means of the Bond equation the "work index" may be used to

calculate the power needed for any other fineness of grind.
Bond Equation:
kWh/t = Wi (~ - '0,
\p \.'F
where Wi = Work Index ((from Bond test)
P = .80% passing size of product, urn
F =
80% passing size of feed, urn
Factors exist for converting from wet grinding to dry grinding.
Abrasion Tests:
--------------
The abrasiveness of raw materials and coals are tested by measuring
the loss in weight of a test piece under standard conditions.
The "Yancy-Geer-Price" apparatus used for coal is a relatively

simple apparatus in which a sample is ground in a "pestle and mortar"
type machine with grinding blades replacing the pestle. The test is
run for a standard time with a size graded feed after which the metal
loss from the blades is weighed. A 20 kg sample of material is needed.
The test results are compared with previous tests to give a ranking
order for the materials.
The Christy - Norris mill uses larger quantities of raw material
(100 kg). The mill is a hammer mill and the loss in weight of the
breaker bar is recorded after a fixed weight of a graded feed has
been passed through the mill. Again a ranking order of abrasiveness
has been established covering a wide range of materials.
The abrasive nature of raw materials if oftenassociated with the

presence of a significant quantity of free silica (or quartz) in the
material.
The important factor is whether there is a significant proportion of

quartz larger than 90 :rn present which could limit the use of some types
of mill. Roller mills are particularly prone to excessive wear with
siliceous materials a n d their use is not recommended. Their suitability
may be assessed by making abrasion tests on a laboratory sized roller
mill if sufficient material is available.
2.4.2 SELECTION OF A RAW MEAL GRINDING SYSTEM
The selection of a system for a particular raw grinding duty depends on

a number of factors, some commercial, some technical. The interrelation
of these factors is such that neither commerical nor technical decisions
can be made independently. The final decision is aimed at specifying the
optimum circuit under the given constraint. For example it may be
advantageous to install a similar unit to an existing mill for economy
in spare parts. On other occasions the choice could depend on the
delivery prospects of different suppliers to whether a particular supplier
offers a better overall tender for the whole plant. Sometimes the
strength and reliability of an organisation in a given country could be
the deciding factor. These considerations are becoming less important
as the larger manufacturersincrease their range of equipment and are prepared
to guarantee special equipment bought in from smaller firms when used with
the main units. Classifiers are an example.
However having recognised the above it is useful to pursue the more
technical aspects of raw mill grinding systems.
The main considerations may be summarised:
1. Raw material moisture content

2. Moisture distribution - uniform or concentrated in.a particular
fraction
3. Availability of hot gases for drying
4. Material feed size
5. Material hardness
6. Abrasivity of material
With regard to drying requirements it is necessary to determine the fuel

and air requirements through heat and mass balances. The calculations
are given in Paper 11.
Table 10.1 summarises the advantages and disadvantages of the various

systems available.
This table cannot be comprehensive but it highlights the main considerations

For example with stone from basically dry countries the drying capability
of the raw mill system is of less importance than power consumption and
in that case we would consider a single chamber mill with drying in the
classifier or a centre discharge mill or a roller mill. If coarse sand was
present it would rule out the roller mill and may also eliminate the single
chamber mill which requires a tertiary crusher to provide a suitable feed size
This is usually a hammer mill and wear would be a problem unless the sand
were a separate constituent which could be fed directly to the ball mill.
On balance therefore it is likely that a centre discharge mill would be
selected for this material.
Alternatively 1'f the material was sand-free and of moderate hardness,

all three systems would be considered. At present however, roller mills
are regarded with caution as they are prone to maintenance problems
and much would depend on whether data was available for such a mill
already running on similar material and the remoteness of the site.
Of the other two the sing1 e chamber mill could we1 1 provide the cheaper
solution.
Where the materials are wet it is essential to make the maximum use
of kiln gas, as fue? costs are a more significant item than power costs.
This brings the Aerofall Mill, the air swept ball mill and the roller
mill into consideration. If the material is uniformly wet and of moderate
hardness with no abrasive components both the air swept ball mill and
roller mill have advantages. The ball mill gives a relatively cheap
installation whilst the roller mill is compact and can handle quite large
stone. On the other hand if the material is sticky and difficult to
handle the Aerofall mill provides a very convenient system.
It is not possible to examine every variation but the foregoing gives

an indication of the approach used in selecting a system.
Raw mill sizing is one of the most difficult aspects of plant design.
Small scale empirical laboratory tests have to be used to determine
grinding power requirements, often with only dried geological
core samples available as test material.
These tests give a power requirement for grinding under standard

conditions and the designer relies heavily on experience for the correct
factors to apply when considering different circuits. Again experience
and historical correlation are all important when physically sizing
the plant.
Undersized plant creates bottlenecks in the process which result in either

limitations on output or a decline in quality resulting from overloading
of plant. Increased maintenance costs are often incurred. For instance
an undersized crusher can result in excessively large material being
fed to a ball mill with consequent liner and diaphragm damage occurring.
Aerofall
Mill
Air Swept Ball Mill Single Chambet*/Bucket
Elevator Ball Mill 51 Two Ctlattlber
lucket
I <levnLor Mil
Two Chamber
CcnLral
Discharge
Rol lc
Sys tem Mill
- .- .-. _-
-7i-Gii~-- With TXlenl ~~7i@--Ci--- Drying in
sys tcllt iiarmer Mi 1 1 Classifier I Mill
-----
bility to dry Very good Good Good Poor Moderate I1'001 Good
let raw material
.- --._ -- ~I_.- _-
,bility to handle Cosd Good Good Poor Modcra Le I Yodcrate Good Poor
ticky material hard

fc c d
- III-
'referred x0-30011fl1 1 o-1 51111l 1 0 -1 Ijlllli 1 0 - 1 5lllW 23-30l1llll 23- 3oltllll 5o-tH
'eed size _- _____ ---
rbi1ity to handle G o o d Moderate Poor (must Poor Good Good Good Poor
lard abrasive avoid) unless lllU5 t
'ractions (e.g. hard fraction bc
;and) can by-pass avoic
mi 1 1
~-
\bility to handle G o o d Good if in Poor (due to Good if in Good if /Good Good Modcr
jasically hard preferred high wear) preferred in
-aw materials size. Poor size. Avoid preferred
i f ovfr- oversiZed size.
s i ze feed feed. Class- Poor if
ifier wear oversize
-- feed -.-
Ability to handle Moderate Good Good Good Moderate Poor Good Good
lasically medium to poor
lard to soft raw
naterials -- -- -
jpccific power Relatively Relatively Relatively high Relatively Rclativelj ’ IRelatively Relatively Relat
-equireinents h i gh hi gh on hard low low low low ivcly
materials. Much low
better on rnedi UII~
to soft materials
~__L_ -- -___-~
\bility to use COVd G o o d Poor Poor Poor Poor Modcr
:iln gas -
2.4.3 CEMENT GRINDING
Cement mills are almost invariably some form of ball mill dependent on
the type of cement to be ground. Traditionally cement has been ground
in tube mills with a fairly high L/D ratio (5.0 - 5.5 : 1) with up to
four chambers to keep balls of different sizes separated. In recent
years shorter two chamber mills have appeared with a crushing chamber
followed by a fine grinding chamber equipped with a classifying lining.
A parallel development but not new is the use of closed circuit
grinding to give closer control of size and improved efficiency
for fine grinding. The installation cost is however high.
Very recently roller mills have been tried out on cement grinding
(as they consume less power) and this has only become possible due
to the introduction of special wear resistant materials.
2.4.4 COAL MILLS
Three types of coal mill are in general use:
Air swept ball mills.

Atritors.
Roller mills.
The choice of mill is dependent to some extent on the firing system to

be employed - either direct firing
semi-direct firing
indirect firing
It is usual for each kiln to be equipped with its own, separate coal
mill sized to produce sufficient P.F. for the peak clinker output with
something in hand. It is an undesireable feature on a kiln installation
for the coal milling plant to be the bottle neck in production because
a margin for control is needed in kiln operation.
Coal grindability is assessed by means of the Hardgrove test as well as
the standard laboratory ball mill tests. A wide variety of coals and
other solid fuels may be used and each one is considered individually to
determine the best grinding equipment to be used.
2.4.4.1 Direct Firing
The coal mill grinds coal which is blown directly into the kiln without
any intermediate storage of pulverised fuel (P.F.). The coal mill may
be under suction or pressure with the firing fan handling the P.F. or
operating with clean air. Hot air for drying is usually drawn from the
kiln hood or grate cooler.
2.4.4.2 Semi-Direct Firing
In this system the P.F. is separated from the coal mill exit air and
stored in an intermediate hopper before being metered into the firing
pipe. Better control of the feed rate is attained as the delay experienced
in the milling system is removed by having a small store of P.F. available.
The fan is able to operate with cleaner air than with the suction
arrangement.
2.4.4.3 Indirect Firing
A central coal mill may supply P.F. for several kilns by grinding into
a large P.F. store. Sufficient P.F. may be available to enable the coal
mill to be stopped for maintenance independently of the kiln running
time. Problems have been experienced in storing large quantities of
pulverised fuel and special precautions are needed. The coal milling
paper discusses the various systems in more detail.
2.5 WHAT EIr 1 CONTROLS ARE NECESSARY
Some mills are relatively simple to control whilst others need a fairly
sophisticated system to operate satisfactorily. In general the main
factors to consider are:
1. Feed rate control

2. Air/gas quantity control
3. Air/gas temperature control
4. Product fineness control
In a raw milling system weigh feeders and proportioning devices are needed
to ensure that the feed is of the correct mix and fed at the maximum possible
throughput.
In air swept ball mills and roller mills where the material is transported
by air or gas it is essential to prevent overloading of the carrying capacity
of the gas to avoid "dumping" in the ascension pipe or within the roller
mill body. The feed rate may be linked to the pressure drop across the mill
or the recirculating conveyor motor current. In the case of a bucket elevator
mill control is achieved by measuring the load on the elevator motor to control
the recirculating load.
Temperature control is used to ensure correct drying within air swept mills
by keeping the exit gas temperature constant by varying the heat imput
to the mill. Gases are often supplied from a preheater system and augmented
by a hot air furnace where necessary. Cold air bleedsare also used where
the gases are too hot.
Product fineness is often controlled by alteration of the settings on static

or mechanical classifiers but is obviously proportioned to the overall
throughput rate of the system.
More detailed descriptions of the control methods used in various milling

circuits are given in Paper 11.
3 BALL MILLS
The advantages and disadvantages of ball mi 11s may be listed:
Advantaues
1. Ball mills have been proved to be reliable and relatively simple

to operate and easy to maintain.
2. Ball mills are very versatile for different plant applications and
are used for grinding raw materials, cement and coal.
3. Continuingdevelopments are aimed at increased size of unit and improved

grinding efficiences.
Examples are: New methods of driving

New bearing designs
New mill linings and diaphragm designs
Improved grinding media
Disadvantages
1. Ball mills use more power than some other types of mill e.g.
roller mills.
2. Closed circuit grinding with ball mills requires considerable additional

plant for conveying and classification of the mill product.
3. Special arrangements have to be made for mill cooling - particularly

with cement mills.
The main applications of ball mills may be listed under the following
headings:
3,l RAW MATERIAL GRINDING (for dry process plants and closed circuit
grinding)
3.1.1 AIR SWEPT BALL MILLS
Are frequently used on conjunction with 4-stage preheater dry process plants
where the hot preheater exit gases are used to dry the raw materials. Some
limitation may be placed on the raw material moisture level which the mill
can accept dependent on the quantity and temperature of the preheater exit
gases. A typical limit is 8% moisture at a gas temperature of 35OOC. On
some installations an auxiliary furnace is fitted to provide additional heat
when seasonal increases in moisture occur.
3.1.2 AIR SWEPT BALL MILL FITTED WITH A DRYING CHAMBER
In some instances a separate drying chamber may be built in to the air-

swept mill body to provide additional drying capacity before the feed enters
the grinding chamber. Again an auxiliary furnace would be provided to supply
extra heat when necessary. The drying chamber contains lifting flights and
is separated from the main grinding chamber by means of a lifter diaphragm.
The air swept grinding chamber is of conventional design with an L/D of 2.0 =
2.5/l and may be fitted with a classifying lining. The raw mills at Ashaka
Works are of this design mainly because the shale can become very wet and
sticky in the rainy season.
3.1.3. TANDEM MILLS
Another development of the air swept ball mill is the tandem hammer mill
where a hammer mill is placed in tandem with the ball mill. The raw stone
is fed into the hammer mill for precrushing and drying before being finish
ground in the ball mill. Hot gases sweep through the crusher where the raw
stone is simultaneously crushed and dried before being carried up to a static
separator to remove the fines. The rejects are fed into the opposite end of
MATERIAL
INLET
1
SCREEN I I
r-----d/M ’ ’
MATERIAL
& AIR
OUTLET
Fig. 16.1 SECTION THROUGH AIR SWEPT MILL

Fig. 10.2 DRY RAW MILL- ASHAKA
/ + t++t +ttt+t+
&
+ f -I + + -i + +t tat t + .
mr*--u
+ + -t t + 0t +’/
I I
f-
++-+-++++ttttt
I /
DRYING’ CLASSIFYING’
CHAMBER LINING
Fig. 10.3 TANDEM GR INDING A N D DRYI NG PLANT
1 FEEDING BIN
2 PROPORTIONING BELT
WEIGHTMETERS
3 BELT FEEDER
4 DOUBLE PENDULUM LOCK
5 HAMMER MILL
6 GRAVITY AIR SEPERATOR
7 GRITS RETURN BELT WITH
WEIGHING DEVICE
8 PENDULUM LOCK
9 TUBE MILL
10 CYCLONE SEPERATOR
11 PRESSURE-TYPE WORM
1 2 MILL BLOWER
Fig 10.4 IMPACT HAMMER MILL OF TANDEM GRINDING PLANT
- v
. 7-l-I
FEEDERS
INLET CHAMBER
KILN GAS INLET
DISCHARGE PIPE
DEFLECTORS
ADDITIONAL
GAS INLET
a. MILL DISCHARGE
TRUNNION
the ball mill for fine grinding and are eventually picked up in the ho.t
gas stream from the crusher for classification with the crushed raw stone,
Drying is very rapid in this system as it occurs mainly in the crusher
and the ascension pipe leading to the static separator.
It is usual to provide an auxiliary furnace to boost the hot gases from

the preheater when the raw stone is .very wet. The maximum feed size to
the crusher is about 100mm.
In some cases additional silica may be needed in the raw mix (especially
for some dry process plants). To avoid high wear rates on the tandem crusher
the siliceous component may have to be ground separately or fed directly to
the ball mill.
3.1.4 BUCKET ELEVATOR MILLS
One of the limitations ot an air swept ball mill is that the whole system
is dependent on the transport of material by means of the gas stream. The
available fan power dictates how much material can be moved and this tends
to keep the recirculating load in the system down to about 75 - 150%. Some
advantages in grinding efficiency can be gained by operating at higher
recirculating loads and this can be achieved by conveying the material
mechanically by means of bucket elevators. In most bucket elevator
installations a recirculating load capacity up to 500% is designed into
the system. An added advantage of the bucket elevator mill is that the
grinding efficiency within the mill tends to be greater than in an air
swept mill due to the rather more controlled material flow.
Bucket Elevator mills are not designed for gas sweeping and hence they are
limited to drier raw materials- either intrinsically dry or dried in a
separate dryer prior to milling. A top limit of about 4% moisture
is usually applied to bucket elevator mill feed stock. Frequently
fine raw stone is fed to the elevator and dried in the separator as
the mill handles dried rejects.
Fig. 10.5 SECTION THROUGH SINGLE-CHAMBER MILL
3.1.5 CENTRAL DISCHARGE MILL
Central discharge mills attempt to combine the advantage of the air

swept mill and the bucket elevator mill in one unit. The basic mill design
is illustrated in Figure No. 10.6. Essentially the mill has a drying
chamber, a coarse grinding chamber and a fine grinding chamber. Wet feed
enters the drying chamber which is usually fitted with lifters to
improve the contact of the feed with the hot gas stream. After drying the
material passes into the coarse grinding chamber which is loaded with balls.
The ground material passes through a lifter diaphragm, into a discharge
chamber at the centre of the mill. The fines are carried away in the gas
stream up an ascension pipe into a static separator; rejects join the coarse
material from the mill which drop out into an elevator boot and is conveyed
to twin separators. The coarse rejects are passed via airslides to be
recirculated wither to the drying chamber inlet or to the secondary grinding
chamber inlet at the other end of the mill. The fine product is taken away
to storage from the static separator and mechanical classifyers.
One advantage of the centre discharge mill grinding system is that the fines
are removed from the first grinding chamber quite rapidly. The secondary
grinding chamber acts as a finish grinding mill with a more efficient non
air swept action.
The system is however fairly complicated and consequently more expensive

to purchase and maintain.
Some central discharge mills have been installed for grinding of cement but
they are mainly used for raw material grinding and they are used on certain
plants as regrind mills in association with Aerofall mills.
Fig. 10.6 CENTRAL DISCHARGE MILL
MATERIAL DRYING SECOND RECYCLE OF

INLET CHAMBER DISCHARGED MATERIAL GRINDING CHAMBER OVERSIZE MATERIAL
/
C E N T R A L DISCH4RGE
/
PRELIMINARY
OPENINGS
-i-
DISCHARGED MATERIAL
GRINDING CHAMBER
\
CLASSIFYING LINING
32 DENT MIH s
Ball Mills have been used almost universally for many years for the grinding
of cement and there has been a gradual evolution in their design. A
combination of separate ball and tube mills were used at one time but these
were eventually combined into a single unit dividied into a number of
grinding chambers separated by perforated diaphragms. The reason for.using
up to four chambers is to ensure separation of the different sized balls
along the mill to improve the grinding efficiency. A penalty is paid in
this arrangement however in slowing the flow of cement through the mill
and creating a high restriction to ventilating air flow through the mill.
External shell water cooling was used to keep the cement temperatures down.
As mills became larger the above arrangements became more and more
inadequate and modern cement mills are designed to have only two or three
chambers.
In a two chamber mill the first chamber is required to provide a sufficiently

fine feed to the second chamber for finish grinding. The requirement is met by
careful design of the mill lining (reverse step or ripple lining) and the
ball grading. The first chamber diaphragm has a controlling influence on the
retention time of the material in the chamber and the size of particles passing
into the second chamber. The second chamber may occupy 67 - 70% of the mill
length and is fitted with a spiral lifter classifying lining. The ball
charge is graded to handle the feed material from the first chamber and produce
the fineness of grind required. Careful attention is needed to prevent
material flushing through this chamber which would result in unwanted
high residues (and nibs) in the final product. Some manufacturers put
dam rings in the second chamber to help control the flow rate.
The two chamber arrangement helps to reduce the overall restriction through the
mill making ventilation more easy and reducing the fan requirements for the
mill air flow. Internal water cooling arrangements are easier, the water
sprays being fitted either on the mill diaphragm or more preferably at the
mill exit.
Two chamber mills are more amenable for use in a closed circuit milling
system where a shorter mill is needed (i.e. an L/D of 2.5 - 3.5).
Fig. 10.7 TWO COMPARTMENT UNIDAN MILL FOR CEMENT
CJassifying lining in compartment two
1. Feed head 6. Cover
2. Double diaphragm with lifters 7, BoltQd linars
3 Danula Ring5 8. Internal water cooling injection
4 . Outkt grate 9. t&!mbrane coup1 i ng
5. Vanes 10. Tortion shaft of the central drive
Fig.10.8 THREE-COMPARTMENT DRY GRINDING UNIDAN MILL

Mills with three chambers provide positiv,0 separation of the ball sizes in the
mill. Each chamber is charged with balls within predetermined size limits
and it is easier to ensure that the ‘grading is maintained along the mill
length than in a two chamber mill fitted with a classifying lining. Mill
linings are designed to match the size of ball used in each chamber and
the feed size of the material throughput. The type of lining chosen depends
on the hardness and size of the feed clinker and the required ball action.
The first chamber may for instance need a very vigorous ac,tion to deal
with difficult clinker and a large ripple lining would be used. The second
chamber would probably have a smaller ripple lining whilst the third chamber
could be smooth to assist attrition grinding for higher surface area
production.
3.2.1 MINIPEBS AND COMBIOAN MILLS
By means of extensive grinding tests in a large laboratory ball mill (2.2m

diameter) with different sizes of grinding media F.L. Smidth have established
that fine grinding of cement is more efficient using small grinding media.
More grinding surface is available for size reduction and the process is
effective so long as the feed material is sufficiently small for the media
to grind.
3.2.1.1 Minipebs Mill
To take advantage of the improved efficiency possible with small media

F.L. Smidth designed a separate mill using a specially manufactured small
grinding media called "Minipebs". Minipebs are manufactured from a high
chrome cast iron (28% Cr) called "Ducrodan" (e.g. B.F. 253) with good
wear resistant properties and a special shape similar to Cylpebs.
The mill circuit which is illustrated in Figure 10.9 consists of two mills
in tandem, the first mill is for coarse grinding to 250m2/kg, the second
"Minipebs" mill being specifically designed to grind to 400+ m2/kg in a
single chamber, open circuit operation. A new mill outlet had to be designed
--
Fig. 10.9 MILL INSTALLATION WITH MINIPEEJS FINISHING MILL

because of the difficulty of discharging the product without including
the small media which tends to be entrained in it. The discharge
arrangement includes a dam at the mill end, a screen in the trunnion and
a scoop for returning the separated media back to the grinding chamber.
The advantages and disadvantages of the mill may be stated:-
1. 5 - 10% lower energy consumption for fine grinding.
2. 20% reduction in capital cost as compared to a normal closed

circuit system.
But:
1. A grinding aid has to be used to aid surface area production and

to improve cement flow properties to aid separation of the small
media. The grinding aid is not permitted at present by B.S.12 and
the cost is appreciable.
2. The small media wears faster because of its additional surface

area.
3. There is a lack of demand for suff iciently large quantit ies of

rapid hardening cement.
4. The Minipeb mill is only suitable for fine grinding and it lacks the
flexibility of a closed circuit system.
For the above reasons Minipeb mills have not been widely adopted.
3.2.1.2 Combidan Mill
The Combidan mill is a development of the Minipeb concept using a single

mill with two chambers instead of two separate mills. The second chamber
is the fine grinding chamber and the design incorporates two main features;
Fig. 10.10 COMBIDAN MILL. Diameter 4,6m., length 13m
Fig. 10.11
CENTRE PIECE SCREENING PLATE
RESIDUE SPACE
THE COMBIDAN DIAPHRAGM RETAINS ALL OVERSIZE

PARTICLES IN THE FIRST MILL COMPARTMENT
Fiq. 10.12
SCREENING PLATE
SEPERATION CHAM6ER
THE COMBIDAN OUTLET RETAINS THE GRINDING MEDIA,

AND LIKE THE COMBIDAN DIAPHRAGM. HAS A LARGE
FLOW AREA
a) A screening diaphragm between chambers 1 and 2 designed to control
the size of the feed passing to the fine grinding chamber.
b) An outlet diaphragm designed to keep the small media from leaving

the mill.
The screening diaphragm is a perforated plate with 2mm wide slots

and a % slot area double that of a normal diaphragm. The plate is
protected from the larger grinding media by a substantial coarse
screen with 2Omn slots which allows the feed through but not the
media into the 75mm wide gap between the coarse and fine screens.
A scoop arrangement returns the oversize feed to the first chamber.
By protecting the fine screen wear is reduced on the plate diaphragm
for which a life of 20000 hours is claimed. The feed to the second
chamber is effectively controlled to 21x1 to enable the small media
to grind efficiently.
The outlet diaphragm is similar in design but a solid dam is used

to protect the outlet screen. Scoops are used to return the separated
media to the fine grinding chamber.
The designs are illustrated in Figure Nos.10.10, 10.11 and 10.12
The first chamber is larger than usual (about 38% of effective mill length)
to ensure a sufficiently long retention time in the first chamber to
produce the feed size needed for chamber 2.
Various claims are made for the Combidan mill:
1. Improved particle size distribution resulting in better early and

late strengths in the cement (at same surface area).
2. The mill is smaller and cheaper for the same output.
3. Can be used for OPC and RHF cements.
Blue Circle have not had the opportunity to test these claims.
3,3 WFT GRINDING Miu s
Wet grinding mills may be of the two chamber type with the second
chamber fitted with a classifying lining or three chambered mills with
more normal linings. Rubber linings have become more popular in recent
years as they are more easily fitted and maintained and stand up better
to corrosion in the wet mills.
Ball gradings tend to follow thos e used in cement mills, particularly in

the first chambers where adequate crushing of the raw feed is needed.
Raw materials tend to vary more in their hardness and grindability than
clinker and this must be taken into account when choosing the ball
grading. The presence of sand or free silica in the raw materials needs
special attention.
The trend to reduce slurry moistures in wet process works, to save kiln
fuel, has meant that thicker and more viscous slurries have to be ground.
These thicker slurries have a more pronounced effect in the fine
grinding chambers of wet mills and the ball sizes have to be chosen with
care. Smaller balls are needed to produce finer slurries but the slurries
tend to thicken up as they become finer and the smaller balls become
less effective due to their buoyancyincreasing i.e. the balls tend to
"float". To overcome this problem provisional recommendations have been
made to use a minimum ball size of 25mm in final chambers and investigations
are continuing. Wet mills are considered in more detail in Paper ~~-12.
384 AFROFA! I MItI s
Aerofall mills are a special case of a large diameter ball mill (23ft)
being used for crushing and drying in a single operation. They are used
in conjunction with regrind mills to produce raw meal for our U.K.
~epol kilns. Details of the milling circuit are given elsewhere.
The grinding media used is 13Omm (S ") forged media from Brindley's
the loading being up to 50 tonnes. The balls are allowed to wear down
to 3" before replacement. Experiments are in progress using heat
treated media (Brindleys) and a harder media (440 BHN) by Rheinstahl
which was not so successful.
Developments are also in hand to improve the mill linings to overcome
the problems with bolt breakages.
3,5 BAII MIH DFSIGN

The basic principles for mill design have been set out in the first
part of the paper; the requirements may be summarised as follows:
1. Works output, in tonnes per year cement (tpy).
2. Clinker output to suit (1) (tPY).
3. Raw materials needed to suit (2) (tPY).
4. Relative running hours of each section of the works plant to

calculate throughput rates (tph).
5. Fineness of grind (i) Surface area for cements (m2/kg).

(ii) % Residue for raw materials (% + 90 urn)
6. Grindability of (i) Cement (kWh/t).

(ii) Raw material (kWh/t).
7. Mill power, based on : tph x kWh/t = kW.
8. Factors affecting mill choice:
(1) Raw material moisture

(2) Raw material size, hardness and abrasivity
(3) Product fineness required
(4) Flexibility of operation
(5) Type of kiln and preheater
(6) Capital cost factors
(7) Operating cost factors
(8) Space requirements
3.5.1 MILL SIZING
Once the power requirement for the mill has been determined similar
sizing methods are used for raw material and cement grinding mills.
The expression common ly used in the Blue Circ le Group is:
Nett kW = 0.2846 DAWN
where "Nett kW" is the required power input to the mill only with
no allowances for transmission and motor losses.
D is the mill diameter, inside lining, m.

A is (1.073-J)
where J is the fractional mill volume loading
w is the weight of grinding media, t.
N is the mill speed, RPM
This expression is purely empirical and has been developed over a number
of years. For mill sizes between 1200 - 6000 HP it is accurate to
within i 6%.
Other formulae are constantly being evaluated to improve prediction

but generally they still rely on empirical factors.
3.5.1.1 Powamil
One example, based on dimensional analysis by Rose & Sullivan and

Evans, has been recently computerised by Research Divisionto facilitate
its application (POWAMIL BASIC program). Full scale mill tests are
being used to check its validity against pilot plant scale experiments.
3.5.1.2 F.L. Smidth formula
The expression used by F.L. Smidth is as follows:

N = 0.515 F.n,u.D.t.
Where N = Mill motor output power kW
F = Grinding media charge, tonne
n = Mill speed, rpm
U = Moment factor (see separate table10.3)

D = Mill diameter, inside lining, m
t = Centre of gravity distance from mill centre m
(see separate table 10.2)
An allowance of 5% for motor losses is made for calculating the power

input to the motor,
3.5.1.3 Blancs' formula
A very simple formula is quoted by Duda was devised by Blanc:
P = c.G. fi
Where P = mill power demand, HP (gross)
C = ball charge index
G = ball charge, t
D = mill diameter, inside lining, m
Value of index, c
Grinding media
DEGREE OF BALL LOADING
1
f
Large steel balls > 60111-a
Small steel balls < 6Omn
Cylpebs
Average steel media 11.5 10.6

-!-l-
9.9
9.5
9.2
9.53 /
8.5
8.2
8.0
8.23 j
7.0
6.8
6.0
6.8
Blanc's formula gives lower mill power figures than the DAWN formula
and is less flexible in use.
TABLE 1012
r CI-JARGE PARAMETERS
4 Ff H/D
11 0.415 0.802 0.334 0.834

12 0.444 0.7888 0.323 0.823
13 0.743 0.774 0.313 0.813
0.501 0.760 0.303 0.803
;z 0.529 0.749 0.293 0.793
16 0.556 0.738 0.284 0.784

0.581 0.728 0.274 0.774
;; 0.607 0.717 0.264 0.764
19 0.632 0.707 0.255 0.755
20 0.655 0.696 0.246 0.746
21 0.678 0.686 0.237 0.737

0.700 0.676 0.228 0.728
;s 0.721 0.666 0.219 0.719
24 0.741 0.657 0.211 0.711
25 0.761 0.648 0.202 0.702
I
26 0.782 0.639 0.194 0.694
27 0.799 0.629 0.185 0.685
28 0.816 0.619 0.177 0.677
29 0.832 0.610 0.168 0.668
30 0.849 0.601 0.159 0.659
31 0.864 0.592 0.152 0.652

32 0.877 0.583 0.143 0.643
33 0.890 0.573 0.135 0.635
34 0.902 0.564 0.127 0.627
35 0.913 0.554 0.119 0.619
36 0.611
37 0.603
38 0.595
39 0.587
40 0.958 0.509 0.079 0.579
I I
41 0.966 0.501 0.071 0.571
42 0.972 0.492 0.063 0.563
43 0.977 0.483 0.055 0.555
44 0.981 0.474 0.047 0.547
45 0.985 0.465 0.039 0.539
46 0.989 0.457 0.032 0.532

47 0.992 0.449 0.024 0.524
48 0.995 0.441 0.016 0.516
49 0.998 0.433 0.008 0.508
50 1.000 0.425 0 0.500
F.L. Smidth data

TAXE 1092 (C 0 N TW
CHARGE DENSITIES (tonnes charge/m3 mill volume)
9 large small CYl ceramic flint rods

balls balls pebs g=l.9 g=1.5 g=6.0
g=4.3 g=4.5 g=4.7
11 0.47 0.50 0.52 0.21 0.17 0.66

12 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.23 0.18 0.72
13 0.56 0.59 0.61 0.25 0.20 0.78
14 0.60 0.63 0.66 0.27 0.21 0.84
15 0.65 0.68 0.71 0.29 0.23 0.90
0.69 0.72 0.75 0.30 0.24 0.96

0.73 0.77 0.80 0.32 0.26 1.02
0.77 0.81 0.85 0.34 0.27 1.08
0.82 0.86 0.89 0.36 0.29 1.14
0.86 0.90 0.94 0.38 0.30 1.20
0.90 0.95 0.99 0.40 0.32 1.26

0.95 0.99 1.03 0.42 0.33 1.32
0.99 1.04 1.08 0.44 0.35 1.38
1.03 1.08 1.13 0.46 0.36 1.44
1:08 1.13 1.18 0.48 0.38 1.50
26 1.12 1.17 1.22 0.49 0.39 1.56

27 1.16 1.22 1.27 0.51 0.41 1.62
28 1.20 1.26 1.32 0.53 0.42 1.68
29 1.25 1.31 1.36 0.55 0.44 1.74
30 1.29 1.35 1.41 0.57 0.45 1.80
31 1.33 1.40 1.46 0.59 0.47 1.86

32 1.38 1.44 1.50 0.61 0.48 1.92
33 1.42 1.49 1.55 0.63 0.50 1.98
1.46 1.53 1.60 0.65 0.51 2.04
1.51 1.58 1.65 0.67 0.53 2.10
1.55 1.62 1.69 0.68 0.54 2.16

1.59 1.67 1.74 0.70 0.56 2.22
1.63 1.71 1.79 0.72 0.57 2.28
1.68 1.76 1.83 0.74 0.59 2.34
1.72 1.80 1.88 0.76 0.60 2.40
1.76 1.85 1.93 0.78 0.62 2.46

1.81 1.89 1.97 0.80 0.63 2.52
1.85 1.94 2.02 0.82 0.65 2.58
1.89 1.98 2.07 0.84 0.66 2.64
1.94 2.03 2.12 0.86 0.68 2.70
1.98 2.07 2.16 0.87 0.69 2.76

2.02 2.12 2.21 0.89 0.71 2.82
2.06 2.16
2.11 2.21
2.15 2.25
F.L.S. Data
Material Compartment Lining Internal Grinding media klrl/SM
fitting (100/50)
Type
None Balls 4.3 .71 11.08
lt2 Steel, None Rods 6.0 .55 11.98
rough
Danula Balls 4.3. .75 11.70
Sonex Balls 4.3 .65 10.15
None Balls 4.5 .72 11.76

None Cylpebs 4.7 .74 12.63
3 Steel, None Minipebs 4.7 -64 10.92
rough Danula Balls 4.5 .75 12.24
Danula Cylpebs 4.7 .7B 13.31
Danula Minipebs 4.7 .67 11.43
_I
1+2 Steel, None Ceramic 1.9 .75 5.17
+3 Flint None Stone 1.5 .75 4.09
None Balls 4.3 .63 9.83

lt2 Steel, None Rods 6.0 .50 10.90
rough
Danula Balls 4.3 .67 10.45
Sonex Balls 4.3 .57 8.90
-va
3 None Balls 4.5 .64 10.45
3 Steel, None Cylpebs 4.7 -66 11.26
? rough
s Danula Balls 4.5 .67 10.94
‘; Danula Cylpebs 4.7 .69 11.77
Steel, None Ceramic 1.9 .B5 5.86

lt2
+3 Flint None Stone 1.5 .85 4.63
ST Lifters Stone 1.5 -85 4.63
1 None Balls 4.3 .68 10.61

2 Steel, None Balls 4.5 .69 11.27
Rough
2 None Cylpebs 4.7 .71 12.11
2 Danula Cylpebs 4.7 .75 12.79
kl*I/SM (100/50) = 3.63 x t/m3 x u F I

I .L. Smidth data
3.5.1.4 Example of Sizing
Two examples of the "DAWN" formu la are set out below for a raw mi 11
and a cement mill.
Basic Data
Size of works: 1.2 x lo6 tonne per year cement

No. of kilns:
Kiln output: 570,000 tpy clinker = 1727 tpd each
(based on 5:: gypsum in cement and 330
days operation).
Raw mill capacity: 1727 x 1.1 x 1.6 = 3040 tpd
(based on 10% extra throughput and a
raw meal factor of 1.6).
Raw meal needed: 110032 x 106 tonne per year
The raw mill running hours are designed to be 20 hours for every 24
hours of kiln time.
Annual raw mill running hours = 330 x 20

= 6600 hours
Raw mill output = 1.0032 x 106/6600
= 152 tph
Raw meal grindability (gross) = 20kWh/t to 15% f 90 urn
Raw mill motor power = 20 x 152
= 3040kW (gross)
= 4075HP
a) Raw mill sizing

Using the DAWN expression:
Nett kW = 0.2846 D (1,073 - J) W.N.
To obtain the basic mill dimensions the mill parameters may all be
expressed in terms of "0".
Mill Speed
Mill speed is usually calculated as a percentage of the critical speed,
N C' which is the soeed at which the mill charge begins to centrifuge.
Critical speed may be calculated as a function of mill diameter i.e.
The usual range for mill speed is 70 - 80:: P&. In the above example take
31.65
mill speed N = 75% NC = -
9
Mill Shape
Ball mill shapes are expressed in terms of the length to diameter ratio,
L/D, using the effective length of the mill L and the inside lining
diameter II for mill design calculations.
In the present calculation a value of 2.35:1 inside lining is taken for a

short air swept raw mi 11 calculation.
Volume Loading and Eled ia Weight
Volume loading is dependent to some extent on the type of mill, but the
calculation is based on determining the mill size and volume loading
needed to draw the power required for the production required. To be
able to calculate the mill size a volume load value for "J" has to
be selected. For an air swept ball mill a value of 28% is suitable.
Above 30% a loss of efficiency has been met in practice.
The weight of media is related to the % volume load:
W = Mill volume x J x Media density
In the present case W = 4 x D2 x 2.35D x 0.28 x 4.48
The standard density used for media is 4.48t/m3

(Manufacturers data can be used when available).
Thus : W = 2.3152D3 tonne
Nett kW
Nett kW is the actual power input to tiie mill body and is calculated
from the motor input power with factors for motor loss and transmission
loss. If actual data is not available a safe factor for gross to
nett power conversion is 0.9 in the present case:
Nett kW = 0.9 x 4075 x 0.746

= 2736kW
The mill size calculation thus becomes:
Nett kW = 0.28460 (1.073-0.28) 2.3152D3 .y

L
2736 = l6.538D3'5
Therefore D = 4.30m inside lining

L= 4.30 x 2.35
= lO.llm
Basic mill shell dimensions are : 4.45m0 x lO.llm allowing for 75mm
thick lining plates. It would be usual to look for the manufacturers
nearest stock size mill to the above calculated dimensions.
e.g.F.L.S. mill size. 4.6m0 x 10.5m : 3150 kW
Check Calculation
Nett kW = 0.28460 (1.073-J)W.N.

D = 4.30m
J = 0.28
w = 2.3152D3 = 184t
31.55
N = = 15.26RPM
Therefore Nett kd - 0.2846 4.30 ( 1.073-0.28) 184. 15.26

= 2727 Nett kW
= 3029 gross kW
= 4060HP
Summarising
Mill size 4.45m0 x lO.lm

Mill motor 3040 kW Mill output 152tph (max)
Mill speed 15.3RPM Raw meal residue 15% t 90um
Hill load 184 tonne Raw meal grindability 20kWh/t gross
Mill volume load 28%
b) Cement Mill Sizing
Sizing of a cement mill for the works used in the raw mill example
follows a similar pattern but using slightly different criteria for the
mill throughput rate and the ball loading. Maximum demand power
limitations in the winter season limit the running time to 16h per day.
Cement output = 1.2 x lo6 tpa

Mill running time = 330 days x 16 hours/day = 5280h
Mill output needed = 227 tph (2 mills)
For the clinker grindability an allowance of 35kWh/tonne gross for a
surface area Of 300m2/kg should prove adequate.
Thus for two mills the motor size would be:
227 x 35/2 = 3973kW(say 54OOHP or 4028kW)

Nett kW = 4028 x 0.931 = 3750 kW
For the mill sizing:
Take L/D = 3.5:1

Mill speed = 0.75Nc
Ball loading = 30%
Thus 3750 = 0.2846D (1.073-0.3)W 0.75 _42.2

L D
w = ; D2 3.5D 0.3 4.48
= 3.6945 D3
and D = 4.15m inside lining (4.30m inside shell)

L = 14.5m
Check Calculation
Nett kW = 0.2846 4.15(1.073-0.3)W N

W = 3.6945D3 = 264t
N = 15.5RPM
Nett kW = 3746
Gross kW = 4023 (0.931)
Gross
(motor HP)= 5393
Summarising
Mill size 4.3m8 x 14.5m

Mill volume load% 30
Mill media weight t 264
Mill output (max) tph 227
Cement surface area m2/kg 300
Cement grindability kWh/t 35
Mill motor size kW 4030 (5400HP)
Mill speed RPM 15.5
N.2. Nearest F.L.S. mill sizes : 4.4m@ x 13m 3930 kW

4.6mfl x 13m 4230 kW
3.5.1.5 Standard Sizes
It is common practice, particularly when building a new works, to

standardise on mill and mill motor sizes as much as possible. This
policy is particularly useful for works in remote areas where
replacement of spares can be an important factor in keeping the
works operating. Oversizing of motors may occur in some instances but
this is of less consequence than being able to interchange motors at
short notice.
In the same way it is usually cheaper to accept a manufacturers stock

size of mill when deciding on a works specification. As an example
the standard mill sizes of F.L. Smidth are listed for reference purposes
(Appendix 2).
3.d Phi 1 INTFRNN s
Mills are separated into grinding chambers by means of diaphragms, the

numbers of chambers being dependent on the L/D ratio and the type of
mill. The function of each chamber is to ensure that the feed material
is ground sufficiently finely for further grinding in the next chamber.
Diaphragms hav e an important effect on the performance of a grinding
chamber by allowing the finer material to Pass into the next
chamber whilst retaining the coarser material for further grinding. The
slot width controls the size of the material passing through whilst the
available slot area controls the rate of the throughput. Thus the feed
level or voidage filling in the chamber is controlled to ensure a suffic-
iently long retention time of the material in the chamber. It is important
for long running times that wear on the diaphragm slots is kept to a
minimum and blockages or peening over of slot edges are reduced as far
as possible.
Whilst the above factors operate for all the chambers in the mill,
it is particularly important in the first chamber for the ball size to be
sufficiently large to crush the maximum size of the feed. If the feed
contains large lumps of hard material,even only a small percentage, and
the balls are not large enough to break them by impact crushing,this hard
material (it may be over burned clinker or hard inclusions from the
quarry) tends to accumulate in the first chambers and eventually fill it
up. Modern practice is to ensure that the feed size to the mills is
controlled by precrushing to ensure the above problem does not occur.
Once the first chamber is made to function properly the subsequent chambers
in the mill stand a better chance of working effectively with the
correctly sized feed. The ball grading is designed on the principle that
the largest balls are big enough to crush the largest sized "nibs" in the
feed whilst providing sufficient smaller media to grind to the fineness
required.
The choice of mill lining must also fit in with the overall design of the
mill. First chamber linings are usually designed to improve the crushing
action of the larger sized balls by lifting them higher to make a bigger
impact on the large sized feed. Large ripples are one way of achieving
this requirement. The ripple profile matches the size of the largest balls.
The crushing action of the first chamber is replaced by attrition grinding -

particularly in the last chamber of the mill where the material being
ground becomes too fine for impact grinding. The ball action needs to be
much more compact and the lifting action on the balls is not necessary,
linings become much smoother and small ripples or smooth plates are often
used. The above effects are well illustrated in the film taken on the
glass ended mill.
The other main type of lining is the classifying lining which is designed
to segregate the ball sizes in a mixed charge in the second chamber of
a 2 chamber mill. The larger balls are intended to be kept at the feed
inlet end of the chamber to grind the coarser material whilst the smaller
media grinds finely towards the mill outlet. Different designs are
available made by different manufacturers.
Following the above general discussion of mill internals more detailed

consideration is given to each aspect.
3.6.1 CHAMBER LENGTHS
3.6.1.1 Open Circuit Mills
Open circuit mills are usually made with an L/D ratio of 4.5 - 5.5 to
provide a sufficiently long residence time for grinding. The finer the
grind the more important this factor becomes. Chamber lengths are chosen
in the following ranges taking into account the maximum size and hardness
of the feed material and the product required:
1st Chamber 25 - 35%
2nd Chamber 15 - 25;;
3rd Chamber 45 - 5%
3.6.1.2 Closed Circuit Mills
Closed circuit mills have the following ranges for L/D ratio:
Single Chamber 2.0 - 2.5

Two Chambers 2.5 - 4.5
Three Chambers up to 5.5
(the three chambered mills may have been converted from
open circuit mill).
The chamber lengths are chosen in the ranges:
Chamber 1 25 - 4 5
Chamber 2 55 - 75
and Chamber 7 20 - 30
Chamber 2 20 - 30
Chamber 3 50
for 2 and 3 chamber mills respectively.
For harder materials the choice of a larger first chamber ensures a

longer residence time with the heaviest balls producing a finer feed
for the remainder of the mill. In a two chamber mill this function is
vital to avoid having large nibs entering the second chamber. If a
classifying lining is fitted in the second chamber these large nibs
can migrate towards the mill exit where the smaller media is not able
to grind them.
3.6.2 MILL DIAPHRAGMS
The design of a grinding mill is a compromise between providing crushing

capacity in the first chamber and finer grinding capacity in the
subsequent chambers. Many years ago a separate short ball mill was used
for crushing followed by a tube mill for finish grinding. Since then
the two functions have been combined into a single unit resulting in a
much simpler installation with benefits in overall operation and
maintenance. Various means have been adopted to reach 'the compromise.
We now have 3 chambered tube mills with carefully graded ball sizes in
each chamber and specially designed lifters. Alternatively 2 chambered
mills are used the first chamber designed more for crushing, the second
chamber containing a mixed ball charge used in conjunction with a
classifying lining. These 2 chamber mills may be either open or closed
circuit depending on the range of product required.
The early tandem arrangement of mills has not been entirely abandoned and
one development is the FL8 Minipeb milling system, which is discussed later.
As previously mentioned mill diaphragms fulful two main functions:
(a) Separation of the ball sizes in a mill

(b) Control of the flow of material through the mill
(a) When a 3 chambered mill is designed each chamber has its own
range of ball sizes and these need to be kept separate for
maximum grinding efficiency. Diaphragms are used to separate
the balls for this purpose.
lb) In addition to separating the grinding media the diaphragms are

used to control the flow of material through the mill. It is
important that sufficient time is allowed in a chamber for
grinding to occur before the material passes on. The flow
is induced by more material being fed into the mill. Special
designs of diaphragm are also made to be more positive in
action and control the level of the feed material in the
chamber.
The basic design features for a mill diaphragm are as follows:

3.6.2.1 Slot Size
Slot sizes are chosen so that only the material which has been ground
finely enough will pass through into the next chamber, Common ranges
are, for a 3 chamber cement mill:
1st diaphragm: 7mm

2nd diaphragm: 7mm
Outlet diaphragm:&un
3.6.2.2 Slot Profile
Slots are designed to be narrow at the approach side opening out into
the discharge side so that the risk of blockage of the diaphragm is
reduced. Each manufacturerfavours his own design of slot profile and
some are more prone to wear than others. The main danger is the
peening over of the leading edges of the slots by ball impacts reducing the
slot size. Modern designs reduce this risk by having a curved profile.
Pfeiffer slots are machined into the diaphragm, but wear more rapidly.
3.6.2.3 Slot Area
The range of slot area of the diaphragm face is from 3.X to 13%. The
more area that is provided the higher the throughput capacity. Rates of
passage of material are presented in the F.L. Smidth table 10.4 for
different mill types.
3.6.2.4 Slot Arrangement
Slots are arranged either radially or circumferentially, the latter

design making more area available for the passage of material as the
diagram illustrates. The well known Pfeiffer diaphragm is of this
pattern - Fig. 10.14.
The central hole in the diaphragm is provided to allow the passage of
air for mill ventilation for cement mills. Wet mills are not
ventilated.
3.6.2.5 Sing1 e or Dotible Diaphragms
Single plate diaphragms ar,0 used simply for dividing two chambers
and their design follows the above criteria.
Double diaphragms are generally of the lifting type having lifting

arms built into the space between the two plates to provide a more
positive action to the material flow. They are also used in trunnion
discharge mi'ils to carry the mill product out of the mill.
The first plate of a double lift diaphragm is virtually similar

to a single plate type whilst the second plate is usually solid providing
a transfer space between the plates connected to a central hole through
which the material passes into the next chamber.
Double lifter diaphragms have the following features:
Advantages
1. Strongly constructed particularly for large diameter mills

2. Positive conveying action helping to convey material and
preventing chamber over filling.
Disadvantages
1. Take up valuable mill length

2. May empty previous chamber too quickly promoting
accelerated media wear.
3. Cost more and are more costly to maintain
4, . Create more restriction in the mill, requiring a higher
suction fan for the ventilation system.
3.6.2.6 Variable Diaphragm
S.A. Slegten has invented a variable double diaphragm which is aimed

at controlling the rate of flow of material from the first chamber.
TABLE 1OA
PASSAGE THROUGH DIAPHRAGMS
Slot width Closed-circuit : 6 - 8mrn
Open-circuit : 4mm
1. First diaphragm
Dry 2. Second diaphragm About 4 t/dm2/h
O?rtlet head
Slot width Normally 4m
1. First diaphragm 8 m3/dm2/h

Wet 2. Second diaphragm 9 m3/dm2/h
Outlet head 10 m3/dm2/h
Peripheral grate 3.0 m3/dm2/h

ST*
Radial grate 2.5 m3/dm2/h
I
*Wash drum (F L Sa!iZth da:a)

The mechanism comprises a set of variable pitch radial scoops which
control the rate of passage of material through the diaphragm. The
original design was developed to include an external control mechanism
so.that changes can be made without having to enter the mill. A
claim was made that the diaphragm can be linked into the mill control
system to keep the material level constant irrespective of the
variations in the mill operation using a microphone to assess the level
of the void filling in the mill.
Recent trials have not been successful in proving the above claims and
a simpler pre-set arrangement is now used.
3.6.3 DAM RINGS
Dam rings may be fitted in the fine grinding chamber of a low L/D
cement mill or a wet grinding mill to help prevent the surging of
material through the mill and improve the mill retention time. Nell
known examples of these dam rings are the Danula rings fitted by
F.L. Smidth in their Unidan mills.
3.6.4 MILL LININGS
Originally mill linings were f itted to protect the mill she 11 from
wear and this remains their ma in purpose. Lining design is constantly
changing so that now they are used to improve the tumbling action of
the grinding media and to afford some control of their size distribution
along the length of the mill. Mention has already been made of the
compromise which mill design strikes between the crushing action in
the first chamber and the attrition grinding in the fine grinding
chamber. As it is impossible to drive one end of the mill at a
different speed from the other, differences in mill linings enable
changes of ball action in different chambers of the mill to take place.
Fig. 10.13 DOUBLE DIAPHRAGM WITH
RADIAL SLOTS
Fig. 10.14 PFEIFFER DOUBLE DIAPHRAGMS
3a 3b 3c
_, . . . .
D a)‘.
3f 39
00 Q
Fig.10.15 SLEGTEN DIAPHRAGM WORKING PRINCIPLE
Exploded view of the diaphragm with on the left an enlarged scoop. 3a
shows x-y cross section,enlarged,the scoop is in the fully open position
3b and 3c show the x-y section with the scoop in the intermediate and
closed positions. 3e is c view along Z of the discharge deflector of the
scoop, 3f and 3g show the same with the scoop in the 3b and 3c positions.
PART OF SLEGTEN DIAPHRAGM
Fig. 10.16
F.L.S. D A N U L A R I N G W I T H DRAGPEG LINING PLATE
Fig. 10.17
3.6.4.1 Selection of Liner Type - Cement mills
In conventional open circuit tube mills the choice of lining may

be as follows:
Chamber 1 Smooth circumferentially reverse stepped plates are used

to improve the lifting action of the balls to increase crushing and
avoid slip. The plates are placed with the thick edge trailing
otherwise there is an increase in power consumption, a loss of
efficiency and an increased wear rate. With hard clinker large
ripple plates (two ripples per plate) have been used with good effect.
This type of plate lifts the larger balls higher in the mill accentuat i n9
the crushing action in the chamber.
Chamber 2 Small ripple linings e.g. F.L.S. Dragpeb.
Chamber 3 & 4 Small ripp e linings or smooth 1 inings.
N.B. Dragpeb linings are limited to mills less than 3.5m diameter
and media less than 1009 n piece weight.
The intention in the fine grinding chamber is to provide a much more

compact grinding load which encourages a more efficient attrition
grinding action (see the film of ball action in glass ended mill).
3.6.4.2 Classifying Linings
The principle of matching the size of the grinding media to the feed
size along the grinding path in a mill has been stressed and the
efficiency of a mill depends to a large extent on this idea. The
trend now is towards two chambered mills with the second chamber
fitted with a classifying lining. Earlier attempts to use a single
chamber mill only proved to be going too far, the classifying action
resulting in too many nibs being classified as small media which filled
the mill outlet end and stopped flow. First chambers are now
designed to produce a feed fine enough for the second chamber.
The main advantages of a classifying lining are:
1. Reduction in the number of diaphragms to install and

maintain.
2. Charging and regrading of the media in the chamber is

simplified.
3. Mill ventilation is improved because of less restriction

due to the diaphragms.
Disadvantages are:
1. Some nibs may be carried over into the product as they

tend to be classified as smal 1 med ia, and can escape through
the outlet diaphragms.
2. Due to the plates being thicker some loss of mill diameter

is experienced.
Classifying Lining design
Classifying linings have only become popular in the last ten years
despite having been patented by an American, Car-man in 1923. There
are a number of different designs on the market but they all have the
same principle of a circumferential wedge facing against the material
flow through the mill. The classification action of the lining on
the ball sizes results in a decrease in size along the grinding path.
Thus as the product becomes finer the balls become smaller and the
theory of matching the ball siz e to the fineness of the product is
followed.
In the Slegten design the classifying action is combined with a

lifting action. The F.L. Smidth design spaces out the wedge plates
to reduce the loss in effective mill diameter due to the thicker plates.
3.6.4.3 Boltless Linings
The normal method of fixing lining plates to the mill shell with bolts
has always been a source of problems with shell weakening and bolt
maintenance. In 1969 a trial was made with an 800HP mill at Sundon Works
which was fitted with a boltless lining. This particular design was due
to S-A. Slegten. The first chamber lasted over 8 years whilst the
second chamber classifying lining is expected to last 12 years.
The advantages of a boltless lining are:
(a) Ease of installation

(b) Less likelihood of plate cracking as these are usually
associated with bolt holes.
(c) Unsound castings are less likely as the castings are simpler.
(d) Bolt maintenance is eliminated
(e) Mill leakage from bolt holes is eliminated
Disadvantages may be listed as :
(a) The castings must be made very accurately and be well finished
and expert installation would be needed. There would be an
increase in the intial cost due to these factors.
(b) When the liners become worn they may crack more easily and fall out.
(c) Boltless linings are not normally recommended for older mills
due to possible mill shell imperfections.
A boltless lining was fitted in the first chamber of Plymstock 3000HP

mill in October 1975 and took only 22 hours to fit. After 3 years the
performance is stated to be good. The new (1979) 1600/1200HP mill at
Magheramorne is fitted with a boltless lining made by Magotteaux. The
diagrams given as Figs. 10.22, 10.23 and 10.24.
3.6.5 GRINDING MEDIA: SIZE SELECTION
When deciding on a ball grading for a specific grinding mill a few basic
rules are generally followed. The maximum ball size in a chamber should be
just large enough to break the maximum feed size taking into account the
REVERSED STEP LINING PLATE
fig.10.18
RIPPLED LINING
Fig.10.19
CARMAN L I N I N G
SLEGTE N - MAGOTTEAUX L I N I NG
FLS LINING
Fig. 10.20 CLASSlFYlNG LININGS

I tti,
I I I\ "-- T---T ---- t ---1---7--/
CLASSIFYING RIPPLE LINING PLATE

Fig. 10.21
i
I
1
1
1
I
A I
‘I w---------4 ‘ I I
jr-----I 1 1
Fig. 10.22 BOLTLESS LINING PLATE
DIRECTION OF ROTATION
1
1
MILL \
SHELL ; I
Fig. 70.23 BOLTLESS LINING PLATE -SECTION

Fig. 10.24 BOLTLESS LININGS FIXING METHOD
SECURITY
WEDGE
\ SPECIAL SHIM-TYPE
\ WEDGE
LINER PLATE
‘CARDBOARD
BACKING
MILL SHELL/
hardness of the material to be ground. In the first chamber balls larger
than 90mm are not normally recommended, because of the risk of ball breakage
and damage to the lining plates, particular?y with hard media.
The choice of smallest ball s ze depends on the fineness of grind, the slot
size in the outlet diaphragm, buoyancy effects (especially with thick slurries)
and manufacturing costs. The smallest media is usually 12mm except for the
special media used by F.L. Sm dth in their Minipeb and Combipeb mills which
will be discussed separately.
3.6.5.1 Methods of Selection of Grinding kledia Sizes
Cement Mills
__----------
An early method of selection using the so ca lled 'Un i versa? Ball Grading
Curve' has been superseded after development studies by a grading recommended
by the Northern Area Technical Services (NATSD). The change was made as
it was found that the 'Universal' ball grading had insufficient larger balls
in the first chamber to prepare the feed for the second chamber. The effect
was particu 1 arly noticeable with the modern two chamber mills using a
classifying lining in the second chamber which need a properly prepared
feed to avo d nibs in the final product.
It is empha S ised that the N. Area grading is used as a guide only and is not
intended as a rigid ball grading for all mills. Each mill is considered
individually taking into account feed size and hardness, mill diameter and
chamber lengths, lining plate profiles, diaphragm design and the final
product required. In fact all the mill design parameters are considered
together as they are all part of the overall mill design. Mill manufacturers
usually suggest ball grading to be used with their mills and this may be part
of the conditions laid down for a guaranteed performance. These stipulations
may limit the changes which can be made unless difficulties are met in
meeting the guarantee.
After an intial starting up per iod the ball charge adopts an "equilibrium"
grading which is controlled as near to the "ideal" grading as possible
by means of the "make up" added to the mill. There are various theories
as to the relative wear rates of different ball sizes in mills but in the
main the make up change consists of the largest ball sizes specified for
TABLE 10.5 NORTHERN AREA MEDIA GRADING
Size Aim Cum. ‘IO Chamber
him> (“lo of charge)
90 13.5 13.5
80 4-5 18.0
1 st
70 4.0 22 * 0
60 5.5 27 - 5
50 5.5 33.0
40 6.5 39.5
30 6.0 45.5
2nd
25 13-o 58.5
20 20.0 78.5
17 21 . 5 100.0
the chamber being made up. This procedure applies particularly for
first chambers, second chambers may need a more careful inspection of the
ball grading to ensure the correct grading is maintained.
In the case of the cement mill previously sized : 4.3mO x 14Sm 5400HP
Media weight = 264t at 30% volume load
Media grasing would be, using the N. Area grading for a 2 chamber
mill:
mm
- tonne cum tonne
90 36 36
80 12 48
70 10 58
60 15 73
-
73
-
50 15 88
40 17 105
30 16 121
25 34 155
20 53 208
17 56 264
-
191
-
Total 264
-
The chamber lengths are : 27.5% = 4m

72.5% = 10.5m
For comparison the F.L. Smidth equilibrium gradings for three

chambered mills are:
Ball Size
Chamber 90 mm 23 23
80 mm 32 32
70 mm 21 21
60 mm 24 24
100 100
Chamber 50 mm 42 42
40 mm 42 42
30 mn 16 16
100
Chamber 3 25 mm 40 20
so ma 41 46
75 irii i9 34 i
100 :oo I
The overall grading is calculated from these figures dependent on the
chamber lengths e( % volume load decided upon for each chamber. Grading
A is designed for closed circuit dry grinding and wet grinding. Grading
3 is for an open circuit cement mill, and is quite similar to the Northern
Area grading.
Dry Raw Mills
Ball mills used in dry process works are often single chamber mills operating
in closed circuit. They may be air swept mills using the preheater exit
gases for drying the raw materials or else employ elevators to transfer the
raw material round the closed circuit system. These systems are discussed
in detail in another paper but mill internals may conveniently be discussed
at this stage.
Single chamber mills often have a classifying lining and a carefully

graded ball charge normally specified by the mill manufacturer to enable
the mill to meet the guaranteed output and fineness. The mill may also
incorporate a separate drying chamber which contains lifters to tumble
the raw material feed to increase the surface area contacting the drying
gases. A diaphragm feeds the material into the grinding chamber for final
grinding. The feed size should be carefully controlled to match the mill
specification. An example of this type of mill is the Polysius raw mill
installed at the new Ashaka Works.
The ball grading specified is detailed below and is compared with the grading
for the Humboldt air swept mill at Hope Works.
Bal 1 gradings for air swept mills cover a narrower s ize range than a tube
mill as the fines are picked up by the gases sweeping the mill and are
separated out in the static separator so there is no need for balls less
than 30mm. It is important that the mill feed size is small enough to be
ground by the largest balls in the mill (usually 90 mm)
Polysius grading for the air iwept ball mill at Ashaka:
% Cum % t Cum t
9 0 mm 9.6 9.6 75 15
8 0 mm 9.6 19.2 15 30
7 0 mm 14.7 33.9 23 53
6 0 mm 14.7 48.6 23 76
5 0 mm 14.7 63.3 23 99
4 0 mm 22.0 85.3 34 133
30 mm 14.7 100.0 23 156
Mill size 4.4 rnB x 12m (including 2m drying chamber).

Volume loading 26%
Mill speed 15.1 RPM
Mill motor 2250 kW
Feed size ~30 mm lump size
Hope Works gradings : Humboldt Air Swept Mill
Ball Size Original Grading Humboldt Grading Dec.1977
t % Cum :i t 0,,O Cum %
80 mm 19.5 10 10 30 15.4 15.4
70 mm 29.0 15 25 -
60 mm 39.0 20 45 49 25.1 40.5
50 mm 49.0 25 70 48 24.6 65.1
40 mm 39.0 20 90 48 24.6 89.7
30 mm 19.5 10 100 20 10.3 100.0
TOTALS 195 100 195 100
Mill Size 4.6 m@ x 10.5m

Volume loading 27.3%
Mill Speed 14.36 RPM
Mill Motor(s) 3545 kW (2650 kW drawn)
Output 148 tph @ 15.5% +90pm
Fig. 10.25 COMPARISON OF PROPOSED MEDIA GRADING FOR HOPE 6000 HP MILL
0 ~
0 lo 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
O/o EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF MILL

4 T H E AEROFALL MILL
The Aerofall mill system which was originally used in the mining industry
has been found to be particularly useful for the handling of wet sticky
materials which are difficult to crush and grind in more normal systems.
They are used exclusively in the U.K. in the preparation of raw meal for the
Lepol Works, grinding mixes based on limestone and shale.
The Aerofall system comprises:
1. The Aerofall mill

2. feed system
3. Induced draft fan
4. Classification and collecting system for mill product
5. Hot air furnace to supply hot gases for drying
6 Dedusting system for cleaning exhaust gases
7. Regrind mill for grinding coarse rejects
Grinding takes place in two stages: the Aerofall mill combines drying,
crushing and coarse grinding in a single unit to a grit which is finished
off in a regrind mill. The Aerofall mill product fineness is about 60%
on the 90 urn sieve from which the fines are separated in a three stage
classifying system. The regrind mill may be a Polysius double rotator
or a straight forward tube mill.
Basically the Aerofall mill is a large diameter short air swept ball mill
with a semi-autogenous grinding action. A ball loading of 35 tonne of
130 mm balls occupies about 15% of the mill volume in our standard 23 it
diameter U.K. mills. The total mill load of 30% is made up with mill
feed. Instead of normal lifters there are 48, 6" high lifting rails
round the mill periphery. Special deflector plates are fitted to the
end walls and these together with the lifters and the ball charge combine
to give a crushing and grinding action to the mill feed. This action
is complex and may be divided into various zones as indicated in the
diagram. Feed material up to 9" (225 mm) may be accepted and the larger
lumps contribute to the autogenous grinding action of the mill. The
mill products are carried away in the hot gas stream to the primary
classification chamber where the coarse material drops out. The fines
pass on to the classification and collection system, whilst the coarse
material is returned to the Aerofall mill or the regrind mill for
further grinding.
I
j
1
-. - i
-.-
/
i
i
1
I
i
I
I
1
1
Fig. 10.26 AEROFALL M ILL

Legend
0 Aerofall mill
0 Feed system
0 Draft fan
04 a Vertical ciassif ier
04 b Cyclone collectors
0 Air heater
8 Exhaust system
Fig. 10.27 THE AEROFALL MILL SYSTEM
impact bars
Fig. 10.28 CROSS-SECTION OF THE AEROFALL MILL

F i g . 1 0 2 9 MILLING A C T I O N I N
A N AEROFALL MILL
TABLE lo,6
Dunbar Aerofall milling system

- current performance (1979).
Maximum output 218 tph. DRM 0 13% + 90 urn
Air requirements:- for 215 tph DRPI (using coo ler air for drying)
3.843 x 1000 kg/h

"2O
Filter air 776
Inleak 134163
Cooler Air 447209
587991 kg/h = 458,330 Fim3/h.
Air/DRM ratio : 2.73
MILL SPECIFICATION - Aerofall mill
Mill diameter 7 m B (23 it)

Mill length 1.85m
Mill Speed 12.8 RPM
L/D : 0.26
Mill motor 1800 HP
Mill output 780 tph
Mill loading (media) 35 t of 130 m steel balls
Mill control sonic
Feed size 230 mm
Product size 60% + 90 pm
Fuel consumption hot air furnace
The Aerofall mill has large diameter trunnions through which the mill i 8
fed and the product extracted in the exhaust gas stream. The trunnions
are supported on pivoted shoe hydrodynamic bearings which are reported t0
be reliable in practice. The lubrication system provides a 2000 p.s.i

hydrostatic lift for start up and a low pressure 15 p.s.i. for normal
operation.
The power drawn by an Aerofall mill is a function of the ball charge

and the level of stone in the mill. Depending on the feed rate, the air
flow and the mill charg e,a condition of the mill drawing peak power exists
which appears to coincide with optimtim performance. On site tuning is
needed to achieve this condition and i+L has been found that there is
some advantage in running the mill more slowly than is normal in the
mining industry.
The feed rate to the mill is controlled by use of the Milltronic sonic
control system which measures th e sound intensity of the mill with a
microphone placed close to the mill shell.
4,l PIILL I INING MO D I F I C A T I O N S
Problems with maintenance and replacement of the deflector plates prompted

the Works to consider whether they gaveany better results than a smooth lining.
Experiments on a pilot mill (5 ft) indicated that a smooth lining gave
better output then a deflector lining. In addition the tests showed a
decrease in output with an increase in critical speed, more particularly
with a deflector lining.
Full scale tests were done at Cauldon Works in progressively replacing

deflector linings with smooth linings. The results showed that no difference
to the output occurred by removal of the feed side deflectors. As the
outlet side deflectors were removed (inner followed by outer) improved
outputs were obtained until when a completely smooth lining was fitted a
207: reduction in output resulted. The critical deflectors appear to be
the outlet side outer sections.
As increased wear on the rail liners occurred when operating with only
four outlet outer deflectors,a full set of outer deflectors on both
sides was fitted and the rail design modified. All the Aerofall mills are
now fitted with this combination of linings, but problems are still being
experienced with cracked linings and broken bolts.
5 ROLLER flILLS
Although Ball mills have been used in the cement industry for a long
time attempts to improve their grinding efficiency have had only a limited
success. As grinding of raw materials and cement is one of the main energy
consuming processes used other means of grinding have been sought. One of
the machines coming into greater prominence is the roller mill which
intrinsically uses less energy.
5,l DE S C R I P T I O N
Roller mills, also called edge runner mills and vertical spindle mills, are
a modern air swept version of an old design of milling machine using
millstones on edge. Two or more rollers under pressure rest on a driven
horizontal table on to which the material to be ground is fed and subsequently
squeezed under the rollers. Air sweeps the ground material up into a
bult-in classifer which returns the rejects to the table for further grinding.
The air swept fines are carried over to a cyclone separator and dedusting
plant from which they are transferred to raw meal blending silos.
Roller mills are capable of drying and grinding coarse wet feed up to
80 - 200 mm in size, they are compact in size with the classifer built
in to the mill body and they have a lower power consumption compared
to ball milling grinding systems. These mills may be operated under
suction or under pressure according to the overall requirements of the
plant. Their control systems are arranged to match which ever system
is chosen but basically the fineness of grind is controlled by the rate
of feed and the setting of the classifier.
In a ball mill the process of grinding produces progressively more and
more fines as the material passes through the mill and this higher proportion
of fine material interferes with the size reduction progress. This is
the phenomenon called "cushioning" and is one important reason for using
closed circuit grinding. The fines separation process is relatively slow
however i.e. the fines are not removed as soon as they are produced and
the more efficient "single particle crushing 'mechanism cannot function
so readily. In the case of the roller mill the grinding and separation
processes are much more intimately related as the feed passes beneath
the rollers on the grinding path and comes into immediate contact with
the hot air stream passing through the outer ring of ports, see fig.No.10.34.
The milled products are swept up into the internal classifier and
separation of the fines occurs in seconds. The cushioning effect found
in a ball mill does not occur and the more efficient grinding is reflected
in the lower energy requirement for grinding. However a penalty is paid
in the additional fan power needed for the air sweeping of the mill which
can be as much as the mill power itself. Roller mills are able to accept
a larger feed size than a ball mill and it is possible to leave out one
crushing stage in the raw material preparation plant. Some limitation
is placed on the type of raw material which can be ground in roller mills
by the presence of coarse silica (or quartz) which can result in unacceptable
wear rates. Any assessment of raw material should include the estimation
of the quant ity and grain s ize of the free silica present.
53 USFS OF FiOLl FR MILlS
The main use of roller mills in the cement industry is for raw meal
grinding, but they are used also extensively for coal grinding which will
be discussed in the coal milling paper. Considerable interest has been
shown in the pas t two or three years in grinding clinker in these mills
and small scale testing has been made to study the cements produced and
the functions of the mill. One of the main problems is of course the
wear rate of the rollers and the grinding path and new materials are
being introduced to improve the performance. A full sized roller mill
is at present (1979) being built for cement grinding at a works in Germany.
In sizing roller mills it is necessary to establish the pcwer requirement
for the fineness of grind needed. For raw materials standard grindability
tests are made together with chemical and combinability tests which
establish the Z residue which will suit the kiln operation.
Small scale roller mills are available which can be used .ciirectly to give
the power consumption needed for a full scale mill, Methods of assessment
include the prediction of the raw material grindability for different %
residues in the final product, based on a limited number of test grinds.
After having established the power needed for the output required the
manufacturers lists may be consulted to find an adequately sized mill.
Performance data on existing mills are a useful check on the accuracy of
the predictions made.
545 TYPES OF Fioi I FR l"'jrLLS
The main manufacturers of roller mills are:
M.P.S. : G. Pfeiffer
Loesche
Polysius
Babcok & Wilcox "5" mills
The mills are all similar in principle having been developed from pan
mills, with rollers running on a grinding path. The mills are now air
swept and have a built-in classification system. The different makes are
variations on the above scheme and are illustrated in Figures Nos. 10.30-35.
The main differences lie in the number of rollers, the method of applying
the grinding pressure, the mechanism for the removal of the rollers and
the design of the internal classifiers.
grief descriptions of each type of mill are given below:
5.5.1 M.P.S. MILL
The basic design of th e MPS mill, made by Gebrude Pfeiffer, comprises

3 rollers rotating on a driven grinding table. The rollers are kept
under pressure by means of a pressure frame which is tensioned by means
of springs (on smaller mills) or by a hydraulic system for the larger
mills. A ring of air ports surrounds the grinding table through which hot
air is injected for drying the feed and lifting the ground products up
to the built-in classifier. The classifier may be static or rotary
and is used for controlling the produc t size by variation of the vanes
or by speed changes. The coarse materials are returned to the mill
table for further grinding whilst the fines are carried in the exhaust
gases to the cyclone separators and dust plant. The feed rate is
controlled by maintaining a constant pressure drop across the mill the
aim being to keep a constant bed depth of material on the feed table
for optimum grinding efficiency.
MPS mills are sized according to the mean diameter of the grinding table
e.g. an MPS 3750 mill has a table diameter of 3.75 m at the centre of the
grinding track. The largest sized mills so far produced are 300 tph for
cement raw material with an upper limit of 400 tph envisaged.
5.5.2 LOESCHE MILL
Loesche mills have two, three or four rollers dependent on the size of
the mill. The grinding action is similar to the MPS mill but the rollers
are mounted on rocker arms which are pivoted on the mill stand and
attached to hydraulic cylinders which maintain the pressure on the rollers.
(The rollers are not in direct contact with the grinding table being set
at a clearance distance above it). To open up the mill for roller
and maintenance the hydraulic system can be reversed to swing the rollers
out for easy access. The grinding shells on the rollers can be worn down
by 50% before they need to be replaced. A classifier with bar type rotor
fitted with a variable speed motor is mounted in the top of the mill
body. The product fineness can be varied by changing the classifier
speed or altering the vane settings.
Loesche mi 11s are sized e ither according to the table diameter and
the number of rollers
e.g. LM 36-4 has 4 rollers and a 3.6m diameter. table.
or by the table size and the motor size
e.g. LM 28/2240 has a 2.8m diameter table and is fitted

with a 2240 kW motor.
It is claimed that materials up to 225 moisture can be dried to less

than 1% and a feed size of 5?/- o f the roller diameter can be accepted. In
the case of the larger mills the feed size can thus be up to 200 mm.
5.5.3 POLYSIUS MILL
The Polysius double roller mill is buil t somewhat differently from the
MPS and Loesche mills having two pairs of rollers on a wide driven grinding
bowl. The double rollers are intended to adapt themselves to the correct
grinding speeds on the grinding bowl according to their distance from
the central axis. It is claimed that the free floating action of the
rollers enables the inner one to aid the outer one as the grinding load
changes. The rollers are loaded by means of a hydraulic system connected
to the yoke supporting the rollers. An internal static classifier feeds
the coarse rejects back to the centre of the grinding bowl for further
size reduction.
As with the other roller mills drying and grinding is possible in a single
unit, which with an internal classifier results in a very compact grinding
installation.
One important difference of the Polysius mill from other designs is
that an external elevator is provided to return oversize spillage material from
from the air injection ports to the mill feed conveyor. The idea behind this
system is to reduce the air demand of the mill for lifting the largest size
material within the mill body thus reducing the overall power requirement
of the mill fan. Care has to be taken to ensure that the air seals needed
for the external circulation system are working efficiently. Otherwise
inleaking air would defeat the whole object of the scheme.
Polysius mills are sized according to the track diameter and the size
of the rollers
e.g. a Polysius 46/23 mill has a 4.6 m diameter

track and 2.3 m diameter rollers.
5.5.4 BABCOCK AND WILCOX "E" MILLS
Babcock "E" mills are one of the standard mills used in industry for coal
grinding. Instead of using rollers, as in the other vertical roller mills,
grinding is done by a series of balls mounted between two rings of a "ball
race" kept under pressure by a series of springs or pneumatic rams. Fig.10.35
shows that the "EN mill design is similar in other respects to the other
mills with air swept ground material being classified internally. There
are however no internal bearings to cause lubrication problems.
The "E" mills are sized by the diameter of the grinding table
e.g. the 7E mill has a 70" diameter table.

feedMcferiaI
---
l)c Oar-se
,
+. ‘t I
,-.&‘-----=-L-z-z-L-2-~ Z’ I I ,ki+
I 1 1
,
= --= ---,--=--- -----= == = -= = -- -- = --\_ I
+
I
i
Fig.1030 SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF THE

MRS. R O L L E R M I L L
l
. .
Fig. 10.31 PARTICLE FLOW PATTERN IN

T H E MRS. MILL
/
-.-.-,
I 7
t
I
Fig. 10.32 LOESCl-iE ROLLER M 1 LL

Jl-
/qi!F--
Fig. 10.33 HYDRO- PNEUMATIC LOADING OF LOESCHE GRINDING ROLLERS
Fig.10.34 OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF
ROLLER MILL
1. Feed Spout 9. Louver Vanes
2. GrIndIng Table IO. Classtffter Cone
3. Grindrng Track 11. Gas Outlet Port
4. Grinding Rollers 12. Pendulum Flap Valve
5.- Gas Inlet Pprt 13. Discharge Pan
6. Grinding Chamber 14. Otscharge Chute
7. Nozzle Ring 15. Electric Motor
8. Classiffier 16. Gear Reducer

OUT LET OUT LET
1
AD1 USTABL E
CLAW fl ER
BLADES -
RELlE
GAT
REJECTS CHAMBER
o RAW / PULVERISED
MATERiAL MATERIAL
PM.& A1R
TABLE 1087
BLUE CIRCLE USE OF RnLLER MILLS
UK
COAL MILLS
WORKS MPS / "E" ATRITOR BALL
CAiJLDON MB15 )olysius

MB16
COOKSTOWN 1
DUNBAR MPS 2 x 90
1 xl00
HOLBOROUGH
HOPE 2 x 7E
HUMBER 3(0/C)
M4GHERAMORNE 2 x16+2 x18
MASONS MPS 1 1 x 18
NORMAN 1 x 18
NORTHFLEET MPS 8 x140
OXFORD -LS TIRAX
PLYMSTOCK l+l
SHOREHAM 2 x18+2 xle
SWANSCOMBE MPS 2 xl00 2 x 18
WEARDALE MPS 2 xl00
WESTBURY MPS 2 x112
TOTAL 18
RAW MILLS OVERSEAS Bamburi Loesche LM 27/2120

Berrima MPS 3750
Manresa MB22 Converted to MPS
Tilbury Polysius 46/24
6 THE ATRITOR
Another type of grinding mill mainly used for coal grinding is the
Atritor dryer pulveriser. This machine, originally designed for
pulverised coal firing of cement kilns,is built by Alfred Herbert Ltd.
of Coventry. As indicated by its name the Atritor uses a high speed
attrition mechanism for grinding and one version of the machine is
shown in cross-section in Fig.10.36.
6.1 DESCRIPTION
The mill contains two grinding zones formed by two different types of
beaters mounted on the same rotating shaft, on which is also mounted
the fan that transports the material through the machine. There is also
an optional precrushing zone comprising swing hammers followed by a
coarse screen; this permits use of feed sizes up to about 2 in, and also
acts as a tramp-metal screen. In the first grinding zone the incoming feed
is struck by a ring of non-pivoted hammer blades. The product is carried
through and round the h a m m e r zone by the air stream to a second grinding
zone comprising a rotor disc, on which are mounted rings of steel pins or
pegs, and these intermesh with further rings of opposed pegs mounted on
a fixed plate. Breakage takes place in this region principally by
impact, although possibly also by attrition between particles. The product
is carried towards a central outlet around the drive shaft, and here meets
a number of rotating rejector plates which are claimed to have the function
of returning oversize particles, by impact, to the grinding zone. Fine
product is carried out by the air stream past the fan and up the exit pipe.
Atritors are identified by a code series from 6(A) to 20(A), and there
are seven in the range; if the A is included it indicates incorporation
of the precrusher. Shaft speeds are reduced as size increases to
restrict tip speed. The rotor diameters vary from just over 600mm for
the 6 A running at 1700 rev/min, to just over 1800 mm for the 20A, which
runs at 850 rev/min These rates or revolution correspond to peripheral
speeds of about 54m/sec for the smallest machine, and 80m/sec for the
largest. The motor sizes vary both with model number and type, and with
the duty, but standard machines fitted with internal fans go from about
I st EFFECT
HAMMER
2nd EFFECT
PEG SEGMENTS
META C POCKETS
Fig.10.36 SERIES ‘A’ ATRITOR

75 kW (for the SA) to 180 - 220 kW, and throughputs correspondingly from
less -Ihan 1 tonne to perhaps as high as 15 tonne/h. These figures will
depend on the grindability of the feed and the fineness required of the
product. In general, the energy available from the mill motor is used
in transporting the feed through the mill and breaking it, and if the motor
is fully loaded, and the mill in good condition, a finer product can
only be achieved by a sacrific e in throughput or conversely, a greater
throughput will result in a coarser product.
6,2 ~~~ARACTFRISTICS OF ATRITORS
The main advantages and disadvantages of Atritors may be summarised as:
6.2.1 ADVANTAGES
1. Relatively cheap
2. Easy to instal
3. Compact machine
4. Capable of drying coal up to 16% moisture
5. Short retention time giving rapid response to control signals
6. Can be used as a dryer/disintegrator for other materials than
coal, e.g. whiting, charcoal.
6.2.2 DISADVANTAGES
1. The Atritor is a high speed machine and is consequently liable

to high wear rates particularly with the more abrasive coals.
2. It needs good protection from tramp metal to avoid "crash" stops
3. As the mill wears the grinding efficiency falls off i.e. the
product becomes coarser
4. The mill requires a fairly high air throughput which may result
in a primary air requirement of up to 40% resulting in an
overall loss in heat recuperation in the cooler.
63 DISCUSSION
High speed mills have in general poor wear characteristics and the
Atritor is no exception in this respect. Wear takes place on the hammer
blades and pegs, and is noticeably more rapid with hard coals (Hardgrove
Index up to 60) than with soft coals. The mills are particularly
vulnerable to coals containing significant proportions of hard minerals
such as quartz. Unfortunately, wear is accompanied by a noticeable
falling off in performance in terms of product fineness and this is one
reason why these mills are less favoured than they were. In recent
years considerable improvements have been made on the life of the mill
internals by using more wear resistant materials.
It was noted earlier that mills can include a precrushing section which
also acts as a tramp screen; without this section the feed size (of
coal) is limited to about 19 mm, and tramp iron removal depends entirely
on deposition from the air stream at the entrance to the mill. As with all
high speed machines, the mills need to be adequately protected against
tramp iron and magnetic separators should be applied to the feed and
carefully maintained whether or not the hammer mill section is installed.
One of the most effective methods of protection has been found to be
theascension pipe method of mill feeding and this has been applied to a
number of U.K. mills with an immediate reduction in the number of crashes.
The arrangement for this type of installation is shown in Fig. 1 0 . 3 5
The air requirement for an Atritor is based either on the air needed
to transport the coal or the quantity of heat needed to dry the coal.
This latter requirement is important when the coal has a particularly
high moisture level. The results on the attached table indicate that
the air/coal ratio varies from 2 - 5 which is a wide range and implies
some very high levels of primary air being used. The Atritor is
invariably used as a direct firing system and all the air through the
mill is discharged through the firing pipe.
6,4 AMANUFACTURERS
T R IT ORs : DAR-I
This is given below in Table 10.8.
TABLE 1048
r
- -
MACHINE NO. 6A 8A 16A 17A 18A 20A
Output tph 0.71 1 .oo 1.36 2.5 3.5 5.0 9.1
Flotor size kW 15 30 37 67 90 134 187
Machine speed RPM 1740 1500 1350 1075 970 830
Air discharged 1870 2210 3570 5950 9430 15300 27200

m3/hr @ 7o"c
Delivery pressure I.$- j" 4-j" i" 5" 5-j" 0r I, 6-8"

"W.G.
Weight of Atritor,t 3.3 4.7 5.6 7.3 11.8 15.4 20.3
- -
Output estimated from "Eng ish coals of average grindability (55 Hardgrove)
and not more than 10% total moisture".
HARDGROVE INDEXES BLUE CIRCLE k'O2KS
TABLE lo,9
-
WORKS MATERIAL HARDGROVE RAW NIX
INDEX PROPORTIONS
:,d
U.K
-.
CAULGON Limestone 74 76.7 ) t Iron Oxide
Shale 82 - 120 22.0 j
COOKSTOWN Limestone 75 84.0
Shale 93 16 1
DUNSAR Limestone 67- 8 4 90.9
Shale 110 9.1 1
HOLBOROUGH Chalk Too Sofi, 78.5
Clay Too Soft 21.5 i
HOPE Limestone 66 - 85 85.7 )

Shale 94 - 108 14.3 )
HUMBER Chalk N.D. 80.6 )
Clay N.D. 19.4 ) OPC
MAGHERAMORNE Chalk N.D. 83.8

+ Iron Oxide
Clay N.D. 14.4 i
MASONS Chalk Too Soft 55.7
34.3 OPC
Clay Too Soft
NORMAN Chalk Too Soft 25.8 )
Chalk Marl Too Soft 74 2 ) Opt
NORTHFLEET Chalk Too Soft 81.1 )

Clay Too Soft 18.9 ) Opt
OXFORD Limestone/Shale 82190 100
PLYMSTOCK Limestone 65 - 69 85.4 )

Slate 79 - 86 1o 3 1 + Sand
SHOREHAM Chalk Too Soft

18.9
81.1 i OPC
Clay Too Soft
SWANSCOMBE Chalk Too Soft 80.4 )
Clay Too Soft 19.6 )
WEARDALE Limestone 56 - 70 90.9 )
Shale 93 - 95 g , 1 OK
WESTBURY Chalk N.O. 77.0

OK
Clay N.D. 23.0
T ABLE lo,9 (CONT'D)
WORKS MATERIAL HARGGROVE RAW MIX

INDEX PROPORTIONS
%
AUSTRALIA
BiRRIM4 Limestone N.D. 96 1 65 ) Low
Weathered Sandstone N.D. 4 ) Ppc S Heat
and Shale
Sand N.D. 10 1
MALDON Limestone N.D. -
Snals N.D.
PORTLAND Limestone N.D.
Shale 54 - 85
SWAN Limestone 53 - 71 94
aauxite N.O. 6 1
WAURN PONDS Limestone 129 95
Marl 129 5 i
BRAZIL
PEDRA DO SIN0 High Grade Limestone 117 9.0 + Iron Oxide
Low Grade Limestone 137 87.8 I + Clay
VOLTA REDONDA Limestone (High N.D. 13
Grade)
i
Limestone (Low N.D. 37.S
Grade)
I
Slag (Granulated) N.D. 49.5 )
CANADA
BAMBERTON Limestone 68 - 78
Black Rock 49 - 78
Green Rock 45
Shale 40 - 65
EDMONTON Limestone N-0.
Clay N.D.
REGINA No Information
TI LBURY Limestone N.D. 67
Black Rock 78 19.9
Shale 1OS 12.6
Slag 32 0.5
WINNIPEG Limestone N.D.
TABLE lo.cj (CONT'D)
WORKS MATERIAL HARDGROVE RAW MIX

INDEX PROPORTIONS
31,o
KENYA
ATHI RIVER Limestone 93 50 - 60
Kunkur 110 40 - 50 1
BAMBURI Coral 80
Shale 20 i
MALAYSIA
KANTHAN Limestone 98 - 101 86
+ Iron Oxide
Clay 98 - 101 / 12 i
RAWANG / Limestone 95 - 109 77
+ Sand, Iron
Shale 92 - 109 I 20 1
Oxide
I
MEXICO
ATOTONILCO Limestone ?3- 82 81.9
Clay N.O. 18.1 i
ATOYAC Limestone N.O. 80.6 )

Clay/Elasalt N.O. 15.6
Iron Ore N.O. 1.6
Silica N.D. 2.2
EL FUERTE Limestone 64 78 )
2. g ) + Iron Ore
Clay N.D.
HERMOSILLO Limestone 63 - 64 66.9
(New) + Iron Ore
Siliceous Limestone 35 - 51 19.7
Clay N.D. 10.9
MARMOL Limestone N-0. 88
Clay N.O. 12 I
MIXCOAC Limestone 63- 68 82.3 )
Clay (Volcanic) 51 - 91 17.7 '
TOLTECA Limestone 56 - 59 85.4
+ Iron Ore
Clay N-0. 13.6
ZAPOTILTIC -Limestone 58- 62 88.1

Clay 139 5.8
Silica Tailings N-0. 6.1
T A B L E lo,9 (CONT'D
WORKS MATERIAL HARDGROVE RAb.' MIX

INDEX PROPORTIONS
x
NEW ZEALAND
GOLDEN BAY Limestone 53 - 81 83.7
Clay N.D. 6.3 1
Sand N.D. 10.0 I
VILSONS Limestone 73 29.0 )
Cement Rock 104 71.0 )
NIGERIA
EWEKORO Limestone/Marl 75 - 102
Shale N.D.
Red Alluvium N.D.
SHAGAMU Limestone/Mar 91 - 119 90.4 )
Shale 87 - 87 6.0
Red Alluvium N.D. 3.2
ASHAKA Limestone 122 - 129 89.5
Snale 90 10.5
ZIMBABWE/RHODESIA
MANRESA Limestone 83 - 91 84
Schist 56 16 i
-
SOUTH AFRICA
LICHTENBURG Limestone (Various) N.D. 99.5
Iron Oxide N.D. 0.5 i
WHITES Limestone (Various) N.D.
- -1
Revolurlon
counter \
Integral motof
ond rcducmq
qeors
‘Lower qrindmg
element
Sectron A - A
Fig.10.37 HARDGROVE GRINDABILITY MACHINE

LEGEND
A 0.750~0.005in119.05+0.13mml Radius
6 1.000~0005m[25 ~0?013mmldiam
; Smwth machined surface
4~ Fine machined surface and polished
NOTE:All dimensions are ininches
0 1a 2
Scale, inches
SECTIONAL VIEW
GRINDING, ELEMENTS Of= HARDGROVE

MAUI INE
Fig. 10.38
I H!1Ltl IU I 1u
MrLLs wm Two C~MPART-MEN-E (CLOSED-CIRCUIT)
Mill Size RPM Motor Normal Normal Motor Maximum *)Weight Symetro
kW(net) Production charge (load) charge of mill gear
of kW(net) of type
grinding grinding TSFP
media media
t
t/h t t
24 x 12 19.75 560 47 535 52 7 7 900

24 x 11 20.85 700 iti 59 667 65 a3 1000
26 x 11 20.44 810 21 61 771 65 94 1050
28 x 11 19.86 980 25 70 933 77 104 1100
30 x 11 la.83 1160 30 84 1105 91 121 1150
32 x 11 la.35 1370 35 94 1303 102 132 1250
34 x 11 la.00 1680 43 113 1600 123 148 1350
34 x 12 17.83 1820 47 124 * 1735 135 159 1400A
36 x 11 17.20 1950 50 132 1860 144 157 140013
38 x ii 16.73 2150 55 137 2045 149 167 1500A
38 x 12 16.62 2360 60 152 2245 165 178 15008
40 x 11.5 16.72 2640 67 160 2515 173 206 16OOB
42 x 11 16.22 2900 74 176 2760 191 214 1700B
42 x 12 16.27 3220 82 19G 30G2 214 228 lnooo
44 x 12 i 5.87 3520 207 3350 226 242 18OOB c
44 x 13 15.89 3930 1:: 235 3743 256 255 19OOB
44 x 13 15.28 4230 108 247 4025 267 283 20208
48 X 12.5 14.94 4610 118 267 4390 291 287 20200 C
48 x 14 14.91 5160 132 299 4920 326 316 216OB
50 x 14 14.77 5720 146 318 5450 345 341 21608 c
52 x 14 14.46 6250 160 338 59.50 368 383 23008
Capacity based on grinding of clinker with norma12grindabi1ity in closed circuit with an air separator.
Feed i 2511~11 and max. 0.5% H20 ground to 3.500 cm /g (Blaine).
Specific power consumption approx. 39 kWh/t
Lining: Corregated/stepped in Compartment 1 and Dragpeb with Danula rings in Compartment 2.
*) Ex grinding media and Symetro gear.

TABLE 104
M ILLS WITH TWO COMP AR T M E N TS (OPEN-CIRCUIT)
Mill Size RPM Motor Normal Normal Motor Maximum *)Weight Symetro
kW(net) Production charge (load) charge of mill gear
of kW(net) of We
media media
t/h t t t
-I__
24 x 10 19.75 560 17 54 535 59 79 900

24 x 11 20.85 700 20 59 620 65 1000
26 x 11 20.44 810 25 68 771 75 1:: 1050
28 x 11 19.86 980 30 79 933 a7 108 1100
30 x 11 18.83 1160 92 1105 101 125 1150
32 x 11 18.35 1370 4": 103 1303 113 134 1250
34 x 11 18.00 1680 50 121 1584 134 150 1350
34 x 12 17.83 1820 54 133 1716 147 158 1400A
36 x 11 17.20 1950 137 1810 152 158 14008
38 x 11 16.73 2150 z5' 147 2045 163 169 1500A
38 x 12 16.62 2360 71 165 2245 182 177 150013
40 x 11.5 16.72 2640 80 173 2515 190 203 15008
42 x 11 16.22 2900 87 188 2743 207 213 17008
42 x 12 16.27 3220 205 3008 227 225 18008
44 x 12 15.87 3520 1'0: 220 3350 244 243 18OOB c
44 x 13 15.89 3930 117 246 3697 272 254 19000
46 x 13 15.28 4230 128 263 4025 290 282. 20208
48 x 12.5 14.94 4610 139 284 4371 313 287 20208 C
40 x 14 14.91 5160 156 318 4905 352 314 21600
50 x 14 14.77 5720 173 3313 5450 373 339 21600 c
52 x 14 14.46 6250 189 358 5950 395 378 23008
Capacity based on grinding of clinker with normai grindability in open circuit.

Feed < 2511rn and max. 0.5% I-I20 ground to 3.000 cm /g (Blaine).
Lining: Corrugate,d/stepped in Compartment 1 and FLS classifying in Compartment 2.
*) Ex grlnding media and Symetro gear

TABLE lOJ.2
Mm.3 wm THREE COMPARTMENTS (~PEN-cIR~uIT)

- 1
Mill size RPM Motor Norma 1 Nomlal Motor Maxinlurn *)Weight Syfiletro
1 kW(net) Production charge (load) charge of mill We
of kW(net) of gear
media rncdia
t/h t t
24 x 10 19.75 560 17 50.5 535 55 83 900

24 x 11 20.85 700 21 61 654 67 89 1000
26 x 11 20.44 810 25 64 771 69 103 1050
28 x 11 19.86 980 30 75 933 81 112 1100
30 x 11 18.83 1160 35 88 1105 98 134 1150
32 x 11 18.35 1370 41 98 1303 108 145 1250
34 x 11 18.00 1680 51 120 1600 132 158 1350
34 x 12 17.83 1820 55 131 1735 144 168 1400A
36 x 11 17.20 1950 59 138 1848 152 168 14OOB
38 x 11 16.73 2150 65 144 2045 158 183 1500A
38 x 12 16.62 2360 71 160 2245 174 196 1500B
40 x 11.5 16.72 2640 80 lG7 2515 183 223 1GOOB
42 x 11 16.22 2900 88 186 2760 206 232 17OOB
42 x 12 16.27 3220 96 204 3035 226 246 18OOB
44 x 12 15.87 3520 106 217 3350 239 263 1800B C
44 x 13 15.89 3930 118 246 3725 271 275 19OOB
46 x 13 15.28 4230 128 259 4025 284 308 20200
48 x 12.5 14.94 4610 139 279 4390 309 314 202013
48 x 14 14.91 5160 156 314 4920 347 346 216OB
50 x 14 14.77 5720 173 333 5450 365 368 21608 C
52 x 14 14.46 6250 189 353 5950 387 412 230013
Capacity based on Grinding of clinker with nomlai grindability in open circuit.

Feed <2511u11 and Inax. 0.5% 1-120 ground to 3.000 CIII /g (Blainc).
Lining: Corrugated/stepped in Colapartlllerlts 1 and 2 and Dragpeb with Danula rings in Compartment 3.
*) Ex grinding media and Symetro gear
APPENDIX 3
4 CRITICAL ?LVIEN OF GRINDIX YEDIA, *
J. G. EVANS
1I INTR9DUCTION
The industrial ball mill, from its early days over a century ago as a batch
machine used for grinding small quantities of powders and 'ores has become
a very sophisticated piece of engineering equipment and the size of units in
the cement industry has increased tremendously, especially over the last
10 years. In line with this media size gradings and, especially with
increasing mill size, materials have had to be modified to meet the increasing
demands placed upon them, and by the early post-war years media technology
had progressed from the us e of pebbles and flints to steels and white cast
iron.
It has bzsn posttila%d by Ro;a (1957) and confirmed by th2 practical

data of Engels (1954) that the relation between abrasion resistance and
hardness is of the fotm shown in Figure 10.39. Here the highest wear
rates are obtained when the hardness of the metal is similar to the
hardness of the material being ground, and softer media can actually produce
a lower wear rate if it can become armoured with particles of this material,
whereas a substantially harder media will also result in less abrasion.
However; it had not been possible at this stage to produce media that in
addition to being hard was sufficiently tough to withstand the tremendous
buffetting that a unit of charge receives, especially in the first chamber,
and the use here of straight forged steel was therefore almost universal.
Rising costs then prompted a search for media with better price/wear ratios
which has continued up to the present day, with more success on some fronts
than others. As an indication of the problem, the cement milling media stores
cost for all UK works in 1965 was 2.5 p/t which, allowing for the inflation
since that year of steel prices, represents a present day cost of
approximately 10 p/t cement 51.0 million p.a. on sales of 10 million t.p.a.
*This appendix was originally presented as a paper at the Group Technical

Conference under the title 'Critical review of grinding media, over 10 years'
in October 1979.
, 1 J
1 2 3
MEDIA I-IARDNESS RELATIVE TO PARTICLE HARDNESS
Fig. 10.39 GENERAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIA WEAR RATE

AND PARTICLE / MEDIA HARDNESS
This is a substantial proportion of total grinding costs - for
instance at 40 kWh/t and 1.5 p/kWn, electricity costs would be ES.00
million p-a. and in the early 1950's the first trials with NiHard and
high chromium cast irons were intiated. Oepsite the fact that these
materials weEanywhere between 2 and 7 times more expensive than traditional
materials, depending on size and type, they did give an economic return
on capital as well as operational advantages. Hence by the mid 1960's
the casting technology was available to produce media which drastically
reduced cement milling costs. This success, however, did not permeate through
all aspects of ball milling in the cement industry. The toughness required
from first chamber cement mill media, especially with increasing mill size,
was not available in a hard, abrasion resistant ball, and in wet mills
where corrosion as well as abrasion plays a large part the new media did
not prove economic. Most of the work over the last 10 years has therefore
been concerned with the search for more cost effective media in these areas.
2 THE MATEUALS AVAILABLE 4ND TIIEIR DEVELgPPlENT
A summary of most of the engineerirg materials used in ball milling is

shown in Table 10.13. This section attempts to describe the development of
these materials with respect to media.
As stated in Section 1 it is some years ago that NiHards and high chromium
cast irons such as BF253 began to replace whir,1 cast iron and steels in smaller
sized (less than 2") cement mill media.
TAfiU 10.13 - PCRIALS USED ll( %ALL PIILL LiNitiGS MD EDIA
Forqed Cara hrrllu

Steel
453-550 arcttk
Although
andicy dnd
SF 251(A)
hned let
(25% Cr)
wo-900 sac ouqwers
550-650 drifti+
1st chdmer dry mill Com!neS n*ancrr .r’,l i

linen dnd medid rouqnners (u,er alyndenun
dS diloyinq rlewn:!
Large Iectialr
These materials, however, were fairly brittle and, having an austenitic
matrix tended to work harden to martensit e under higher impact conditions.
Hence when these media were used in 1st chambers the small density change
on transformation did in some cases result in widespread breakage. On the
media front these problems were finally ironed out in the early 1970's
by the use of fully heat trated high chromium cast irons such as SF 182
and Magotteaux Maxicrom which contain extremely hard and abrasion resistant
chromium carbides in a hard, stable martensitic matrix.
Almost all of the company's cement mill 1st chambers have now been convertec
to the use of these media and this has been largely responsible for the dram
reduction in cement milling stores costs over the last lo-15 years.
In second, third and fourth chambers NiHard has been replaced on a top-up
basis by high chromium cast irons of the SF 253 (A) family (25$ Cr). It
is thought that the us e of 12% chromium materials, hardened and tempered
(e.g. SF 253(B)jwill be of some further advantage here since the as-cast
25% chromium variety requires some work hardening to reach its optimum
hardness and this does not always occur in cement mill fine chambers. The
advantage is however marginal, and the choice of BF 253(B) would only be
made if its price was similar to that of Bi 253(A) as cast, a situation
which does hold at the time of writing.
2,2 ,AW III ING
Under wet milling conditions, in addition to abrasion, media wear

rate is affected by corrosion, and although the range of conditions
experienced in raw milling is far greater than t;;at on the cement milling
side it is thought that corrosion is generally dominant. As an example of
this, Hope, which has moderately abrasive raw materials has been changed
from wet milling to dry milling and from straight forged steel/white
cast iron media to single chamber milling using only forged steel. As
a result of this wear rates calculated in g/kWh have been reduced by a
factor of approximately 4:l and this does tend to indicate that, despite
inaccuracies in the analysis, corrosion is the major cause of media wear,
even where raw materials are fairly abrasive.
White cast iron in comparison with forg ed St221 nas a large grain structure
and corrosion tends to o:cur preferentially at grain boundaries. This has
tended to nullify any advantages in grain hardness that cast iron may have
had over forged s teel and consequently conversions to heat-treated forged
steels have yielded financial benefits. The most successful forged steel
has been Armco, which uses chromium, molybdenum and copper in small amounts
for extra toughness and hardenability. Despite hardnesses as high as
700 - 800 Hv Armco produc, = media in sizes up to 100 mm iwhich does not
generally suffer from breakage, although it has sometimes been necessary to
slightly reduce the hardness by tempering in order to avoid fracture in
high impact situations.
Despite the success of Armco, it was felt that further progress could be
made against corrosion by using extremely high chromium (approx. 30%)
cast irons, which it was hoped, in addition to being hard (700 - 800 Hv)
would give a "stainless" quality to the media. Some progress has been
made and these materials are now fairly competitive in the smaller sizes
(240 mm) though there bar,1~ been some breakage problems and as yet first
chamber media has not been proven.
In dry raw mills, including Aerofall Mills we have not yet found any media
that has an overall cost advantage over straight forged steel, though once
again feed materials vary greatly and 1't is thought that some progres can be
made in this area on at least some works. Over the last 2-3 years a
slightly harder Brindley chrome s tee1 (see Table 10.14)has been used in
Dunbar Aerofall though results are as yet rather inconclusive.
3 THE DEVELU'MENT OF LINER MATEQIALS
Traditionally manganes e steel and white cast irons (in fine chambers)
have been used as cement and raw mill liners and whilst manganese steel
is very tough it is not extremely abrasion resistant and does tend to
suffer from spreading. klhite cast iron is particularly brittle, as
discussed earlier, and as mill size became larger, and media harder it was
necessary to improve upon these materials.
This section describes the development of liner plates with reference

to the list of materials shown in Table 10.13.
Quite some time ago it became common to install NiHard plates in all
chambers in order to give increased life over the traditional materials
above. No real problems were met even in first chambers provided that
mills remained small and that "hard" media was not used but in recent years
liner plates have been under increasing pressure from these factors. Although
high chromium cast iron media are slightly less dense than forged steel
media, their effect on liner breakage is certainly greater and once high
chromium cast iron media were introduced into first chambers problems
were experienced with NiHard linings. In some cases (e.g. Cauldon 1200 HP
Mills) the NiHard plates had become well bedded onto the shell and managed to
survive the change to 8F 182 media though in any case policy by this time
(around. 1970) was to use the more recently developed BF 253 liner material
in view of its higher hardness and breakage resistance.
As mill size has increased it has become necessary in first chamber to use
high chromium cast iron of the BF 182 type, which combines abrasion
resistance and toughness. If in the future liner sections were to become
very thick ( >5" - 6") then it may be necessary to use a material of higher
hardenability such as BF 202.
'Where as-cast SF 253 has been found to be of insufficient toughness,
it has been found economical to anneal plates already in stock. This
gives a material which although it is softer, is certainly less prone to
breakage.
In view of the low risk of breakage with forged steel liners some mill
manufacturers still prefer to use this material in a heat treated form
and the Bofors bar lining system is widely used. This material, however,
is less hard than high chromium cast iron and whenever castings have been
carried out the Bofors lining has shown itself to be significantly more
expensive than our present linings.
Unlike cement milling, the development of wet mill liner plates has been
rather divorced from the development of the media. Rubber linings have
now taken over in finer grinding forreasons other than their interaction
with media, though there have been occasions where media has had to be
modified to cope with current liner designs. For instance there is a
tendency to use plate/lifter combinations giving a high lift, and
whilst it is advisable to reduce mill speed to prevent cateracting, this
is not always practical. An example of this occurred at Northfleet where
breakage occurred with both Armco and BF Superwet - media which had performed
well elsewhere. The remedy in both cases was to supply a tougher
though slightly less hard, tempered material.
3,3 DRY RAW MII 1IX
Whilst mills of the Humboldt type have now changed over to high chromium
cast iron liners similar to those used in cement mills, manganese steel
because of its superior toughness is still used in the very high impact
Aerofall Mill. Despite the spread problems (wnich are reduced by using
chromium) no suitable replacement has actually been used in practice within
BCI although some other companies have moved from the rail and lug system
with its inherent design faults to a single plate system in a quenched
and tempered chrome-molybdenum steel. Unfortunately negotiations with
BCI at this stage are at a standstill, mainly because of the high price quoted
by the manufacturers.
4, COST BENEFITS
This section deals with the improvements that have been brought about
in media wear rates and their effects on costs.
4,1 CFM;C,JT i-111 LS
4.1.1 WEAR RATES
Reviewing works data for a larg, e number of cement mills it is concluded

that by using "hard" media the wear rate in first chambers has been reduced
from approximately 27 grammes of media per kWh expended in the first chamber
to 1.74 g,'kWh; that is a 15-16 fold reduction. In second chambers the
records indicate a reduction from 11 g/kWh to 1.4 g/kWh, an 8 fold reduction.
These figures have been taken from Works' 6376 media charging returns and
therefore depend very much upon the quality of data collection; for
instance there has been inconsistency in the manner in which media
reclaimed from regrading operations is booked. There are many instances
of much better or worse apparent savings accruing from soft to hard
conversions and some of the reasons for this are differences in clinker
qualtity, changes in volume load, media quality, mill operation factors,
mill and lining design, breakage and diaphragm problems.
Taking the example of Dunbar No. 2 and 3 mills where a good record of
media addition was kept without too many complicating factors a comparison
involving 5 year periods on both hard and soft media was obtained as follows:
g/kWh g/kWh
Soft Media Hard Media Ratio
1st chamber 23.75 1.22 19.5

2nd chamber 12.18 0.74 16.5
These wear rates are generally lower than the Northern Area averages
given earlier, but it is felt that the ma in factor in this is the quality
of data collection rather than true media wear.
A more accurate estimate of true wear is given by ball weighings and this
is therefore a useful tool when comparing different media, especially since
it gives a result much more quickly than does the monitoring of media additions.
Such an exercise was carried out to compare FF 182, Magotteaux "Maxicrom"

and De Flandre "Maxiresist" in the first chambers of three 750 HP mills
at Hope giving the following results after each charge has consumed lo6
kWh (approximately 6000 mill hours):
Cumulative Wear Rate

(g/kWh)
De Flandre "Maxiresist" 1.00

BF 182 1.09
Magotteaux "Maxicrom" 1.23
A final BF 182 check taken after 13 mill years showed a further reduction
to 0.84 g/kWh. Despite the fact that clinkers and mill designs vary a
great deal, weighed ball tests on other works confirm that as a rule
of thumb we would expect a first chamber hard media true wear rate of
approximately 1 g/kWh and that any values greatly in excess of this indicate
either poor media quality or unsound mill operation. Serious problems
are less likely to occur with fine chamber media, though weighed ball
tests indicate that the wear rate in the second chamber of two chambered
mills is of the order of 0.5 g/kWh.
4.1.2 COST BENEFITS
Figure 10.40 shows how the media stores costs per tonne of cement for
all UK works have changed since 1966. The reduction in costs shown here
is not dramatic but is put into perspective when the inflation of media
prices in this period is taken into account. Figure 10.41 shows how media
prices have changed over this period and it can be seen that our materials
now cost between 35 and 53 times as much as they did in 1966. These
figures are of necessity approximate since they depend upon media size,
type and size of order, and place of delivery. As a rough overall average
the effect of inflation on steel casting prices is shown in Figure 10.42
where the price in 1966 is taken as unity and if we apply this factor to
the prices in Figure 10.40 we get an approximate estimate of the costs
that would have occurred in any year if media prices had remained steady
over the 13 year period at the 1978 level.
The effect of this is shown in Figure 10.43 which gives some idea of the
true effect of our media conversions. One or two points should be made
about this graph. Firstly, the apparent savings are much less than
would be predicted by the section on wear rates,though it must be borne
in mind that even in 1966 many mills were already equipped with hard media
in the first chambers, in addition to which at the end of 1978 there were
still a few mills using soft media. Media topping up costs are now so low
that any new charges can significantly affect this graph and in fact the
upward trend in 1977 and 1978 is a result of new charges at Masons,
Northfleet, Swanscombe and Westbury together with a significant increase
in volume loads at Northfleet. We are therefore confident that this trend
is of a temporary nature.
I 1 I 1 1 L
1966 1968 1970 1972 197A 1976 1978
Fig. 10.40 WEIGHTED AVERAGE OF BCI (UK) CEMENT MILL MEDIA

STORES COSTS
600
500 BRADLEY AND

FOSTER
Y
z, coo
I-
u‘
&I
ARK0
u
E 300
HELIPEBS
4
E:
I
200
BRINDLEY
100
0
1966 1970 1972 197c 1976 1976
Fig. 10.41 APPROXIMATE MEDIA PRICES (1967 - 1978)

1966 1966 1970 1972 1971 1976 1978
Fig. 10.42 FIRTH BROWN CASTING PRICES (TAKEN AS UNITY IN 1966)

ADJUSTED COSTS BASE0 ON PRESENT MEDIA PRICES
\ACTUAL COSTS
1966 1968 1970 1972 197L 1976 1978
Fig. 10.43 WEIGHTED AVERAGE OF BCI (UK) CEMENT MILL

MEDIA STORES
ADJUSTED COSTS BASED ON PRESENT
MEDIA PRICES
1966 1968 1970 1972 197.5 1976 1978
Fig.70.44 DUNBAR CEMENT MILL MEDIA STORES COSTS

4.2.1 WEAR RATES
Whilst we have made and are still making progress in the field of wet
mill media, it has to be said that our efforts have not been so rewarding
as on the cement milling front. In addition, the phasing out of some
wet works and other factors have meant that anlysis is in any case
difficult. A sumnary of wear rates is shown in Table 10.14.
Armco Trials
Around 1971 - 1972 weighed ball tests were carried out using Armco at
Humber and Oxford and these showed wear advantages over the existing
Brindley/Wye Cast Iron charges of 3 or 4 : 1 in first chambers and
approximately 24 : 1 in second chambers. At 1978 price ratios of 2 : 1
and 1.25 : 1 respectively (White Cast Iron would cost approximately
1260/t) Armco therefore s eemed a viable proposition. Since 1971-72
however, Oxford's output has been reduced, necessitating the using
up of large quantities of old media, which has rendered wear rate analysis
inaccurate. Much effort has been put into determining a true Armco
wear rate in the second chamber and it can be seen that the figure quoted,
18.7 g/kWh, still gives a healthy economic advantage over white cast iron.
In the first chamber, analysis is even more difficult, though we are
convinced that there is an economic advantage in continuing to use Armco
media at current prices.
At Humber sand addition for the production of SR slurry has changed from
No. 1 to No. 2 mill in the last few years, whilst % SR production has
increased tremendously so that the wear rates now obtained at Humber
are at first sight disappointing. However, it can be seen that on No. 3
mill, where sand has never been added, wear rates have remained closer to
the weighed ball results, leading us to believe once again that Armco is
the more suitable media in both chambers.
TABLE 10,14 RAW MI I I ING AFAR RATFS (G/K\&)
CHAMBER 1 CHAMBER 2
Atmco Brindley Arrnco Wye Cast Iron Helipebs Magotteaux B F Superwet
HUMBER 1 20.1 1 44.3 (25.2) )

2 16.2 (6.5) 1 22.3 37.5 (13.6) )47.7 (10.5)
)
3 6.5 24.0
1
OXFORD (7.4)
lo (8.7)
22.1 18.7 (16.5) 39.7 (7.7) (7.1) 11.8
NORTHFLEET
(g/T) 117.5 158 84 85
HOPE 8.2
PLYMSTOCK 8.5 6.4
CAULDON AEROFALL 11.5
DUNBAR AEROFALL 8.6
WEARDALE AEROFALL 5.7
(Bracketed figures indicate weighed ball tests, other being averages taken from several years media addition returns.)
High Chromium Media
Over the last 3-4 years trials have been carried out with high chromium
media, namely Magotteaux '8' and 3F Superwet, and whilst it has been
repeatedly proven that it is possible to produce a reduction in wear
rate, these materials are expensive (approximately $550/t compared with
$324/t for Armco) at the present time they are not considered to be
generally as cost effective as Armco, especially when one takes into account
the higher capital investment necessary. Having said this, however,
these media are still in the development stage and even now they could
be classed as competitors to Armco. Their cost effectiveness against this
media depends very much upon the Lire/f exchange rate which has in recent
years helped the case for Armco media.
A great deal of media development has been carried out at Northfleet quarry
over the last few years, and on the basis of the wear rates shown in
Table 10.14 it has been decided for 1979-80 to purchase Armco and Helipebs
for 2 mills. The third mill will act as a "dustbin" for all spare media
of suitable size within the company. However, despite this decision, any
further advances in wet mill media seem likely to come in the high chromium
area and these media should not yet be dismissed.
costs
Figures 10.45 (Weighed average Oxford, Humber and Magheramorne) and

10.46 (Northfleet) show how wet mill media stores costs have changed since
1965. No dramatic improvements are apparent though it is considered that
the fact that there does not appear to be an upward trend in inflation
corrected costs reflects some measure of success for the following reasons:
7. At Magheramorne no significant change in media quality has been

made and flint picking ceased in 1973.
2. Wear rates at Humber have increased dramatical ly over the last few
years due to the addition of sand for SR production.
3. Production at Oxford, which has the least abrasive raw materia s,

has been reduced since 1973.
ADJUSTED COSTS BASED ON PRESENT
MEDIA PRICES
ACTUAL COSTS
I 1 1 1 , 1 I
1966 1968 1970 1972 197L 1976 1976
Fig. 10.45 WElGt-iTEO AVERAGE (OXFORD, IiUMBER, MAGtiERAMORNE)

WET MILL MEDIA STORES COSTS
16
A D J U S T E D C O S T S SASEO
12 O N P R E S E N T MEDIA
ACTUAL COSTS
0
1970 1972 197.4 1976 1978
Fig. 10.46 NORTHFLEET WET MILL MEDIA STORES COSTS

5 THE EFFECTS ON MILL EFFICIENCY
Whilst there are accepted media gradings that are used when new charges are
installed it is not considered within the realms of this paper to
quantify the effects of various gradings upon mill efficiency, though
at the time of writing Research Department are carrying out a programme
of work from which it is hoped that this information will ensue. It is
however well known that in first chambers, media wear, even with continuous
topping up with 90 mm media causes the mean ball size to‘be reduced such
that mill outputs fall and from time to time it is necessary to tip and
regrade. Clearly the reductions in media wear that have been achieved
slow down this process so that regrading, with its inherent labour cost
and waste of potential milling time, is necessary on a correspondingly
less frequent basis. This section aims to give an estimate of the effect
of media wear on the charge grading, by means of a worked example on a
cement mill first chamber.
from quite a large number of carefully monitored weighed ball tests on

new charges it is concluded that the wear pattern of a charge depends upon
each individual set of milling conditions, though in general it does seem
that in cement mill first chambers wear in g/kWh is proportional to
charge surface area - i.e. a 90 mm ball will lose diameter at the same
rate as an 80 mm ball. A very common exception appears to be the smallest
balls, 60 mm, whose wear rate in many cases is less than that of 70 mm
balls and is occasionally very low indeed, possibly due to size
segregation within the "live" charge. For this reason the wear rates
indicated in Table 10.15 have been chosen to illustrate the example.
Other assumptions made include an original charge grading as shown in
Table 10.15 together with a hard : soft wear ratio of 1 : 15, and
periodic topping up with 90 mm media.
Figure 10.47 shows a summary of the wear pattern of hard and soft
charges and it can be seen that after 6400 mill hours, whichis approximately
one year on most works, using soft media the mean ball weight has fallen
from 2227 g to 1847 g or 82.93 of the original and the mean ball size
has fallen from 81.5 mm to 76.6 mm. By this time the smallest ball would
be of the order of 40 mn and owing to a probable drop in mill efficiency
it would have been necessary to tip and regrade before this stage had been
reached. The hard charge, however, will have lost only 73 g on mean
ball weight and approximately 0.9 mm on mean ball size.
TABLE 103 - ASSUMPTIONS us3 Ii\l !~EAR P ATTERN EXAMPLE
Wear Rates (g/kClih)

Media Size % by wt in original grading Hard Soft
mm
90 50.9 0.8 12.0

80 15.7 0.9 13.5
70 13.8 1.03 15.45
60 19.6 0.9 12.0
Overall 100.0 0.87 13.1
Clearly at the assumed hard/soft wear ratio regrading operations should

be 15 times less frequent. Conversions to hard media therefore reduce
stores costs, energy costs and labour costs and, unless sufficiently
large stocks are carried to enable new charges to be prepared prior
to tipping, significantly increase mill availability.
6 FURTHER WORK
Despite the advances in media technology described earlier, it is

considered that the work is by no means finished and in all areas
further progress is practical.
2.20
2. lot
-!?!
G
0
5
3
2 2,oot
2
Y
S O F T MEDIA C H A R G E
1,9oc
-;
1,000 I I I , I 1 J7
0 so00 10000 lSOO0 20000 25000 30000
M I L L HOUf?S R U N
fig. 10. 47 EFFECT ,OF MEDIA WEAR ON SOFT AND HARD MEDIA
FIRST CHAMBER CEMENT MILL CHARGES
High chromium cast irons have reduced wear rates to such an extent
that in view of the extra capital tied up a much more expensive media
would not be an economic replacement. For example, in cement mill
first chambers with current media prices of approximately 5500/t,
a media costing 2700/t could never provide a return of 25% on capital,
due to stores savings alone, even at zero wear rate. The position
in second chambers where wear rates are lower is even more stable.
Any major work in this area must therefore be aimed at procuring media
which has wear characteristics similar to or better than high chromium
cast irons, but is cheaper without significantly increasing the risk
of breakage. In this respect we are largely in the hands of manufacturers
whose main potential progress seems to be either in reducing the quantities
of high cost alloying elements, the prices of which are subject to the
vagaries of world markets, or improving their own production efficiency.
There would also be advantages in combining the hardness of high chromium
irons with the finer grain structure of a forged product. Such a material
has been developed, (see Table 10.13), though at the time of writing it
is untested with BCI and its accurate price has not been discussed.
642 E&w M ILLS
The problem of media wear in wet mills has not yet been beaten despite
the introduction of high chromium cast irons. However, it is felt that
further progress must be made in this area so that a competitively
priced product combining highcorrosion and abrasion resistance can be
developed.
On the dry raw milling front, little progress has been made and on
most works straight high carbon forged steel is considered the most
cost effective material. Trials with high chromium cast irons have
indicated that their use is not justified though these mills are
large users of media, as can be seen from Table 10.14 and it is felt
that significant savings could be made in this field by the use of,
for instance, Armco material.
7 REFERENCES
1. Rose, H.E. and Sullivan, R.M.E (1957) "Ball, Tube and Rod Mills",
Constable
2. Engels, K. Metall, (1954), 3-4, 702.

Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
Module 10
Section 4
Milling Systems- paper 11

1 INTRODUCTION
There are two basic types of milling system, open circuit and closed circuit.
An open circuit system is one in which a mill product is at the required fineness for the next stage in the
manufacturing process. A closed circuit system is one in which the mill product is classified in a separator into
a fine fraction which is then taken to the next stage and a coarse fraction which is returned to the mill for
further grinding.
2 OPEN CIRCUIT MILLING
2.1 THE OPEN CIRCUIT MILL SYSTEM
This is the simplest method of large scale grinding and is the commonest system found for cement milling in
B.C.I. Ltd. Figure 11.1 shows the main features of such a mill.
The mill itself, known as a tube mill, is typically a 3-chamber mill or possibly a 2-chamber mill with
classifying liners in the second chamber. The Length/Diameter ratio is usually between 5/1 and 6/1. Some
modern large open circuit mills do operate as much shorter mills (L/DL--3/1).
Material is fed to the mill via one of a number of types of feeder. The types most commonly found are shown
in Figure 11.2, and Table 11.1 lists the advantages and disadvantages of each type.
The material feeds into the mill trunnion which, on modern mills, is fitted with a scroll to assist in screwing
feed into the mill. The finished product is screwed out through the discharge hood where the majority of the
material falls into the finished product line. Some fine material is carried over in the air stream and is filtered
out.
2.2 THE OPERATION OF AN OPEN CIRCUIT MILL
The system is extremely simple and as such its operation is not complicated. The mill is controlled on the
fineness of the product and the feed rate is adjusted according to the specific surface area of the product. In
addition the cement temperature is monitored. The importance of this factor and methods of cooling are
discussed in greater depth below.
2.2.1 COOLING OF OPEN CIRCUIT MILLS
Almost all the power used by a grinding mill is converted to heat. Assuming no cooling is used each kWh/ton
of cement causes a rise in temperature of approximately 4°C, i.e. for O.P.C. this represents about 120° rise.
The problems associated with hot milling are:
- Increased agglomeration of fine particles and coating of mill internals thus reducing mill fficiency.
- Setting time and workability irregularities due to excessive dehydration of the gypsum
- Increased difficulties in handling hot cement.

TABLE 11. 1
MILL FEEDERS
Feeder Type Advantages Disadvantages

TRUNNION Positive Feed. Prone to abrasion
SCREW
Good for small - high maintenance.
mills. Requires mechanical
Little spillage. drive. Difficult
to pass venting air
through trunnion.
DRUM FEEDER Robust. Can almost fill
No moving seals. mill if diaphragm
Little spillage. blockage occurs.
Allows passage
of air
FEED CHUTE Simple, Low Cost. Severe spillage
can occur.
VIBRATING Minimum air High Maintenance.
TUBE
obstruction. Unable to handle
high loads of fine
material.
Severe spillage.
Cooling a mill can be effected in three ways:
1. Shell cooling
Adequate shell water must be used, but the heat transfer rate through the mill shell is the limiting factor. This
is severely reduced by the build up of scale on the mill shell. A minimum rate of 0.04 id/hr per mill installed
kilowatt is suggested. For larger mills a higher rate is required since the mill surface to volume ratio decreases.
Care should be taken in designing the spray nozzles to ensure maximum wetting of the mill surface and where
a circulating water system is used a cooling system will be required.
2. Internal water sprays
On large, modern mills it is usually necessary to spray water into the mill to achieve the necessary cooling.
This helps to reduce the air throughput requirements and smaller, cheaper, fans and dust plants can be used.
Water is sprayed into the inlet and outlet chambers at a rate of between 1% and 3% of clinker feed rate
depending on the clinker temperature and quality. Greater than 3% may result in some strength reduction due
to hydration and in any case mill venting must be effective both from a cooling point of view and for the
removal of steam from the mill.
Further problems may occur with water injection viz -

- Filter cloth blocking
- Muffling due to poor venting
- Build up at the inlet throat
- Water jet blockage
- Control problems
3. Air cooling
Good in-ill ventilation is essential from both a mill efficiency and a cooling point of view. The highest
practicable throughput is desirable and inleaking should be minimized. Filter capacity must be adequate and
where high moisture contents occur in the air the filters should be lagged and fed with heated scavenging air.
The air is also used to assist in removing any moisture arising from gypsum, dehydration, wet stock clinker
feed and water injection. Figures 11.3 to 11.5 illustrate the effects of moisture in the mill feed upon exhaust
volume requirements at a given filter exit temperature. Figure 11.6 illustrates the relationship between
air-flow, shell-water rate, clinker temperature and cement temperature.
When the air leaves the mill it is of course dust-laden and, before exhausting, must be cleaned. The air passes
from the discharge hood to a dust filter. This may be a bag filter or, on more modern plants, an electrostatic
precipitator.
To understand more of the cooling requirements in a cement mill it is useful to construct a heat balance
around the mill system. It is not difficult to set up such a balance although caution must be exercised when
ascribing numerical values to the various factors involved. A heat balance for an open circuit cement mill is
shown in Appendix 1.
2.3 THE APPLICATION OF OPEN CIRCUIT MILLS
As already mentioned this type of milling system is the commonest method of cement grinding. Within B.C. I.
Ltd. units range in size from about 330 kW to 2250 kW installed power. Until recently installations larger than
this were closed circuit systems. The reason for this is the decrease in specific mill surface per unit throughput
as mill size increases, which leads to problems in cooling. The use of a closed achieving adequate circuit
system offers opportunities for additional cooling in the separator system. Latterly though, improved control
of clinker temperatures and improved methods of injection cooling have led to larger open circuit mills being
built. Currently the largest open circuit mill is one of 4500 kW installed power, commissioned in 1979 in
Japan.
The attraction of open circuit milling is in the capital costs. It can be generally taken that the additional costs
of the separator, the material handling system and the much larger millhouse needed, mean that a closed
circuit system costs approximately twice as much as an open circuit plant of the same throughput. There are,
of course, other factors such as particle size distribution requirements and grinding energy requirements which
must be considered when selecting a system. These points are discussed further in this paper.
3 CLOSED CIRCUIT MILLING
The principle of operation of the closed circuit mill is shown in Figure 11.7. This type of system is used for
raw meal grinding on dry and semi-dry works. In addition a number of large cement mills (2250kW installed
power) are run in closed circuit.
The mill itself is shorter than that found in open circuit systems. Length to diameter ratios vary between 2/1
and 3/1. One or two chambers are used, possibly with an additional drying chamber if wet materials are being
ground.
Material is fed to the mill in the sanee way as in open circuit systems. The mill product is conveyed, either by
elevator or possibly suspended in an air stream, to the separator where it is split into fine and coarse fractions.
The fine material goes to the next process stage and the coarse material, or rejects, are returned either to the
same mill or to a separate regrind mill for further grinding.
The various aspects of closed circuit milling are now discussed in more detail.
3.1 VENTING/COOLING
Closed circuit systems present appreciable surface through which cooling can be effected. In particular,
secondary air flows can be used in the separator to improve cooling, and water jackets can be fitted to the
separator itself. Fuller Kinyon pipeline cooling is an accepted method of cooling cement and water jacketed
lines have been installed at most works. To cool a 150mm 0.0. pipeline, carrying 25 t.p.h. from 110°C to 50°C
requires:
either (i) 35 m of cooled pipeline with 22.6m³/h water in a 225mm I.D. jacket.
or (ii) 30.5m of cooled pipeline with 22.6n,3/h in a 200mm I.D. jacket.
In raw meal grinding circuits, where fineness requirements are not so rigorous, kiln exhaust gases are
generally used to vent the mill in order to drive off moisture and preheat the raw meal to a certain extent. This
aspect is discussed in more depth in the sections dealing with the types of raw meal grinding plant.
3.2 SEPARATORS
The separator is a fundamental part of a closed circuit milling system. Its function is to separate the mill
product into coarse and fine fractions, the fines being passed on to the next process stage and the coarse being
returned to the mill for regrinding. The simplest for;-ii of separator is a screen of a mesh size equal to the
maximum particle size required in the fine product. In practice this would not be used in a mill circuit because
of size, throughput and wear limitations. The separators used in grinding systems are all based on the air
separation principle. A particle is projected with an angular motion into a vertical rising air stream. The
particle is s ubject to three forces (Fig. 11.8), centrifugal force from its angular movement, upward force from
the air and a downward gravitational force. Depending on the size of the particles, they will either be entrained
into the air stream or, if large enough, will be thrown outwards, the centrifugal force decreasing, and will
settle under the influence of gravity.
The construction of a mechanical air separator is shown in Fig. 11.9. It consists of two concentric cones, a
main fan, an auxiliary fan and a rotating distribution plate. Material is fed onto the distribution plate where
angular motion is imparted and the particles are thrown by centrifugal force into the air stream. Particles less
than the cut size' are entrained into the rising air stream and pass up through the fan blades into the outer cone.
The cut size is determined by the air velocity and the angular speed of the particles. The particles larger than
the cut size travel outwards towards the inner cone and either settle under gravity as the centrifugal force
decreases or are carried down by cyclonic action as they reach the wall.
The air returns from the outer cone through a set of vanes. The fine particles are separated from the air by the
change in direction and the decrease in velocity of the air current in this region.
The airflow can be controlled by adjustments of the auxiliary fan which acts against the main fan. Increasing
the number of blades chokes the airflow and shifts the cut size towards the fine end. The blades of the main
fan can be adjusted in diameter to alter the air current. In addition the ascending air current cross section can
be altered by the use of control plates which act to choke the airflow.
By variation of these controls any desired cut can be achieved but as the boundary size decreases throughput
will be reduced.
A number of manufacturers produce this type of separator. There are a number of individual differences such
as variable speed and' separate drive auxiliary fans but the principle is the same.
A more distinct variation is found on the cyclone air separator with external fan (Fig. 11.10). This unit features
the cross current separation process with a distribution plate and speed controlled auxiliary fan. The air,
however, is circulated by an external fan and the fines, instead of being collected in an outer cone are collected
in external cyclones. A number of advantages are claimed for this system:
- increased throughput for a specific size

- consistent quality of fines
- more efficient fan system
- lower wear rates on fan blades
- increased controlability
This type of separator is installed on No.4 cement mill at Northfleet.
Separators also often include facilities for product cooling. This may be in the form of water jacketing of the
unit or, more commonly, through the intake of cold air with a corresponding bleed-off of hot air to a dust
filter.
A further variation is the static separator (Fig. 11.11). This machine works on a similar principle to the
mechanical separators - i.e. air separation - but differs in its mode of operation. There is no rotating distributor
or internal fan. An external fan provides an air stream, in to the bottom of the separator together with the
entrained separator feed. As the airborne material rises towards the inner cone the very largest particles fall
back into the rejects chute. The rest of the material and the air are carried up to the top and through the
tangential vanes where a swirl action is set up with a resulting centrifugal force on the particles. The fine
particles remain entrained in the air and carry on out of the separator to a collection system (cyclones,
precipitators). The centrifugal force on the coarse particles overcomes the air flow and these particles fall into
the coarse collecting cone, from whence they enter the rejects stream and are returned to the mill. This type of
classifier is found on the Humboldt raw mills at Hope Works.
3.3 SEPARATOR EFFICIENCY
In theory, for a particular separator setting, there is a cut size above which material is always sent to the coarse
stream, and below which it goes to the fines stream.
In practice, of course, this is not so. Fine material can become agglomerated and behave as a large particle or
become entrapped within an accumulation of coarse particles. Alternatively, large particles whose path is
disturbed by the presence of other materials or by inconsistent air flow may be entrained into the fines stream.
The appraisal, of the efficiency of a separator is an extremely complex subject, more so than many people
realize. There is not enough space here to go into the subject fully. For an overall review of the subject the
reader is referred to the paper by J.C. Richards (1966).
Poor separation can manifest itself in two ways. Fine material can be adulterated by coarse particles. In the
case of both raw meal and cement this can have a deleterious effect on the product quality. To correct this
requires adjustment of the separator to increase the proportion sent to the coarse product and ensure that the
fine product contains minimum coarse particles. This of course reduces the fines yield. Conversely the coarse
product may contain excessive fines which may cause problems if fed back to the mill where cushioning or
coating in the mill can reduce mill efficiency.
A popular way of expressing classifier performance is the Tromp Curve, also known as the Grade Efficiency
or Partition Probability Curve.
The Fine Grade Efficiency G X is expressed as:
weight of size X in fines

G X = 100
weight of size x in feed
G X can be plotted against X to obtain the curve - Fig. 11.12.
Just as G X is a measure of the proportion of each size delivered to the fine product so (100- G X ), the Coarse
Grade Efficiency, is the corresponding delivery to the coarse product.
From the Curve an equiprobable size ε : can be obtained which is the size x when G X = 50%. The variation
of G X about ε : is taken to represent the boundary of ideal separation. The cut size of a separator is difficult to
define. Various definitions have been suggested; for instance, cut size has been defined as the point at which
the cumulative undersize curve for the fine product intersects the cumulative oversize curve for the coarse
product. This is unsatisfactory in that the method always yields a value even if the machine has been unable to
classify. If a machine set to have an ε value of say 100 was fed with material all less than 100, the machine
would not classify. However, some particles will stray to the coarse stream and a cut size will be provided by
the size analyses. This value will be meaningless and merely obscures the fact that the machine is being
abused. The most acceptable way of defining cut size is the equiprobable size ε .
We can now define two efficiencies for assessing performance:
Acceptance Efficiency Ea
weight of fine product < ε

Ea = 100
weigh of feed < ε
Rejection Efficiency Er
weight of coarse product > ε

Er = 100
weight of feed > ε
These two values reflect different aspects of separator performance which can best be seen from a worked
example.
The table below gives performance data for four separators. In each case the equiprobable size ε has been
established as 90 µ and the feed (mill product) is identical.
Separator Fine Product Coarse Rejects
Feed (t-p-h.) (t.p.h.)
(t.p.h.)
No Total < 90µ >90µ Total < 90µ > 90µ Total < 90µ >90µ Ea Er
Yield % %
1 100 63 37 32 30 2 68 33 35 47.62 94.59
2 100 63 37 48 30 18 52 -33 19 47.62 51.35
3 100 63 37 58 55 3 42 8 34 87.30 91.89
4 100 63 37 64 55 9 36 8 28 87.30 75.68
Inspecting these cases and assuming the desired product is that with a low residue on 90 µ we can see that No.
1 produces a better product than No. 2 but that the acceptance efficiencies are the same. Again, where No.3
produces a better product than No.4 the acceptance efficiencies are similar but higher (Ea ≈ 87%) than Nos. 1
and 2 (Ea ≈ 48%). The values of Ea reflect the increased yield of fine product but say nothing about product
quality.
In the case of rejection efficiencies it can he seen that the values of Er are a better (though not perfect)
reflection of product quality (high in cases 1 and 3, lower in cases 2 and 4), but give no indication of yield. It
has been suggested that a single figure E can be used to assess classifier performance.
This is defined as:
E=
(Ea )(Er )
100
Calculating these gives the following figures:
No: 1 2 3 4
E(%) 45.04 24.45 80.20 66.07
These values now reflect the yield and quality but are still not adequate for selection purposes; e.g. preference
for 1 or 4 would depend on Whether or not a low residue was overiding.
This example demonstrates the caution which must be used when interpreting figures - especially where
percentage efficiency is quoted by a manufacturer with no explanation of how the figure was calculated.
3.4 THE CASE FOR CLOSED CIRCUIT GRINDING
Before discussing the use of closed circuit grinding it is necessary to establish the advantages and
disadvantages of the closed circuit system against open circuit grinding. From examination of the plot of
grinding power demand against fineness (expressed as specific surface area) shown in Figure 11.13, it can be
seen that the maximum power is required for fine grinding e.g. to grind from 100 m² to 150 m² kg-1 requires
about 4 kWh/ton and from, 350 m² kg -1 to 400 m² kg-1 requires about 8 kWh/ton. This is due in part to the
finer particles being stronger due to less flaws being present and partly to cusioning of the grinding elements
by the fines present in the mill. It therefore follows that using a higher throughput through the mill and
grinding less finely will result in more efficient operation of the mill. The product though will be coarser and
therefore a separator will be necessary to remove the coarse fraction to bring the final product up to
specification. The coarse rejects can then be returned to the mill for further grinding or possibly to a separate
regrinds mill.
The advantages of closed circuit grinding can best be seen by examining the worked example of mill power
demand requirements for open and closed circuit milling contained in Appendix 2. The object of closed circuit
grinding is to obtain higher efficiency by removing fine material from the mill before its amount becomes high
enough to impair the rate of grinding. The simple treatment in Appendix 2 tends to be over optimistic in its
estimate of savings since a reduction in grinding rate is not only due to cushioning but can also be caused by
the less flawed nature of smaller particles. It is therefore obvious that savings are most significant where a
very high proportion of fines are present e.g. in the grinding of rapid hardening cement to surfaces of up to
450 m² kg-1. At OPC levels whilst some savings occur the overall circuit power may exceed that of an open
circuit system and the advantages of closed circuit operation lie principally in the possibility of improved
cooling facilities and improved particle size grading of the product. For raw meal grinding, where low
residues on 90 are more important than high surface areas, closed circuit grinding is attractive because of its
greater degree of control of this particle size grading. Attempts have -been made to analyse closed circuit
milling in more detail and reference to these studies should be made for more inforrial.,ion.(Austin et al 1975,
Tanaka 1961, Narechi 1964).
3.5 THE APPLICATION OF CLOSED CIRCUIT GRINDING
3.5.1 CLOSED CIRCUIT GRINDING OF CEMENT
In brief there appears to be a case for closed circuit grinding of cement where a carefully controlled range of
specific surfaces and residues is required, especially for the finer cements such as Ferrocrete. For OPC the
case is less strong and open circuit mills are more desirable providing sufficient cooling is available. Until
recently a mill of 2250 kW installed power was considered the maximum size for open circuit operation
although larger mills are now being installed with improved cooling and venting systems.
Currently in the U.K. the coi,.!pany operates closed circuit mills of 4500 kW installed power at Northfleet and
Hope and 2250 kW units at Plymstock, Masons, and Northfleet. The mills are of the "bucket-elevator" type
and employ two separators, in parallel, in each circuit.
3.5.2 CLOSED CIRCUIT GRINDING OF RAW MEAL
Closed circuit milling systems are widely found at the raw meal preparation stage of dry and semi-dry cement
works. Since combinability temperature is governed by maximum particle size rather than specific surface
area of the meal, a closed circuit system, is favored because a greater degree of control of this maximum
particle size can be achieved compared with open circuit grinding. In practice the raw meal fineness
requirement is about 90% < 90µ.
3.5.2.1 Drying/Grinding
Besides preparing raw meal to a suitable fineness, the raw meal grinding system is also employed as a drying
system. The mill feed may contain anything between 3% and 20% moisture which it is advantageous to
remove before the feed enters the kiln, where additional fuel will have to be burnt if the feed contains
moisture. A grinding mill is well suited to a simultaneous drying operation. Apart from the heat obtained from
the grinding process itself an additional heat input is possible using hot gases (either exhaust gases or
pre-heated air) as the venting air.
In addition, intimate mixing of the air stream and solids occurs and by performing the drying operation on the
material in its finest state prior to burning, the possibility of moisture entrapment in the micropore structure of
the particles is minimized. When additional heat is required beyond that available from exhaust gases, a
furnace (usually oil -fired) is used to pre-heat the venting air; by carrying out a heat balance it is possible to
determine the fuel requirements for the furnace. Appendix 3 contains the derivation of such a heat balance.
3.5.2.2 Single Chamber Mill/Mechanical Classifier System
This is perhaps the simplest raw meal grinding plant. Figure 11.14 shows a typical circuit. The mill shell has
an L/D ratio of about 2 : 1, it is usually fitted with a rudimentary form of classifying lining such as a spiral
wave and generally operates with a high volume loading (35 - 40%). This type of circuit is used for rather dry
materials of moderate hardness. Normally a tertiary crusher is used on the plant which gives a fairly fine feed
to the ,mill system (approx. minus 12mm). Fresh feed joins the mill product at the elevator boot and the
mixture is delivered to a mechanical classifier. In this way, any material already fine enough is removed
before milling. Drying is carried out in the separator using hot gas from the kiln or an auxiliary furnace. Dry
rejects from the separator form the mill feed.
The mill is normally well ventilated and dust laden gas from this and the separator either passes to the kiln
precipitator or in some cases to cyclones followed by a wet scrubber. Mechanical classifiers of the general
designs already discussed are used in these circuits but certain modifications are incorporated to deal with the
special requirements. In the first place wearing plates are fitted around the inner cone and hard tipped fan
blades are fitted for dealing with coarser feed fractions. Secondly, the cones are cut to allow the introduction
of hot gas and the subsequent removal of fines laden gas.
CONTROL OF THE PLANT The essential controls are:
- Temperature of gas ex-classifier

- Fineness
- Mill feed rate
- Elevator motor loading
The furnace is normally automatically controlled to give a steady fines and gas outlet temperature from, the
separator. This is commonly about 80°C. The gas flow also influences the drying but normally once this has
been set the dampers are left alone.
The fineness of tile raw meal product is determined by a combination of three factors; the classifier setting, the
feed rate, and the level of circulating load. However, the prime setting rests with the classifier. It is then
necessary to adjust the feed rate to maintain a steady chosen load of material in the elevator or alternatively to
maintain a steady quantity of rejects from the classifier. For the former it is quite common to run the circuit
from an ammeter on the elevator motor. For the rejects control it is necessary to have a weigher or inclined
plate flowmeter installed.
3.5.2.3 Air-Swept Mill System
The arrangement of this mill circuit is shown in Figure 11.15.
The mill typically has an L/D of 2-2 ½ /1
From the feed hopper the material for grinding is fed by a proportioning device into the mill, where drying and
the grinding take place. The around material is swept along by the air current and thus removed from the mill.
Separation into fines (finished product) and rejects (oversize material) is effected in the grit separator. The
rejects are returned to the grinding mill, whilst the fines are, for the most part, precipitated in the cyclones. Air
recirculation is assured by the circulating fan. On the delivery side of the fan, the airflow is split into three
individual streams, one to the mill inlet, the second to the mill outlet, and the third to the dust collection unit.
In the case of raw feed having a sufficiently high moisture level to impede grinding efficiency, then a drying
chamber is required at the inlet end of the mill. The great a6vantage of this grinding process is that the
relatively large quantities of air required for material transport can be utilized for drying purposes.
At Hope Works the raw material is prepared in two closed circuit air swept mills. The raw materials are
extracted from the stone store by feeders working on a weight control, and conveyed to the mill. The milling
system utilizes waste heat from the kilns to dry the raw materials. Ground material is lifted from the mill to a
static separator, the coarse material being returned to the mill inlet via an airslide. Material is separated from
the air stream by four cyclones on each mill circuit, any material escaping through the cyclones being
collected in the electrostatic precipitators which are also utilized for the treatment of kiln waste gases. Each
mill has two motors taking up to 3542 kW between them. The rated output for each mill is 145 tph raw meal
at 5% residue on 90µ . The mill fan either discharges the air to the kiln precipitators or recycles the air to the
mill inlet, there also being facilities to recycle some to the mill outlet to assist in lifting the ground material to
the static separator.
Stone and shale are fed to each mill via three extraction trolleys situated under the raw material store. Finished
meal collected by the cyclones is fed by screws over weirs (to create a seal ) into air slides any conveyed to a
45 ton hopper: the collection hopper also received the dust collected by the precipitators and the overflow
from the kiln feed system. The meal is conveyed to the blending silos by three Fuller Kinyon pumps.
CONTROL OF THE PLANT
Control of the mill is from a central instrument panel. All motors are started separately and in logical order,
each motor requiring sequence from the previous one before it can be started.
The essential controls are:

Airflow:- controlled by dampers
Mill temperature:- the mill must operate within the limits of mill inlet temperature. This usually has a
maximum of around 600°C because of mill bearing behavior. The mill outlet temperature is governed by the
feed moisture content. Temperature is controlled by variation in the air throughput and by water injection into
the mill.
Feed control:- Feed rate is controlled to allow the mill to operate at maximum throughput given the constraints
of feed moisture level , media/meal ratio and material carrying capacity within the air transport system.
Overloading of the mill can cause a dropout of several tons in the ascension pipe, requiring the mill to be
stopped for clearing.
Fineness - Fineness is usually controlled by the setting of the angle of the vanes in the static separator.
3.5.2.4 Tandem Grinding Plant
The tandem grinding system is the name given by Humboldt to a series arrangement of air swept hammer mill
and ball mill. A schematic arrangement of the system is shown in Figure 11.16. The basic system is modified
in two ways. Fresh feed now comes to the hammer mill and a proportion of the kiln gas is diverted from the
mill to the crusher. Some drying occurs in the crusher and continues during comminution and whilst "en
route" to the normal static separator. This ascension pipe also carried mill product and additional gas or cold
air is added to assist in lifting the material to the separator.
Systems of this type have been installed on some suspension preheater plants and have provided a method of
boosting output. The main problem with this system is that any stoppage on the hammer mill stops the ball
mill and as hammer mills generally require more attention than ball mills this reduced the possible running
hours. It is considered that this system is best suited to handling medium to soft materials. With hard materials
precrushing is better done off-line
Some comparative figures are shown below for Plymstock Works which uses a hard limestone/shale mix:
Air swept mill Tandem hammer mill

alone system
Output 50.0 tph 56.1 tph
Finished product 7.0% + 90µ 7. 0% + 90µ
Mill kW 995 987
Hammer mill kW - 139
kWh/t (without fan) 19.9 20.1
The suppliers of this system claim a benefit in overall kWh/t. This implies that the hammer crusher is more
efficient than the ball mill. It does not appear to be the case at Plyinstock, but with softer material there could
be some advantage because of increased fines yield direct from the hammer mill. If any abrasive components
are used in the raw mix, such as sand, they must be fed directly to the ball mill.
Where very wet raw materials are involved, (above about 8% moisture) it is necessary to employ an auxiliary
furnace to supplement the heat from the kiln gases.
In operation this system is very similar to the normal air swept mill already described. Of the multiplicity of
ducts and dampers most are left fixed after commissioning, but the main damper control remains in use
together with the splitter damper which determines the proportion of kiln gas being sent to the mill circuit. In
the mill circuit it is even more important to avoid dumping down the ascension pipe which can trip out the
crusher and result in a time consuming digging out process. As indicated previously to avoid this it is
important not to overfeed the system and create an excessive circulating load. In the absence of a rejects
weigher a sudden fall in the mill fan current gives a warning which must be quickly heeded by cutting back
the feed rate.
3.5.2.5 Aerofall Mill System
The Aerofall system is currently used on the Lepol process works in BCC U.K. The plant can handle feed up
to 225mm at tonnage’s of about 180 tons/hour. The system is shown in Figure 11.17 and consists of two
grinding stages.
Primary - Aerofall mill (includes drying)
Secondary - Regrind mill
The Aerofall mill has been described in the lecture on "Mill Design Principles" and will not be described in
detail here. Basically, the mill is a large diameter (~ 7m), short length ( ~ 1.7m), air swept ball mill fitted with
48 150mm lifters and charged with media to about 15% of the mill volume. Grinding is semi-autogeneous
with some grinding being effected by the larger pieces of feed material.
MATERIAL CIRCUIT:
Raw material is fed into the mill where it is heated and dried by an air stream. It is ground to approximately
60% < 90µ. The material is carried out in the air stream into a primary classifier (essentially an expansion
box) where the coarse particles drop out (primary classifier product approximately 85%< 90µ).
Airborne material is carried onto the secondary classifier (with a cyclonic action ) where material of about
50% < 90µ is removed. As this has a large percentage of material fine enough for kiln feed it is further
classified in a whirlwind air separator (tertiary classifier) into a coarse and fine stream. The fine stream is fine
enough for kiln feed and is transported to the blending tanks.
The majority of the material which is still airborne is dropped out in the fines cyclone (97.5%< 90µ) into the
final product hopper.
The coarse material from the primary classifier, and the rejects from the tertiary separator are both fed to the
boot of the same elevator. This material, termed regrinds, partly goes to the secondary grinding mill, and the
remainder is returned to the Aerofall mill.
AIR CIRCUIT :
Hot air is drawn through the mill which dries the material and carries ground material out of the mill. As
explained above, the air is drawn through the expansion box primary classifier, the cyclonic secondary
classifier and the two fines cyclones (in parallel) by the double entry main fan. After the main fan the air
stream is split, being partly exhausted to atmosphere through filters, the rest being returned round the heater
body to the mill. The temperature of the air is increased by enriching the recirculating air with fresh hot air
from the heater. The heater is oil fired with two fans, a combustion fan and a dilution fan. It is only possible to
introduce the same quantity of air with these two fans as is being exhausted from the system, remembering
also that part of the exhaust volume is water vapor which is driven off from the raw material.
It is necessary to exhaust air from the circuit in order to purge the water and products of combustion from the
system. Experience has shown that operation above a relative humidity of 25% does not dry the raw material.
Therefore, the higher the operating temperature, the lower the volume of air which needs to be exhausted. This
does not alter the air requirements through the mill which normally are about 250,000 m³h-1 Reduction of this
flow will reduce output. Exhaust air requirements will be discussed more thoroughly below.
At present the temperature at which the mill can be operated is limited by the dilution air which is required to
cool the furnace refractory.
SECONDARY GRINDING: There are three types of secondary grinding mills in use:
Open Circuit Tube Mill

Closed Circuit Tube Mill
Double Rotator Mill
The open circuit tube mill is simply an adapted cement mill described elsewhere whilst the other mills are
discussed in more detail later in this paper. Meanwhile their respective roles in the Aerofall circuit are briefly
described below.
Open Circuit Tube Mill
As it is necessary to reduce particle size (rather than generate surface), this type of milling is not favored as it
tends to use a considerable amount of energy to produce superfines, which are of no benefit to the process,
when associated with larger particles, and in fact will not readily produce a low residue raw meal.
Closed Circuit Tube Mill
This is a normal tube mill with all the mill discharge being elevated to whirlwind air separators. Fine material
is recovered and conveyed into the final product hopper, the rejected material being returned to the mill.
Centre Discharge Mill
This mill is, in effect, two closed circuit partially airswept tube mills joined end to end at their discharge ends.
Material is fed to the first chamber and discharged through a diaphragm into the small central section of the
mill with discharge ports in the shell. It is then elevated to the two whirlwind air separators (in parallel) where
fine material is recovered for raw meal. The coarse material from one of these separators is fed to the second
chamber at the other end of the mill which is discharged in the same manner. Rejects from the. second
separator are variably split to both ends of the mill in order to balance chamber loading. Air is drawn through
the mill, lifting some ground particles into a static separator (which is an impingement/centrifugal type of
separator) where any coarse particles are rejected to the boot of the elevator, the rest being recovered from the
air stream by filters and transported to the final product hopper.
CONTROL OF AN AEROFALL MILL CIRCUIT
The instrumentation for the plant is highly developed. Motors are controlled in sequential stages with
predetermined delays in start-up and shut-down procedures. Total control is available at the panel with over 70
readings available.
The main controls available are:
Feed rate: The feed rate to the Aerofall Mill is controlled by the sonic level of the mill. Once the optimum has
been determined, the operator leaves the sonic on that set point, which controls the feed. It is normal to check
the optimum sonic level at least weekly.
Temperature: The temperature and exhaust air requirements are determined by the drying duty of the mill. It
is normal to leave the exhaust air at its maximum and adjust the temperatures on the product moisture. The
operator uses the product moisture to adjust the set point of the system temperature, which, to give a steady
temperature, automatically controls the oil rate to the furnace.
Airflow: Airflow is controlled by the main fan damper which is opened to a maximum when the plant is
approaching normal running conditions.
Regrind Mill Feed: The feed to the regrind mill is increased until the elevator feeding the turbo separators is
at a maximum steady load.
Filter Bag Protection: The filter bags are protected against thermal destruction by an alarm on a set
temperature. When the temperature is within 15°F of the set temperature, the burner is automatically cut down
to low heat. If the temperature reaches the set temperature, the burner is automatically cut out.
THE USE OF THE AEROFALL MILL
The Aerofall system is used for raw meal preparation on the Lepol grate preheater works in the U.K.; Cauldon
works was in fact the first cement plant to utilize this type of milling system (installed 1962). As each works
was built, modifications were made to the system mainly with regard to the number and type of regrind mills
and the control systems. Because of the complexity of the system and its relatively recent experience in the
cement industry there have inevitably been on going development and improvements made. Reductions in mill
speed were found to increase throughput. The Cauldon mill was converted to run open circuit with the
separator rejects being held in storage prior to being fed to the regrinds mill. This allowed either mill to
operate independently (within limits set by storage capacity) thus permitting easier maintenance scheduling.
3.5.2.6 Center Discharge Mill

The Center Discharge Mill is a partially airswept tube mill fitted with a drying drum at the feed end and a
central peripheral discharge between the two grinding chambers. Figure 11.18 shows a typical mill circuit.
Feed enters the mill, together -with hot air from the furnace, through the inlet -trunnion into a drying chamber.
This chamber is 1.7m long and fitted with lifters. Material from the dryer passes through a lifter diaphragm
into the first grinding chamber. This chamber is 3.05m long and fitted with a classifying lining.
Material from the first chamber passes through a slotted diaphragm into the discharge chamber. The latter (of
length 0.74m) has, 6 ports in the mill shell which allows the material to fall onto a fluidor conveyor feeding
the recirculation elevator.
At the discharge of the elevator, material is equally split into two fluidor conveyors. Each conveyor feeds a
turbo separator which recovers finished meal and discharges it into the handling system for transport to the
blending silos. The coarse fraction from the separator's feeds a screw conveyor which transports the whole of
the rejects from one separator to the second grinding chamber. The rejects -from the other separator can be
variably split to either of the two chambers by operation of a slide at the base of the screw conveyor.
Returned material enters the 3.05m long second grinding chamber through the mill trunnion. Material which is
not airborne passes through a slotted diaphragm into the discharge chamber and is returned to the separators.
The advantage of this type of milling system is that the charge in the chambers can be suited to the duty. Also,
fines which are generated in the initial breaking of the stone are recovered before entering a further grinding
chamber.
AIR CIRCUIT
The whole system is under suction. Hot air from a furnace is drawn into the mill at each end, the majority
going to the drying end of the mill. The air carries some material out of the mill into the static separator
(which is an impingement/centrifugal type of separator) where coarse particles are rejected into the elevator.
Fine material in the airstream is recovered by a set of four filters and the clean air is discharged to the
atmosphere. As there is water present in the airstream it is important that the scavenging air is above the dew
point of the airstream. The scavenging air is therefore a mixture of atmospheric air and hot air from the
furnace.
The operation of the plant is done from a central panel. All motors have start and stop buttons inside the panel
and are started separately. Start-up is done in logical order, each motor requiring sequence from the previous
motor before it can be started. The essential controls of the plant are:
Airflow Control: In order to get the maximum airsweeping effect and keep the mill inlet temperature as low
as possible, the airflow is always at a maximum (i.e. approx. 46,000 m²/h at STP at the exhaust fan or 0.65 kr.
air/kg. meal).
Temperature Control: There are essentially two temperatures to control:
Filter temperature
Mill temperature
Filter Temperature: An effective control is required on the filters, in order to protect the bags. One control
system used is a cold air bleed on the filter inlet which is automatically controlled by the filter inlet
temperature.
Mill Temperature: The limiting factor here is the mill inlet temperature. This has a maximum of 600°C
because of the mill bearings. The mill outlet temperature is governed by the product moisture. If this
temperature starts to fall, more fuel is put on the furnace up to the limit of 600°C on the mill inlet temperature.
If the mill outlet temperature starts to rise, fuel is taken off. Immediate reduction of mill outlet temperature
can be effected by opening a cold air bleed at the furnace outlet. Reduction of feed is necessary if the mill
outlet temperature cannot be maintained with an inlet temperature of 600°C.
Feed Control: The proportioning of the feed is adjusted in order to provide meal of the required analysis to
make kiln feed in the blending silos. The maximum feed to the mill is normally limited by the elevator
loading. Other limiting factors are the drying capacity of the plant, with a maximum mill inlet temperature of
600°C, and the "buoyancy" of the charge, overloading causing charge to migrate from, the first grinding
chamber to the drying chamber. The elevator loading is governed by the turbo - separators, the more efficient
these separators, the less is returned to the mill. It is therefore necessary in a closed circuit milling system to
maintain the separators at their maximum efficiency.
Fineness: The usual way of adjusting the fineness of the raw meal produced is by alternation of the angle of
the vanes in the static separator. This can be done whilst the plant is running.
3.5.2.7 The Ring Roller Mill
This mill has been described in the paper on Mill Design Principles. It is an integrated closed circuit system
with the separator combined in the mill casing. Its present application in the cement industry is in raw meal
and coal grinding.
In recent years there has been increasing interest in the use of the system for grinding cement. The attractions
are the lower power consumption and the controllability of the system, which may allow more closely defined
products to be produced. However, problems with high wear rates and unsuitable product size distribution
have until recently prevented the installation of such a mill. All the major manufacturers have been involved
in development work to modify the product size distribution - basically by increasing the residence tire of
material in the grinding zone to increase the production of fines. In addition the appearance of new,
high-chrome, alloys on the market means that the problem of high wear rates may soon be -surmountable. At
the time of writing only one ring roller mill has been installed for cement grinding by a German cement
manufacturer who has a 150 t.p.h. plant commissioned in mid-1980 and the results obtained with this unit are
awaited with interest.
With regard to raw meal grinding Blue Circle experience is mainly confined to two manufacturers.
Berz mills have been installed at Cauldon, Manresa and Golden Bay. This type of mill was later developed by
the manufacturers, Gebruder Pfeiffer, to become the 'IPS mill which is widely used for coal grinding as well as
for raw meal.
A Polysius roller mill has been installed at Tilbury, Vancouver. This mill differs from the MPS design in
having a split roller system where the inner roller rotates independently of the outer one. This reduces the
variation in speed differential between the rollers and the table along the table radius and thus is claimed to
reduce wear on the grinding elements.
Another manufacturer is Loesche. Although, at present, no Loesche mills exist within BCI Ltd., they are
widely used within the cement industry. The design of the rollers differs from the other manufacturers but the
principle is the same. Two, three and four roller systems are available. The largest roller mill currently running
in the world is a Loesche 43.40 mill installed at Volos in Greece. This mill is expected to handle up to 450 tph
of raw meal at an overall power consumption of 13.3 kWh/ton.
The roller mill system has a number of advantages which account for its increasing popularity. Overall power
consumption is generally lower than ball mills. The plant is physically smaller with the classifier integrated
into the mill body. Drying can be achieved efficiently with the high throughput of air required. The mill is also
considerably quieter than a ball mill which can be important in installations where legislation sets strict levels
on noise emission.
A typical circuit based on an MPS mill, is shown in Figure 11.19. Hot air for drying is provided from an
auxiliary furnace and this passes with dilution air to the mill. Fine material from the mill is carried to a static
precipitator and immediately into an electrostatic precipitator. Because of the relatively dry raw materials at
Cauldon, gas conditioning for the precipitator proved to be a problem and to assist this some moist clean air
was recycled through the mill.
Grinding and drying is achieved economically in one pass through the mill, with moisture contents of up to
20%. The air for drying and conveying is either recovered from coolers or heat exchangers or comes from a
heater unit. The mill is capable of outputs of up to 450 tons/hour and a feature of this type of system is that
grinding, drying and classifying are all incorporated in a single unit. Feed sizes of up to 200m can be handled
eliminating any secondary crushing operation. The mill is totally enclosed and works at a pressure slightly
below atmospheric, keeping the plant area free of dust.
OPERATION AND CONTROL OF PLANT
The control of the plant is done from a central instrument control panel. Essential controls are:
Airflow: it is important that there is sufficient air to carry all the ground material up to the classifiers. If the
mill rejects fine material, the airflow is not sufficient. As the mill outlet is at a suction of about 3700Nm-2, it is
most important that the air seals are good, especially the air seal on the feeder.
Temperature: As the airflow through the mill is determined by the air sweeping requirements, the temperature
must be used to control product moisture. Control of the feed to the mill is done by the mill outlet
temperature, with a cold air bleed available for quick response when required.
Humidity: Apart from the drying characteristics the humidity is important for precipitator conditions. In order
to stabilize the precipitator, the humidity must be kept to a minimum of 15% R.H. This is achieved by
recirculating air from the pressure side of the exhaust fan to the mill inlet. As this also saves fuel, the
recirculation is kept to a maximum consistent with dry raw meal.
Feed: The proportioning of the feed is adjusted to give kiln feed from the blending tanks. Maximum feed is
when the mill runs quietly without rejecting appreciable quantities of material.
Fineness: The fineness can be controlled to the desired value by adjustment of the speed of the classifier, the
higher the speed, the finer the product. A finer product can also be obtained-by reduction of the airflow such
that finer particles are transported from the table.
APPENDIX I
HEAT BALANCE, OPEN CIRCUIT MILL
Specific Heats
Air 0.24 kcal/kg°C

Clinker 0.19 kcal /kg°C
Gypsum 0.19 kcal/kg°C
Water 1.00 kcal/kg°C
Latent Heat of Water 540.00 kcal/kg°C
Heat Entering Mill
1. With clinker = 70,500 x 50 x 0.19 = 669,750 kcal/hour

2. With gypsum = 4,500 x 25 x 0.19 = 21,375 kcal/hour
3. With air = A x 25 x 0.24 = 6A kcal/hour
4. With water = W x 10 x I = l0W kcal/hour
5. With mill motor = 2,098 x 860 = 1,804,280 kcal/hour
Total Heat in = (2,495,405 + 6A + 10W) kcal/hour
Heat Leaving Mill
1. With cement = 75,000 x 125 x 0.19 = 1,781,250 kcal/hour

2. With air = A x 125 x 0.25 = 31.25 A
3. With water vapour = W (100 + 540 + (125-100)0.46) = 651.5 W
4. From shell = 600 x 135 = 81,000 kcal/hour
Total Heat out = (1862250 + 31.25A + 651.5W) kcal/hour
Total Heat in = Total Heat out
2,495,405 + 6A + IOW = 1,862,250 + 31.25A + 651.5W
633,155 = 25.25A + 641.5W
Assuming a dew point of 68"C is maintained, this corresponds to 0.26 kg water vapor/kg dry air
Therefore W = 26A
633,155 166A
Air Rate A = 3,813 kg/hour

Water Rate = 991 kg/hour
APPENDIX 2
THE THEORETICAL PERFORMANCE OF A CLOSED CIRCUIT SYSTEM
This principle is perhaps best illustrated by considering an example.
Two assumptions will be made:
1. That specific surface is a property that can be proportioned on a weight basis, e.g. 1 kg at 200m²/kg
surface + 1 kg at 300 m²/kg equals 2 kg at 250 m²/kg.
2. The separation efficiency of a classifier will be assumed constant for a particular finished cement
specific surface and its value will be assumed. The plant data are as follows:
Mill power 700 kW. linker feed 10 m2/kg and 100% grindability Finished cement 450 m2/kg Separator
acceptance efficiency 60% for a product at 450 m2/kg. A surface area of about 260m2/kg will be
assumed for the mill discharge fineness.
The maximum possible amount of cement W at 450 m²/kg in 1 kg at 260 m²/kg is approximately as
follows:
1 x 260 = X x 450 + (1 - X) x 0
X = 0.578 kg.
The separator will extract 60% of this, i.e. 0.347 kg and return 0.653 kg to the mill.
The fineness of the grit (y) returned can thus be calculated.
1 x 260 = (0.347 x 450) + 0.653Y

y = 159.0 m²/kg
The mill feed is therefore composed of 0.347 parts new feed (equal to cement output) at 10 m²/kg and 0.653
parts at 159.0 m²/kg.
Hence the average surface M at the inlet is (0.347 x 10) + (0.653 x 159.0) = 1 x Z
Z = 107.3 m²/kg.
Referring to the standard grindability curve (Figure 11.13) as in this example vie have assumed standard
clinker.
Revs/kg at 107.3 m²/kg = 54.01

Revs/kg at 260 m²/kg = 130.73
difference = 76.72 revs/kg.
therefore net kWh/ton = 76.72 x 0.173 = 13.27
Assuming 2% gearing losses and 5% motor losses, gross energy =
100 100
13.27 x x
98 95
= 14.25 kWh/tonne
700
therefore tph through mill = = 49.12 ton/hr
14.25
Therefore : recirculation of rejects = 32.08 tonne/hr

(49.12 x 0.653)
Output of cement = 17.04 tonne/hr

(49.12 x 0.347)
32.08
The circulating load is defined as x 100 = 188%
17.04
The energy consumption of the mill only for this output is
700
= 41.07 kWh/ton
17.04
This would compare with 56 kWh/ton in open circuit.

APPENDIX 3
THEORETICAL HEAT AND MASS BALANCE FOR DRYING/GRINDING SYSTEM
In this section, consideration is given to the quantity of oil required to dry in a raw meal grinding mill and how
it is affected by exhaust volume and exhaust temperature. The relationship between exhaust volume and
exhaust temperature for drying stones of different moistures is shown, and the maximum theoretical quantity
of atmospheric air which can be introduced into the system is calculated.
Calculations are simplified by working with percent stone moisture on a dry basis,
Nomenclature
A = Oil Rate, litre/hour

B = Dry meal output, tonne/hour
C1 = Feed moisture, % dry basis
D = Air flow from system, kg/minute (dry air)
H = Humidity of exhaust air, kg water/kg dry air
W = Water exhausted from the system, kg/minute
T = Temperature of exhaust, °C
G = Gross calorific value of oil kcal/kg
M = Specific gravity of oil (relative density)
C2 = Product moisture, % dry basis
L = Latent heat of evaporation of water at 15°C, kcal/kg
Sa = Specific heat of air, kcal/kg °C
Sm = Specific heat of meal, kcal/kg °C
SW = Specific heat of water vapour kcal/kg °C
Va = Specific volume of air, m³/kg
Vw = Specific volume of water vapour,m³/kg
E = Exhaust ratio m³(min-1)/TPH
Data
C2 = Product moisture = 0.5%

G = Gross calorific value of oil = 10,200 kcal/kg
L = Latent heat of evaporation of water at 15°C = 589 kcal/kg
M = Relative density of oil = 0.96
Sa = Specific heat of air at 15°C = 0.25 kcal/kg °C
Sm = Specific heat of meal at 15°C 0.22 kcal/kg °C
SW = Specific heat of water vapor at 15°C = 0.45 kcal/kg °C
Va = Specific volume of air = 0.0028 (273+T) m³/kg
Vw = Specific volume of water vapour = 0.0045 (273+T) m³/kg
1 kg of oil burns to give 1 kg of water.
Assumptions
That the meal leaves the system at the same temperature as the exit gas.
That the total heat loss of the system (radiation and convection) is numerically equal to the heat generated in
the mill.
The products of combustion, apart from water, are assumed to have the same properties as air.
The humidity of the inlet air is negligible in comparison to the humidity of the exhaust air.
The inlet air and feed materials are at 15°C.
Mass Balance on Water
BC
Water entering system in feed = 1 ton/h
100
Water from combustion of oil = A M kg/h
AM
= kg / min
60
BC 2
Water leaving system in feed = kg/min
6
Water leaving system in exhaust air = W = H D kg/min
AM
Therefore W = 0.167B (Cl - C2) + =HD
60
Heat Balance on System
Basis 1 minute Base temperature 15°C
AM
Heat Input : From oil combustion = x G kcal
60
From materials and air = Nil
Heat output:
In meal = 16.7 B Sm (T-15) kcal

In water associated with meal = 0.167 B C2 (T-15) kcal
In air = D Sa (T-15) kcal
In water in exhaust gases:
Latent heat = WL kcal

Sensible heat = W Sw (T- 15) kcal
Volume of exhaust air = D Va m³/min
Volume of exhaust water vapour = W Vw M³/min
Therefore total exhaust volume = BE = D Va + W Vw
BE W Vw 1
Therefore D = - = (BE - W Vw)
Va Va Va
Overall Heat Balance
Heat In = Heat Out
 L 
= 0.167 B(100 Sm + C 2 ) + (D )(Sa ) + W Sw + (T − 15)
A.M.G.
60  T − 15 
1
but D = ((B)(E) – (W)(Vw))
Va
A.M.
and W = 0.167B (C1 – C2 ) +
60
A.M.G. B.E Sa 
+ W Sw +
L
−
(Vw )(Sa ) 
Therefore = 0.167B (100 Sm + C2) +  (2)
60(T − 15) Va  T − 15 Va 
A.M.G. B.E. Sa
Thus = 0.167B (100Sm + C2) + + (0.167B (C1 – C2) +
60(T - 15) Va
A.M.  L (Vw )Sa 
 Sw + −  (3)
60  T − 15 Va 
Hence (4)
 A.M.  G − L   (Vw )Sa   (E )Sa    L   Vw (Sa )  
   − Sw +   = 0.167(100Sm + C 2 ) +   +  0.167(C1 − C 2 ) Sw + − 
 60B  T − 15   Va   Va    T − 15   Va  
Substituting values given in data:
A  153.8  89.23E  589 

 − 0.00077  = 3.67 + − 0.167C 2  − 0.952  (5)
B  T − 15  (273 + T )  T − 15 
Neglecting insignificant terms:
A  153.8   98.36 
+ (C1 − C 2 )
89.23E
 − 0.00077  = 3.67 +  (6)
B  T − 15  (273 + T )  T − 15 
A 2.387(T − 15) 0.581(T − 15)E

Hence = + 0.6396(C1 − 0.5) + (7)
B 100 (273 + T )
Theoretical Exhaust Requirements
Experience has shown that it is necessary to keep the relative humidity of the exhaust gases to a maximum of
25% in order to dry the raw meal to a moisture level of 0.5%.
An equation is devised here to give the exhaust volume required to dry raw materials of a given moisture at a
given temperature.
Absolute humidity = H = W /D
Total exhaust volume = B.E. = D.Va + W.Vw
Therefore B.E. = W ( Va + Vw)
 A.M. 
But W = 0.167B (C1 – C2) +   (8)
 60 
W = 0.167B (C1 – 0.5) + 0.016A (9)
Therefore From (8) and (9)
 Va 
+ Vw 0.167(C1 − 0.5) + 0.16
A
E= (10)
 H  B
Substituting for A /B from (7)
0.382(T − 15)
= 0.167(C1 − 0.5) + + 0.01023(C1 − 0.5)
E.H
(11)
Va + Vw.H 1000
Re-arranging gives
(273 + T) (1 + 1.61 H)
E= x (177.3 (C -0.5) + 0.382 (T-15)) (12)
357000 H - (9.29 (T - 15)(1 + 1.61 H)
Maximum Dilution and Combustion Air
Assuming no inleaks, all the exhausted air must enter through the dilution and combustion fans. Thus:
Quantity of air entering system = Quantity of dry gas leaving system,
= Va(D) m³ /min at temperature
But total exhaust volume = BE = Va.D + Vw.W & W = HD
 VW 
BE = Va.D 1 + H 
 VA 
Inlet volume 1
therefore =
Exhaust volume (1 + 1.61H )
Correcting the inlet air to 15°C and taking exhaust volume at temperature:
Percentage of exhaust volume which can enter the system as fresh air at 15°C is:
 288  100 
   %
 (273 + T )  1 + 1.61H 
REFERENCES
Austin, L et al 1975 - The Simulation of a Closed circuit cement mill. Int. J. of Mineral Processing Vol. 2, p.
127-150
Naredi, R. 1964 - Closed Circuit Cement Milling. Zement Kalk Gyps Vol. 11, No. 17 p. 302-313
Richards, J.C. 1966 - The Efficiency of Classifiers, B.C.U.R.A. Monthly Bulletin Vol. 30, No.4 p. 113-144
Tanaka, T. 1958 - Closed Circuit Grinding with Air Separators Zement - Kalk Gyps Vol . 11 No. 7 p. 298-304
Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
Module 10
Section 5
Wet Milling – paper 12

1 INTRODUCTION
This paper is designed to provide a descriptive and practical account
of the main plant items and milling systems at present in use for the
preparation of cement raw materials as a concentrated suspension in
water normally referred to as a slurry. This slurry, when prepared to
normal chemical constitution, can be anything from 26% to 45% by weight in
moisture, depending on the raw materials in use.
The wet milling approach became the main method of raw material preparation
in cement manufacture as rotary kiln technology first developed, it was
also the most convenient way of handling the wetter chalks and clays which
were in common use as cement raw materials.
The developments in dry grinding and powder handling technology in post

war years coupled with the rapidly rising price of energy have highlighted
the thermal inefficiency of the wet process and favoured the development
of the more efficient dry process installations. As a result the plant
and equipment discussed in this paper are generally features of the older
cement plants and were not originally installed with all the refinements
which are considered essential on a modern plant (with the particular
exceptions of Northfleet and Shagamu).
Generally speaking, all the modifications discussed have been aimed at

either improving fuel consumption (via moisture reduction), reducing
variability (with improved control), reducing residue levels, or reducing
maintenance costs (with improved materials).
2 b/ET MILLING PLANT
Many of the materials which are found on wet process plants are soft and
sticky in nature with a high inherent moisture content. They do not require
the energy input of a ball mill to produce a kiln feed slurry, the requirement
is more for a plant to provide a tearing and attritive action on the
material in the presence of water.
The equipment should also be able to retain the material and prevent
excessively large particles passing on to the next stage in the process.
This combined effect has been most commonly achieved using a rough mill
or washmill, the design most commonly used within Blue Circle is shown in
Figs 12.1 and 12.2.
The tearing and attritive action is provided by 2 or 4 harrows suspended

from a rotating steel framework. The speed is normally 10 - 15 rpm. The
rotation of the mill tends to throw the mixture of slurry and partly
prepared material against screens (either slots or perforated plate} which
surround all or part of the mill. Slurry passes through and solids are
retained.
The standard design of rough mill can be used for either clay or the softer
chalks, and some typical dimensions are given below:
Diameter 35 ft
Depth 12 ft
Motor 350 HP
Speed 10 rpm
No. of harrows 4
Screen 4" mesh perforated plate
There are two particular disadvantages to this design:
1. Unwashable materials are not continuously discharged - this is a

particular problem in clay and chalk deposits where there are a high
proportion of flints. Although it is undesirable to have large
quantities of flint (free silica) in the slurry because of chemical
combination problems, the inevitable build-up of flint in a washmill
calls for frequent stops for de-stoning, often twice a day. This
adversely affects both slurry moisture and quality control.
2. Coarse residues - the action of a washmill is not suited to the

production of a material of kiln feed fineness so under normal
fig. /Z./ Standard 35 ft diumeter H e a v y Washmill
Gearbox
,/ , ./’ ,,y
,’ ,/’/ //“
---.--&----.. --.- ---;--i-------J
L-J
I -._-._-.-.-.--.1_-__ -._- $ [(zfj;,:::
I’
,,/,”
/”
,,A” - -. / /’ ‘1,.
I-
/I/’ 1”
,
1
i
Rolutiny S t e e l w o r k
1 0 I<pm
4
~ / -.-- -.._ ‘-1l --
/ ‘.l Screens Extended
‘For Full Hilt
T
Slurry
Circumference
Trough M i l t i n g tka-rows
Fig. t2.2 Standard 35 ft Diameter Heavy Washmil\
dating Steelwork
circumstances a secondary mill will be needed to produce the 10%
+907J 0.5% t3OOr! which is considered a good target fineness. This
performance can be approached if a screening mill is used, this is
similar to a rough mill although usually of a smaller diameter (15 -
20 ft). The main differences are a faster rotation (=25 rpm) with a
fine screening mesh about 1 - 13 mm (1/1;") would be typical. For
harder unwashable residues the secondary mill can be a ball mill or
grit mill, these will be discussed later. These secondary mills are
often used in conjunction with a classification or grit separation
system, and again these will be discussed later.
2.1.1 WASHMILL - MAINTENANCE
There are two main areas where poor maintenance will affect overall
performance:
1. Screen condition - the rate of screen wear depends largely on the.

type of raw materials but it should be stressed that damaged screens
on a rough mill will place an unnecessary load on secondary mills and
probably reduce output or increase residues. Damaged screening mill
screens will directly increase kiln feed residues with resultant
burning difficulties, loss of quality and reduced refractory brick
life.
2. dynes of harrows - the length of tyne that projects beneath ,the

harrow should be kept at or near design, wear can be rapid so checks
should be made regularly to avoid loss of output.
2.1.2 WASHMILL CONTROL
The main control variables on a washmilling system are:
1. Feed rate - this should be steady, weighed if possible, and controlled

either manually or automatically to maintain the power drawn by the mill.
2. lWa+r
I- rate - this should be metered and controlled either by direct
automatic sensing of product slurry viscosity or by ratio to the
solids feed rate. The ratio would then be adjusted automatically by
a vi jc0Sity controller.
3. Where chemical additives are in use these should be controlled auto-

matically in ratio to solid feed signal ( if availab le) or to water
rate.
Figure 12.3 shows a system using these control loops.
There is equipment available to perform all the above control measurement

most of which is in common use already within the industry, the use of a
viscometer is not as common and an example of one which has proved successful
in a Works environment is shown in Figure 12.4.
2,2 \h~HDftuMs
The problems involved in producing a slurry from a material containing

undesirable hard inclusion such as flints have been mentioned in the
previous section. The washdrum was developed as a method of doing this
on a continuous basis by providing for the continuous discharge of the
undesirable material while producing a coarse slurry product.
The washdrum is basically a lined steel cylindrical shell (similar to a

ball mill). The main difference to a ball mill is that no media is used.
Under norma? operation the hard inclusions in the raw material build up in
the wash chamber and they perform the function of grinding media. The slurry
is discharged through diaphragms in the washdrum shell and the hard material
spills over into a second chamber from where it is continuously lifted out
by an adjustable scoop fixed inside the end wall of the washdrum (see
Figure 12.5).
The configuration of the lining is usually a compromise between getting a

good milling action and throughput and avoiding fragmentation of the hard
undesirable inclusions. At Northfleet for instance, the initially installed
lifters were found to be too deep and flint breakage was a problem. The
situation was improved by installing shallower "lifter bars" through the
majority of the washdrum.
Fig. I.23 Proposed Washmi I I Control System
S e t Point
I
(Optimum Mill Amps)
Soda Ash
Feed
5 - _ .- -iI
Screw Feeder 1
Speed Control -
‘;1 --.. Water flow recorder
controller
Viscosity
Controller
ei!URlK ROTATING
0NSISTENCY TRAN
I
2
3
4
Operation Design & Construction 10 ?i!otor electrical supply
11 Seal wa;ar supply

1 Moror - Ro:aias a? a rxns1ant
:!ber d:ag on a iensana disc (A! !n rh2
speed. Llotor consiruc:ion inciud?s
heaw du:y sea%. bearings and gears. 12 Outpuz signal - ?neuma:ic or
pipelfna. ?e disc is driven a? COnSt33t e!ecVmic sigT3i c:m2:iy proponionai
speed by a rhrae p?ase moi0r (3). 2 Zero adjusrmenr - Acjix; to C’J~sIsIency.
A: ConnanC consJs;er-iv. motor output vaiiie oi zero s4gnai.

13 Air supply
:orque emans conxzn! and the
3 Feedback bellows
motor is slationdry. As consistency 14 Air supply regula-tor
mange;. mo:or :O:C~S a!so changes 4 Span adjustment - Adjus:i
C‘jCs.7,g ::e mctor : 3 t5:2:2 on its range of output SIgnal to cor: - 15 Shaft seal
sisl2ncy range.
fleX”r’. moun:s IC! Wo-.2men1 of :n2
Accurare Sensing - Papasie of
:srci* ar> (2’ w+c?. is bolred soli&‘v 5 Air gauging nozzle pressure CSnS:Si?SCY vVlt*l!l
Sr?t?Si>~ = 0.01.3.
t.3 th% mc:or. is s?ns& tiy air gaug:ng gauges
nozz!es (E) in pneumatic models and Wide operaring range - Iccwa:e
6 Signal output gauge sensing IS malnrained on srock as ihin as
by a !:naar variable cl;., z’5r4ntiai zrans-
0.75X or as thlc< as 5.0% and arvelzu-
fcrm+r 13 e!tclronic -1od2.l~. This 7 Drive shaft - Heavy dury. Type
;its ircn: 3.03 ip 1.37 m/s (0.1 to
316 nainless s?*el shafi pwvines
d:i!erenrial Is anpl:fi& (F) 10 provide 4,s feer;second j.
maximum srrengzh and conosicn
a poa~mmc or eleC:ronic output sdgnai resistance.
(G) which is direcriv proponional 10
8 Non-fouling disc censor
consisiency. Transmii:er otipul 002ratPS Exclusive invoiure rib design AGENTS
a con:roiieri:ecorder 10 record con- eliminaring fouling and permits sens,?g
Georg2 :L!2ller
of small changes in consisrency.
s~:en;y and conlrol dilution warer input Orion Park
ahead of :he xansmxer. A force-balanca 9 Instrument case - Enclssed Norsiiiield Avenue
iaedback system (5) maislains :orque instrumem case prorecrs motor and
Eaiing
in~rumen:axm. Hinged access door
arm pcsirion to allow ins?anfaneous and allows easy access to operating LONDON WI3
corrin~ous sensing. adjunmenrs. Ttf.015792111
Fig. I25 General Arrangement of a Washdrum
Second First Diaphragm

Diaphragm
Third
Diaphragm I
\ /
\I
\ Flint Chamber
I I
Wash Chamber c------------ F e e d
Flint Water
out
Some data on the Northfleet FLS washdrum is tabulated below:
Length 1st chamber 29 ft 6 in (9 m)

Length 2nd chamber 10 it 3 in (3.12 m)
Internal diameter 11 ft 8 in (3.55 m)
Speed 19.71 rpm
Maximum HP 1250 (932.5 kW)
Throughput 300 - 400 tph
As with a washmill, the washdrum product is no,t fine enough for kiln feed,
typical product res idues are 13.0% at 9Op and 8.0% at 300~ at Northfleet.
The washdrum produc t is screened, classified, and the coarse fraction is

fed to a secondary mill (ball mill) for final grinding.
2.2-l WASHDRUY MAINTENANCE
From a process point of view there are two main areas to check to maintain
washdrum performance:
1. Condition of lining - the height of lifters and depth of plates should

be checked at regular intervals.
2. Condition of diaphragm grids - these should again be regularly checked

to avoid overloading the subsequent plant with coarse residue.
2.2.2 WASHDRUM CONTROL
The main control requirements on a washdrum are basically the same as for a
washmill, and taking the Northfleet system as an example there is facility
for:
1. Chalk weighing
2. Clay ratio control
3. Water control
4. Density monitoring.
As discussed previously th e use of viscosity rather than density as a control
parameter would be preferable, this should be an area where further
developments will help wet mill operation.
2,3 frl~~ BAI I Mu I 5
The basic mechanical and process design of a ball mill has been dealt with
in the preceding papers, this section covers the various areas where wet
ball mill operation differs from other ball mills used in the cement
industry.
Wet ball mills are typically two or thre e chambers when used for grinding
run of quarry stone (Figure 12.6) and single chamber when operating as
secondary mills. Some typical dimensions are shown in Table 12.1 for
various wet mills within the Group. Two chamber mills (ie Humber) can be
30 - 50% first chamber, three chamber mills are likely to be split 33% -
33% - 33% for lst, 2nd and 3rd chambers. The size of the first chamber is
dictated to a great extent by the size of the feed material.
The linings used in wet mills are typically stepped lifter or rippled in
steel for first chamber use and straight lifter bar or ripple linings in
rubber for other chambers. Diaphragms can be either steel or rubber. A
fuller discussion on the us2 of rubber linings in wet milling is included
in Appendix 12.1.
The grinding media used in wet mills represents a compromise between the
extremely abrasive and corrosive environment in a wet mill and the high cost
of abrasion resistant and corrosion resistant grinding medias. Generally
speaking, economic arguments have tended to favour the use of low cost
high wear rate cast med ia. The situat ion is, however, under continuous
review and a discussion of the various medias in use is included as
Appendix 12.2.
2.3-l BALL MILL CONTROL
A schematic ball mill control scheme is shown in Figure 12.7. It can be

seen that it includes many of the factors already discussed for washmill
FQ. 1’2.6 A Typical Two Chamber Wet Ball Mill
490 cu. ft.

J
9
feed 7 ft.
med io media
32’6% vol. 30% vol.
Diaphragm
Mo~oor HP 450
SPEED 2 0 Rpm
LINING PLATES Chamber 1 Hadfield Chromax

Chamber 2 Skega Rubber
MEDIA Chamber 1 90mm Armco

Chamber 2 > 30mm. Armco
TABLE 1241 TYPICAL WET BALL MILLS
-
I IIIJMUER
-1 OXFORD
I-
-4-
SHACAMU
-
I\THI RIVER
MILL No. 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2
--
MANUFACTURER E ALLEN E ALLEN FLS E ALLEN E ALLEN E ALLEN FLS FLS FLS
LENGTH m 11.0 11.0 11.0 10.97 10.97 10.97 13.0 13.0 16.0
INTERNAL DIAMETER m 1.96 1.96 1.96 2.13 2.13 2.13 3.8 3.8 3.2
L/D RATIO 5.61 5.61 5.61 5.15 5.15 5.15 3.64 3.64 5.2
No. CHAMOERS 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3
CHAMBER LENGTHS % SO/SO 50/50 50/50 29.?/70.3 47/53 46/54 36.9/63.1 36.9/63.1 I : 35.9/113.7/45.
POWER INSTALLED kw 450 450 400 550 550 550 2250 2250 1600
kW TAKEN 336 336 298 410 410 410 2300 2354 1440
X VOLUME LOAD 31.5 31.5 28.0 26.0 26.0 26.0 28.9129.6 28.9129.r 5 24.5
Wt OF CHARGE t 40.5 40.5 35.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 G2/113 62/ 113 124
SPEED rpm 20 20 19.4 22.0 22.0 22.0 16.5 16.5 17.83
Z CRITICAL SPEED 66.1 66.1 64.1 75.0 75.8 75.8 74.7 74.7 73.5
OUTPUT tph 26.5 25.5 29.5 24.0 23.0 24.0 116.0 122.3 84.0
kWh/TONNE 12.0 12.0 9.6 13.0 13.0 13.0 19.0 19.25 17
RESIDUE + 9011 12.0 16.0 16.0 12.0 13.0 12.0 15.6 10.3 10.1
- -
Fig. /2.7 Ball Mill Control Scheme
Additive Rutio
c”, -“(:lay Ratio Additive Control

Set by Pump
Slurry Tester
Water
Water/stone
ratio controlled Dewed
by density
controller ~;iJf;ester
Viscosity
Controller
and washdrum. Also shown is the ratio control of slurry deilocculant
addition which now forms an important part of many wet milling systems.
2.3.2 !I'ET MILL MEDIA GRADING
Although the specification of a media grading for wet mill use may be not
as clearly defined as for cement mills, the following comments should be
regarded as guidelines:
1. The largest media should be 3 to 4 times the size of the larger particles
in the feed, but it should not normally be necessary to go beyond 100 mm
ball size.
7-. The grading should follow that suggested for cement mills in Table 12.2,
except that the smallest media should probably not be less than 1".
With regard to the small media quantities, it is generally thought that

the use of less than 1" media in a wet mill should be avoided for two
reasons:
(a) High media wear rates will mean. rapid reductions in media size and
a consequent need for frequent regrading if very small media is
used.
(b) Low moistures and high slurry viscosities may be detrimental to

small media performance as the media may tend to "float".
Adjustments to this grading may reveal slightly better performance depending

on the type of material being ground, particularly soft materials may not
require as much large media. Materials with small gritty inclusions may
need a long "tail" on the media curve' giving a higher proportion of sub lf"
media to grind out the residue.
2.3.3 C,QCDLATION OF WET MILL POWER
With wet ball.mills the net power can be calculated using the 0.2846 D A W N
formula as discussed in the mill design paper, but experience has shown that
TABLE12.2 NORTHERN AREA MEDIA GRADING
Size Aim Cum.O/o Chamber
(mm.) (% of charge)
90 13-s 13-s
80 4.5 18.0
1 st
70 4-o 22-o
60 5.5 27.5
50 5-s 33-o
40 6.5 39.5
30 6-O 45.5
2nd
25 13-o 58-5
20 20.0 78.5
17 21.5 lOO*O
this result will be reduced by 105 or more in practical mill operation.
This reduction is attributed to slip taking place in the charge and even
though wet mills are often designed with more substantial lifting liners
to minimise the effects of slip, an equation of the form shown below is
generally more applicable:
Wet mill net kW = (0.2846 D R A W N)
R = Slip factor
The slip factor may vary depending on the type and age of the lining, the
volume loading of the charge, and even the viscosity of the slurry. This
factor may vary between 0.75 and 0.9 but in the absence of any background
data 0.9 should be used for initial calculation.
3, WET CLASSIFICATION AND CLOSED CIRCUIT MILLING
Classification is the process by which the coarse undesirable particles in

a slurry are separated from the fines. This process can be carried out by
several items of plant all with their own specific characteristics and
problems. The coarse reject materials can either be returned to the primary
mill (closed circuit milling), passed to a secondary mill (series milling),
or rejected completely.
The three main types of wet classifier in use within the cement industry
are:
1. Vibrating screen
2. Hydrocyclone
3. DSM screen or sieve bend.
3,l VIBRATING SCRFFNS
Vibrating screens are used both as ball mill outlet screens and as closed
circuit classifiers. Mill outlet screens are primarily for removing pieces
of broken media and larger pieces of grit, they are not usually used in the
context of reducing overall product residues but more for avoi ding damage
to pumps and sedimentation in slurry tanks.
Inclined deck vibrating screens are also used to classify mill product slurry
and return the rejects to the mill in a closed circuit system. These screens
are usually situated above the mill inlet and the rejects are washed into
the mill by the main feed water.
All mechanical screens of this sort suffer from a number of problems which
have tended to make them unattractive in cement Works use:
1. High capital cost - for effective screening at low moisture the screen
area or number of units required is high; hence high capital
investment.
2. High wear rate - metal screening deck wear can be very rapid although
experience at Northfleet with polyurethanes has shown very good lives
which are economically attractive.
3. Poor classification effect on low moisture slurry and at mesh sizes less
than 1 - 2 mm (this is similar to item 1).
There have been some recent experiments with modern designs of vibrating
screens in specific problem areas and these are probably best discussed in
a Works context.
3.1.1 SHOREHAM WORKS - RUSSEL FINEX SCREEN
Shoreham Works produces slurry in a washmilling plant from clay slurry and
a flint bearing chalk. Secondary mill product is cycloned and the reject
stream containing the majority of the coarse flint grit is fed to tertiary
washmills (screening mills). The grit slurry which builds up in three
regrind washmills is normally passed to a grit/sand separating plant which
uses large quantities of water. This water carries off any remaining fines
to a thickener. Attempts to use slurry deflocculants at this plant gave
rise to several problems with grit plant and particularly thickener operation.
As a result a screer! was sought which would remove the undesirable grit
from the cyclone rejects and dispense with the screening mills/grit plant
system.
The screen experimented with was a Russel Finex 44" diameter unit (see
Figure 12.8) which has a cyclic vibration pattern. Several mesh sizes were
tried, 250~, 297u, and 420~ and the general conclusions were:
1. Although the operation of the screen was generally satisfactory the high
content of fines in the grit product (25% compared to 7% in the normal grit)
might prove unacceptable to the present customer who purchases grit.
The alternative would be to dump the grit.
2. Screen life was only about 50 hours.
3. With standby capacity 8 screens would be required costing f24,OOO

(1976 prices).
4. The screen, although not as robust as normal cement plant equipment,

was simple in operation and easy to maintain.
Other general experiences which are relevant to screening at these mesh

sizes were:
1. Fine mesh nylon screens tended to split rather than wear through.
Extended lives were obtained using a 15 mesh polyester backing screen.
2. A typica 1 set of results is shown below:
Feed Fines Rejects

Tonnes/hour 3.9(b) 2;8 1.1 (a)
Moisture % 30.6 33.4 17.9
Residue 300~ 17.9 1 .o 64.4
Residue 9Ou 25.0 9.9 70.4 (c)
Note:
(a) About 1 tonne on hour of rejects seemed to be the output limiting
factor on this screen.
Fig. 12.8 Russel Finex 44” Machine
area
X
PLAN VIEW
feed in
ejects
utlct
Fines
outlet
V I E W ‘X’
(b) The relatively low throughput obviously puts a limit on the
usefulness and potential applications of this screen.
(c) 30% - 9Ou material in the reject stream.
3.1.2 MASONS WORKS - MORGENSEN SIZER
Masons Works obtained on hire a Morgensen sizer (Figure 12.9). The machine
is basically a multi-deck vibrating screen with five inclined decks in
graduated mesh sizes. The screen sizes used were 2.4, 1.9, 1.2, 1.0 and
0.8 mm, which gave effective screening down to 0.4 mm (38 mesh). The aim
of the trial was to screen. the clay hydrocyclone rejects (which normally
return to the clay washmill) and extract the coarse unwashable flint and
sand residues. This, it was hoped, would reduce the recirculating load of
residue and hence reduce overall residues in the cyclone fines (clay
slurry product).
There were a number of problems involved in operating this screen, many of

them more directly concerned with the difficulties of getting good
experimental data in a Works situation. The tests however were discontinued
when it became clear that potential reduction in 300~ residue achieved was
not sufficient to justify the cost of a permanent Morgensen sizer installation.
The results of the test also showed that even using a 1 mm screen (-5001s cut
point) the reject material still contained 30% material finer than 300~4.
Also there were difficulties in achieving a good split at the 25% moisture
content of the coarse cyclone rejects. In this application it was possible
to redirect mill feed water to dilute the screen feed slurry without
affecting final slurry moisture, but this is not always the case. Any
screening system which requires an increase in final slurry moisture is
unlikely to be economically justifiable even if the screening effect is
successful.
3.2 HYDROCYCLONES
Historical
The use of the hydrocyclone for classification of slurry was developed

within Blue Circle in the early 1950's.
VIEW OF SIZER SUSPENDED IN
SUPPORT STFIUCTURE
Development work and experiments at Humber Works, Hope Works, Shoreham
Works and Barnstone went along the following lines:
Humber Works
Initial trials with 9" cyclones with a 20' cone angle. Subsequent tests
using a 10' cone angle gave better results. A variable vortex finder was
used and the effects of altering the length of vortex finder were measured.
It was found that difficulties were only experienced at the extremes of
vortex finder length.
Hope Works
Hope Works developed the Humber cyclone design and finally settled on a
S" cyclone in cast iron with replaceable ceramic vortex finder and rejects
nozzle and a 10' cone angle. This design 'was subsequently‘installed on
several other Works (Figure 12.10).
Barnstone Works
A complete ceramic cyclone was tried here and although it worked well on
40% moisture slurries at 75 psi,the wear on the ceramic was excessive at
35% moistures and 85 psi. The final choice here was a 3" cyclone based on
the Hope design.
Shoreham Works
Shoreham Works carried out a number of tests initially using 9" cyclones
and varying inlet design, vortex finder length and outlet diameters. The
final design incorporated a fish-tail design inlet pipe which reduced
pressure losses giving a higher effective inlet pressure. The vortex finder
was 2" I D extending 15" below the inlet pipe. These cyclones did not give
good reductions in 90~ residues, so a second stage of 3" cyclones was
eventually installed at Shoreham.
3.2.1 :l~THOD i7F OPERATION
The hydrocyclone proved to be one of the simplest methods of removing the

coarser particles from a slurry. The basic design of a hydroclclone is a
I
l-n
R e j e 11 L/l
c t s -
Fig. 1 2 . 1 Standard 5" Hydrocyclone

cylindrical head with a concentric outlet nozzle and a conical body which
tapers towards a second outlet or rejects nozzle (see Figure 12.11).
In Figure 12.10 it can be seen that the top outlet nozzle extends into the
head, this extension is called the vortex finder. The slurry is introduced
tangentially and this causes it to spin in a vortex around the vortex finder.
There are two forces acting on the particles in the slurry:
(a) A centrifugal force which pushes the particles towards the wall of
the cone thus concentrating the slurry at the wall and diluting it at
the centre.
(b) A viscous drag force which opposes the centrifugal force by acting
towards the axis of the cone.
Since the drag force has less effect on the coarser particles, the slurry
at the walls will contain mOre coarse material and the slurry at the centre
will be correspondingly finer. The coarse material travels down the wall
of the cone and leaves at the rejects orifice prior to further treatment.
The fines stream leaves through the vortex finder as a slightly wetter
slurry.
The cut point (ie the coarsest particle in the product and the finest
particle in the rejects), is not clearly defined; there will be fine material
in the rejects and some coarser material in the product.
3.2.2 FACTORS AFFECTING SEPARATION
The proportions of fines, rejects, and water in the two streams leaving the
cyclone are governed by:
(a) Viscosity and moisture

(b) The operating pressure
(c) The dimensions of the cyclone.
(a) Although slurry moisture should be reduced as much as possible consistent

with reasonable handling, too low a moisture will lead to a viscous
slurry and may result in severe blockages and pump damage.
al
Tangenfiol inlet
‘Vortex
finder
n TOP VIEW -CqnicaI

body
FigX// Hydrocyclone Construction

(b) The operating pressure at the cyclone should be as high as economically
pOSSibl2. A centrifugal pump can de1 iver at about 90 psi. Cyclone
wear and economy in operation dictate normal pressures of 30 - 100 ps 1,
but 80 - 100 psi is preferable.
(c) A cyclone is usually specified by its diameter in a range 1 - 9", all

the other dimensions being linked with the diameter. The choice of
size is closely linked with the material to be handled and the practical
operation of the hydrocyclone.
If the cyclone is throttled then a true vortex will not form, therefore the
combined area of rejects and fines nozzle should be greater than the inlet
area. The inlet stream should not impinge on the vortex finder as the
resulting turbulence will cause poor operation, particularly in small cyclones.
The vortex finder should be long enough to avoid short circuiting and short
enough to avoid picking up coarse material from the side of the cone.
Normally, it extends as far as the beginning of the conical section (see
Figure 12.10). A small cyclone of 1 - 3" diameter, whilst being more
effective is liable to blockages from coarse particles. A rectangular inlet
gives slightly better results than a circular section, but excessive wear
in the head may make it uneconomic.
For practical purposes cyclone dimensions can be specified as below, using

the nearest equivalent pipe sizes for inlet and outlet (see Figure 12.10).
General Dimensions Actual Cyclone
Cyclone diameter D 5"
Inlet diameter
Vortex diameter
Rejects outlet
It can be seen that both the vortex finder and inlet have the same diameter,
thus ensuring that the cyclone is not pressurised. To obtain optimum
residues, the dimension most commonly altered is the rejects outlet
diameter. A larger rejects nozzle will give a higher proportion of rejects
and consequently less product at a lower residue. A smaller rejects nozzle
will give more product, but at the expense of a higher residue.
3.2.3 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Since the materials handled by a hydrocycl one (slurries of clay, shale,

limestone, and chalk) are often abrasive i n nature, the lining must be wear
resistant to maintain cyclone efficiency. For the least abrasive materials
a concrete lining may be satisfactory, th s has the particular advantage of
being easily replaceable. White cast iron gives good service, as does an
alloy of iron with 2% nickel and 1.5% chromium. For vortex finders and
rejects nozzles a fused alumina (ceramic) material is more preferable and
often used. Rubber linings have also been well proved for their wear resistance.
It is essential that a hydrocyclone is accurately manufactured and all surfaces

ground to the true axis of the cone. Misalignment will give poor performance
and rapid wear. A lump or blow hole 9" in diameter in the smooth surface of
the cone can drastically affect the performance of the device.
3.2.4 EFFECTS OF FlOISTURE REDUCTION POLICY
Significant reduction in the moisture levels of many wet process plants have
given rise to particular difficulties in achieving good cyclone performance,.
but this problem is not purely a viscosity effect since many Works have
achieved reductions in moisture through the use of deflocculants without
significant changes in viscosity. The effect is shown quite clearly in
Figure 12.12. This problem does not have an immediate solution, and in fact
several Works have had to reconsider the use of cyclones because their
effectiveness has been so drastically reduced. Also the 1 - 2% increase
in moisture across a cyclone system has given rise to some consideration
of their economics; the economic arguments have tended to favour slight
increase in residues or an increase in milling power costs rather than a
sacrifice of potential moisture reductions.
““.\-:r
--- I-
-
33 34 35 36 37
Slurry Moisture %
L- 36 39 cl
Fig /.?I2 tiumber Works - Approximate moisture/residue relationship

3,3 BF DSM SCRFFN OR SIFVF BND
A diagramatic arrangement of a sieve bend is shown in Figure 12.13 and

a cross sectional section showing the operation of the sieve bend is given
in Figure 12.74. Three sections of screen are fixed together to form a
270' arc. The slurry is introduced inside the arc tangential to the
circle. As the particles tend to travel at right anglesto the. slots the
actual cut size is smaller than the slot width, and this helps to eliminate
blinding of the screen.
The main advantages of this scheme are:
1. The desired fineness can be obtained by merely altering the slurry flow
rate.
2. The slots do not block as easily as a normal fines screen.
3. The feed can be transferred to travel clockwise or anti-clockwise round

the screen, thus equalising wear. fiowever, the wear rate is still high
compared with that of a hydrocyclone.
4. The sieve bend has less tendency than the hydrocyclone to increase the
moisture content of the fines fraction.
5. A sieve bend can cope with small amounts of very coarse material, whereas
a hydrocyclone would block.
A sieve bend can be designed to screen effectively at 52 mesh size, however

to remove the 170 mesh material a sieve aperture of 0.18 millimetres is
needed.
It is extremely difficult to maintain the correct aperture setting, and any

increase in width of aperture, due to wear, also increases the 170 mesh
residue of the fines.
The poor operation of a sieve bend on a +170 mesh material together with the
higher maintenance costs involved, have severely restricted their successful
use in the cement industry. The most appropriate application for sieve
Diagrammatic Arrangemeni of a Sieve Band
/
Feed
Rejects Fines
Fig. 12.14 Flow T h r o u g h a S i e v e
The curved
screen 1s made Stream cf slurry
passe-s acrcss
bends is where the raw mater ials are soft and have basica lly low 170 mesh
residue but contain hard inc lusions which yie Id a high 52 mesh residue.
3,4 CLOSES C IRCUIT GRINDING SYSTFMS
The major difficulty encountered in the operation of a wet ball mill is

maintaining a high throughput at a specified fineness. The throughput is
governed by:
1. The size of mill - handling capabilities of the first chamber.
2. Size of the feed material.
3. Fineness of the product.
4. Size of media and volume loading.
The maximum throughput is attained when th e first chamber can only just
handle the quantity of feed material supplied. Some improvement in
performance might be expected from operating the system in closed circuit.
3.4.1 DESIGN AND LAYOUT OF A CLOSED CIRCUIT SYSTE?l
Before a closed circuit system can be designed for a particular Works, it

is necessary to discover how the corresponding slurry separates in a cyclone.
This may be investigated with an experimental rig using a cyclone which is
known to operate well, eg Hope 5" cyclone. The throughput and residues from
the hydrocyclone may then be evaluated. Subsequent to this, test runs are
carried out on the actual mills, to determine the residues at different
output levels. When operating efficiently the cyclones should at least
halve the 170 mesh sieve residue. If the tests show that this is not
possible then a compromise must be agreed or double cycloning or series
mill ing considered.
The layout of a closed circuit milling system is the most important and
wil be dealt with under the following headings:
1. Pumping
2. Pipework
3. Hydrocyclones.
3.4.2 PUtlPiNG
The pump should be able to deal with slightly more slurry than the mill can
produce, and should be sited as near as possible to the slurry sump to
ensure minimum friction loss between the slurry and the pump suction pipe. The
pump should be operated by high and low level switches in the slurry sump.
If this procedure is liable to cause the pump to be off for frequent or long
periods then a bleed-back from the fines outlet of the hydrocyclone to the
pump should be installed. A high level alarm should also be fitted on the
sump.
3.4.3 PIPEWORK
Pipework design is very important in that it is pointless expending time.

and trouble in ensuring a maximum pump delivery pressure, if this is to be
lost in pipe friction.
Before designing any slurry piping, it is advisable to calculate the

optimum pipe diameter and length using a form of Buckingham's equation.
The pipe connecting the slurry pump to the hydrocyclones should be as
straight as possible, with no more than two large radius bends. To further
reduce the pipe friction, the largest practicable pipe size should be used,
avoiding changes in diameter by the use of taper pieces.
Usually there are several cyclones connected to one pump and this requires
a carefully designed fan-shaped manifold. There should be no bends closer
than 10 pipe diameters to the cyclone.and each cyclone should have its own
shut-off valve which should be of straight-through design, ie Milliken
valve.
3.4.4 HYDROCYCLONES
The siting of hydrocyclones must be a compromise between having the minimum

pressure drop in the pipeline and being able to run the rejects back to the
mill under gravity, since this is preferable to pumping them. If possible,
the hydrocyclones should be located above the mill inlet in order that the
rejects will fall directly into the inlet chute. Hydrocyclones operate
equally well in any position, even upside down, since the effect of gravity
on hydrocyclones flow patterns is extremely small. If the hydrocyclones
are to be located some distance from the mill, the rejects can be washed
down a pipe or through to the mill inlet by using all or part of the
primary mill water supply. It is sometimes more convenient to place
the cyclones in a position where it is impossible to run the rejects away
by gravity. In this case rejects must be pumped to the mill inlet, but
sufficient care must be exercised to ensure that the rejects run easily
to the pump suction. A typical cl.osed circuit system using hydrocyclones
is shown in Figure 12.15.
3.4.5 DOUBLE CYCLONING
If the desired residue and output cannot be obtained by the use of a single
cyclone system, then double cycloning may be considered. This system
involves passing the fines from the first stage cyclones through a second
set of cyclones as shown in Figure 12.16. The fines from the second
separation can be used as final product.
The advantages of this type of system are:
1. A proportion of the final product can be obtained from a coarse mill

product.
2. As the feed to the second stage is finer than the mill product, a smaller
hydrocyclone may be used without risk of blockage.
However, the increase in moisture content in the final slurry (about 2%)
cannot be justified in terms of fuel consumption unless there is a
substantial increase in economy elsewhere. A double cyclone system
must be carefully balanced to show any overall economies. Generally
speaking, the additional power required to run further stages qf high
pressure cyclones and the additional fuel used to dry higher moisture
slurry does not result in any overall savings.
Two Chamber
Wet,Dall Mill
Mill Product Stream
6
, Feed
I
I
Vibrating- ---.-.----
Screen
Slurry to
Storage M
t---9
Product
Sump
3
/
/e2zz/H////z
fig. /2. /5 General Arrangement - Closed Circuit Wet Mill

*
40 t/hr
6.5% 1702
39% voter
----+-..------
118 t/ht F
22 t/hr
26% 1702
36% water
7r
56 t/hr
-'AI% 1702
I 34% voter
Fig./2./6 Arrangement for Double Cycloning

where a rotating series of spoons delivers a fixed volume of slurry
according to the speed of rotation. Another variation on the same
theme is the ferris wheel feeder.
These feeders extract from a constant head tank fed by centrifugal or

positive displacement pump, and the overflow returns to storage. With
regular maintenance, cleaning and calibration, they will give reasonable
performance and accuracy.
The modern type of kiln feed control system uses the inductive effect of
slurry passing through a magnetic field, in this magnetic flowmeter
(see Figure 12.24) the induced voltage is directly related to the slurry
throughput and used as a control signal for kiln feed rate. The control
can be via a control valve or preferably using a variable speed centrifugal
pump - This flowmeter also requires calibration and occasional cleaning,

but they are generally more reliable and more accurate than the other
devices.
On other Works the choice has been different - Hunber Works use the
Skega type, also with body plates and lifter bars. Oxford are using
the Magotteaux Powergrind type, and Kirton Lindsey used the Skega type
with castellated body plates and lifter bars.
advances in wet mill media seem likely to come in the high chromium
area, and these media should not yet be dismissed.
COSTS
Figure 12.27 shows approximate media prices since 1967, and Figures
12.28 and 12.29 show how wet mill media stores costs have changed since
1965. No dramatic improvements are apparent, although it is considered
that the fact that there does not appear to be an upward trend in
inflation corrected stores costs reflects some measure of success for the
following reasons:
1. At Magheramorne no significant change in media quality has been

made and flint packing ceased in 1973.
2. Wear rates at Humber have increased dramatically over the last few
years due to the add tion of sand for SRC production.
Production at Oxford, wh i ch has the least abrasive raw material has been
reduced since 1973.
Slurry moisture control does not cease at the raw mill outlet; drainage
water should not be allowed to enter slurry tanks. Water used for wash-
down purposes should not be pumped into the slurry tanks, and operators
should be made aware of the cost of running at an unnecessarily high
moisture content. Finally, at the kiln stage, the moisture reductions
achieved should be fully utilised by good chain design and maintenance,
and efficient kiln operation.
Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
Module 10
Section 6
Raw Mill Operations

PAPER NO. 6.
RAW MILL OPERATION
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CENTRE DISCHARGE MILL
2.1 Material Circuit and Mill Internals

2.2 Air Circuit
2.3 Plant Control
3. SEPARATORS
3.1 Separator Types

3.2 Separator Efficiency
4. MILL SIZING AND DESIGN
4.1 Mill System Choice

RAW MILL OPERATION
1 INTRODUCTION
There are two basic types of milling system, open circuit and closed circuit.
In the open circuit system the mill product is at the required fineness for the next stage in the process. In the
closed circuit system the mill product is classified in a separator into a fine fraction which is then taken to the
next stage, and a coarse fraction which is returned to the mill for further grinding. The raw mill at Circle
Cement is a closed circuit system using a mill normally referred to as a central discharge (or double rotator)
mill (figure 6.1), the principles of design and operation of the raw milling system are described in the
following sections.
In any raw meal grinding circuit, it is necessary to dry and grind raw materials in the required proportions to a
predetermined fineness and moisture. Since combinability temperature is governed by maximum particle size
rather than specific surface area of the meal, it is normal to grind in a closed circuit system because of a
greater degree of control of this maximum particle size than can be obtained in open circuit grinding.
system. The mill feed may contain anything between 5% and 20% moisture which it is necessary to remove to
permit easy blending and storage. A grinding mill is well suited to a simultaneous drying operation. Apart
from the heat obtained from the grinding process itself, an additional heat input is possible using preheater
exit gases as the venting air. Intimate mixing of the air stream and solids occurs and, by performing the drying
operation on the material in its finest state prior to burning, the possibility of moisture entrapment in the
micropore structure of the particles is minimized. When additional heat is required beyond that available from
exhaust gases, an auxiliary furnace is used.
Operation of a grinding system to make acceptable kiln feed needs control of:
a) Fineness - normally about 10% + 170 mesh (90 ???m)
b) Moisture - normally about 0.5%
c) LSF or calcium carbonate - as required to make kiln feed from the blending silos
d) Preferably SR and AR
There are several types of milling system employed for the preparation of raw meal. We will deal only with
the features of the system in use at Circle Cement.
2. CENTER DISCHARGE MILL
The Center Discharge Mill is a partially airswept tube mill fitted with a drying chamber at the feed end and a
central peripheral discharge between two grinding chambers. Figure 6.1 shows a typical mill and figure 6.2 the
mill circuit. At Circle Cement the mill is 11.5m long by 3.8m diameter.
2.1 Material Circuit and Mill Internals

Feed enters the mill, together with hot air from the kiln, through the inlet trunnion into a drying chamber. This
chamber is 1.2m long and is fitted with lifters. Material from the drying chamber passes through a lifter
diaphragm into the first grinding chamber. This chamber is 4.5m long and is normally fitted with a stepped
lifter lining (figure 6.3).
Material from the first chamber passes through a slotted diaphragm into the discharge chamber. The latter
normally has 6 ports in the mill shell which allows the material to fall into a conveyor feeding the recirculation
elevator.
At the discharge of the elevator, material is fed into an airslide conveyor. This conveyor feeds a turbo
separator (figure 6.4) which recovers finished meal and discharges it into the handling system for transport to
the blending silos. The coarse fraction from the separator is fed to other airslide conveyors, this coarse
fraction, or rejects, can be variably split to either of the two chambers. Typically 75% of the material returns to
the second chamber. The remaining material recycled to the first chamber serves two purposes, firstly to
reduce overloading of the second chamber at peak output, and secondly, the hot rejects can assist in drying and
material flow through the drying chamber.
Returned material enters the 4.5m long second grinding chamber through the mill trunnion. This chamber is
fitted with a classifying type liner (figure 6.5) Material which is not airborne passes through a slotted
diaphragm into the discharge chamber and is returned to the separators by the elevator.
2.1.1 Grinding media
Historically Circle Cement have used a locally produced forged media for raw mill charging. This material is
cheap, relatively easy to produce, but suffers from very high wear rates (Figures of 114 g/ton were not
unusual). The use of chrome cast iron media in raw milling has become common practice and it has recently
become possible to consider its use in Zimbabwe. The high chrome materials (17-25%Cr) are used for first
chamber media. These materials can suffer from breakage in use due to the changes in steel structure caused
by "work hardening". In some cases this can be improved by heat treatment. Lower chrome media (12% CO
with heat treatment is now normally used for second chamber media.
The following table gives some example media gradings for dry process raw mills.
Ball size mm Manresa Polysius KHD Hope

(Tech survey) Ashaka Hope Now
100 15
90 10 10 - 21-30
80 10 10 15 34
70 10 14 - 19
60 10 15 25 11-19
50 15 18 25 5-8
40 15 22 25 1-2
30 15 18 10 -
The above grading typify the difference between gradings in relation to feed size. Both the Polysius and KHD
gradings could only be considered where the feed material is relatively fine. Care has to be taken to ensure that
the feed to a ball mill is kept below a specified size (usually 25mm) to match the maximum ball size in the
first chamber. If the raw material contains a very hard fraction, the mill may tend to fill up if the crushing
section is overloaded by large sized feed. Mill feed size at Circle Cement is generally well controlled, with
only 5% normally greater than 30mm this proportion would not normally require the use of such a large
proportion 100mm media in chamber 1.
The segregation on the stockpile can, however, cause periods of operation with much coarser feed and require
the coarser charge. High media wear rates will result in rapid loss of ball diameter, requiring a coarser
make-up charge. The change to high chrome media may allow some revision to grading and charging practice.
The top size of 80min in the KHD grading would require a feed substantially less than 20mm. The current
grading in use at Hope and the Manresa grading are to some extent a compromise in recognition of the
difficulties in controlling feed size to the level required for finer (potentially more efficient) media gradings.
The advantage of this type of milling system is that the charge in the two milling chambers can be suited to the
duty. Also, fines which are generated in the initial breaking of the stone are recovered before entering a further
grinding chamber.
2.1.2 Mill internals
With the progression to high Chrome grinding media there was increasing incidence of breakage of mill lining
plates. Liner materials in high chrome cast irons have replaced the Ni-Hard materials. These materials
combine the toughness and wear resistance required with modern grinding media.
2.2 Air Circuit
The whole system is under suction. Hot air from the kiln is drawn into the mill at each end, the majority going
to the drying end of the mill. The air carries some material out of the mill into the static separator (figure 6.6)
(which is an impingement/centrifugal type of separator) where coarse particles are rejected into the elevator.
Fine material in the airstream is recovered by a set of cyclones and the air is finally cleaned in the main
precipitators before discharge to the atmosphere.
2.3 Plant Control
The operation of the plant is from the central control room. All motors are started and stopped in sequence.
The essential controls of the plant are described as follows:
2.3.1 Airflow Control
In order to get the maximum airsweeping effect, it is normal to keep the airflow close to maximum (at
Manresa approx. 150,000 m3/h at 90°C at the exhaust fan giving 1.53 kg. air/kg. meal).
2.3.2 Temperature Control
There are essentially two temperatures to control:
• Mill exit temperature

• Mill inlet temperature
a) Mill exit Temperature
Effective temperature control is required at the mill outlet, in order to ensure drying is effective. The drying
capacity of the system is determined by the volume and temperature of gas from the kiln system. The mill
outlet temperature would normally be controlled between 80 and 100°C to give less than 1% moisture in the
final product. At Circle Cement the generally low raw material moistures mean it is easy to achieve low
product moisture and the mill exit temperature is maintained about 100°C.
b) Mill inlet temperature
This has a maximum limit to avoid overheating of the mill inlet trunnion bearings. If the mill outlet
temperature starts to fall, more hot gas can be drawn from the kiln up to the limit on the mill inlet temperature.
If the mill outlet temperature starts to rise, hot gas can be reduced. Gas flow is maintained by
increasing/decreasing a mill exit gas recycle or (at Manresa) a cold air bleed. Typical mill inlet temperature at
Circle Cement is 320°C.
2.3.3 Feed Control
The proportioning of the feed is adjusted in order to provide meal of the required analysis to make kiln feed in
the blending silos. The maximum feed to the mill is normally limited by the elevator loading. Other limiting
factors are the drying capacity of the plant, at the maximum mill inlet temperature, and the overfilling of the
first chamber causing charge to migrate into the drying chamber.
The elevator loading is governed by the turbo-separator, the more efficient these separators, the less is
returned to the mill. It is therefore necessary in a closed circuit milling system to maintain the separators at
their maximum efficiency.
2.3.4 Fineness control
The usual way of adjusting the fineness of the raw meal produced is by alteration of the angle of the vanes in
the static separator. This can be done whilst the plant is running. Adjustments to the turbo-separator (see
section 3. 1. 1) can also be used to control the final product fineness. One suggested target is to achieve the
desired product residue in both the cyclone product and the separator fines.
3. SEPARATORS
3.1 Separator types
The separator is a fundamental part of the closed circuit milling system. Its function is to separate the mill
product into coarse and fine fractions, the fines being passed on to the next process stage and the coarse being
returned to the mill for regrinding.
Separators used in grinding systems are all based on the air separation principle. A particle is projected with
an angular motion into a vertical rising air stream. The particle is subject to three forces (Figure 6.8),
centrifugal force from its angular movement, upward force from the air and a downward gravitational force.
Depending on the size of the particles, they will either be entrained into the air stream or, if large enough, will
be thrown outwards, the centrifugal force decreasing, and will settle under the influence of gravity.
3.1.1 Mechanical air separators
The construction of a mechanical air separator is shown in Figure 6.4. It consists of two concentric cones, a
main fan, an auxiliary fan and a rotating distribution plate. Material is fed onto the distribution plate where
angular motion is imparted and the particles are thrown by centrifugal force into the air stream. Particles less
than the cut size are entrained into the rising air stream and pass up through the fan blades into the outer cone.
The cut size is determined by the air velocity and the angular speed of the particles. The particles larger than
the cut size travel outwards towards the inner cone and either settle under gravity as the centrifugal force
decreases or are carried down by cyclonic action as they reach the wall. The air returns from the outer cone
through a set of vanes. The fine particles are separated from the air by the change in direction and the decrease
in velocity of the air current in this region.
The airflow can be controlled by adjustments of the auxiliary fan which acts against the main fan. Increasing
the number of blades chokes the airflow and shifts the cut size towards the fine end. The blades of the main
fan can be adjusted in diameter to alter the air current. In addition the ascending air current cross section can
be altered by the use of control plates which act to choke the airflow.
By variation of these controls any desired cut can be achieved but as the boundary size decreases throughput
will be reduced.
A number of manufacturers produce this type of separator. There are a number of individual differences such
as variable speed and separate drive auxiliary fans but the principle is the same.
3.1.2 Static separators
As discussed earlier the main mill ventilation air passes through a static separator of which an example is
shown in figure 6.6. This machine works on a similar principle to the mechanical separators (i.e. air
separation) but differs in its mode of operation. There is no rotating distributor or internal fan. An external fan
(in this case the mill fan) provides an air stream in to the bottom of the separator together with the entrained
separator feed. As the airborne material rises towards the inner cone the very largest particles fall back into the
rejects chute. The rest of the material and the air are carried up to the top and through the tangential vanes
where a swirl action is set up with a resulting centrifugal force on the particles. The fine particles remain
entrained in the air and carry on out of the separator to a collection system (cyclones, precipitators). The
centrifugal force on the coarse particles overcomes the airflow and these particles f all into the coarse
collecting cone, from whence they enter the rejects stream and are returned to the mill.
3.2 Separator Efficiency
In theory, for a particular separator setting, there is a cut size above which material is always sent to the coarse
stream and below which it goes to the fines stream.
In practice, this is not so. Fine material can become agglomerated and behave as a large particle or become
entrapped within an accumulation of coarse particles. Alternatively, large particles whose path is disturbed by
the presence of other materials or by inconsistent air flow may be entrained into the fines stream.
The appraisal of the efficiency of a separator is an extremely complex subject and is beyond the scope of this
paper. For an overall review of the subject the reader is referred to the paper by J.C. Richards (1966).
Poor separation can manifest itself in two ways. Fine material can be adulterated by coarse particles. In the
case of both raw meal and cement this can have a deleterious effect on the product quality. To correct this,
adjustment of the separator is required to increase the proportion sent to the coarse product and ensure that the
fine product contains minimum coarse particles. This of course reduces the fines yield. Conversely the coarse
product may contain excessive fines which may cause problems if fed back to the mill where cushioning or
coating in the mill can reduce mill efficiency.
One way of expressing classifier performance is the Tromp Curve, also known as the Grade Efficiency or
Partition Probability Curve.
The Fine Grade Efficiency G X is expressed as:
weight of size x in fines

weight of size x in feed
G X can be plotted against x to obtain a curve as shown in Figure 6.9.
just as G X is a measure of the proportion of each size delivered to the fine product so (100- G X ), the Coarse
Grade Efficiency, is the corresponding delivery to the coarse product.
From the curve an equiprobable size can be obtained which is the size x when G X = 50%. The variation of
G X about is taken to represent the boundary of ideal separation. The cut size of a separator is difficult to
define. Various definitions have been suggested; for instance, cut size has been defined as the point at which
the cumulative undersize curve for the fine product intersects the cumulative oversize curve for the coarse
product. This is unsatisfactory in that the method always yields a value even if the machine has been unable to
classify. If a machine set to have an value of say 100 was fed with material all less than 100, the machine
would not classify. However, some particles will stray to the coarse stream and a cut size will be provided by
the size analyses. This value will be meaningless and merely obscures the fact that the machine is being
abused. The most acceptable way of defining cut size is the equiprobable size ε .
We can now define two efficiencies for assessing performance:
Acceptance Efficiency Ea
weight of fine product < ε

Ea = 100
weight of feed < ε
Reiection Efficiency Er
weight of coarse product > ε

Er = 100
weight of feed > ε
These two values reflect different aspects of separator performance. Values of Er are a better reflection of
product quality, but give no indication of yield. It has been suggested that a single figure E can be used to
assess classifier performance.
This is defined as:
E=
(Ea )(Er )
100
E values reflect the yield and quality but are still not adequate for selection purposes. Hence caution must be
used when interpreting figures - especially where percentage efficiency is quoted by a manufacturer with no
explanation of how the figure was calculated.
4. MILL SIZING AND DESIGN
4.1 Mill System Choice
Closed circuit milling systems are widely found at the raw meal preparation stage of dry and semi-dry cement
works.
system. The mill system chosen must be capable of dealing with the maximum feed moisture content which
may contain anything between 5% and 20%. A grinding mill is well suited to a simultaneous drying operation.
Apart from the heat obtained from the grinding process itself, additional heat input is possible using hot gases
(either exhaust gases or pre-heated air) as the venting air. The central discharge mill with drying chamber is
ideal for feed moisture up to 12% and is therefore well suited to the conditions at Circle Cement.
It is worth noting here that modern dry process plants even with high raw material moisture contents would
probably consider the use of a roller mill for raw material grinding. These mills have lower power
consumption and excellent drying capacity. The only consideration here is the effect of raw material abrasivity
which might make a roller mill expensive to maintain, the abrasivity can be tested as described below.
Various tests have been developed in order to quantify the hardness of raw materials so as to determine
milling energy requirements. These are discussed as follows:
4.1.2 Grindability Tests
Raw material hardness and grindability are measured by special tests which are designed to suit particular
applications.
4.1.3 Hardgrove Test
The Hardgrove test was originally devised for coal testing but is now also used for raw matcrial component
assessments. It is a useful quick test which fits any new material into an existing league table of hardness.
4.1.4 Ball Mill Tests
a) The standard Blue Circle test
This uses an 18" ball mill for raw material and cement grindability testing. Different sized balls are used at
different stages of the fineness of grind to simulate the passage of feed through a full sized mill. The resulting
grindability figure (kWh/t for a specified fineness) reflects the performance which would be expected from an
efficiently run production mill. Correlations have been developed over a number of years to enable scaling up
methods to be established for any particular application.
The above procedure is followed for cement grinding and raw material grinding but further tests are made to
reinforce the standard ball mill tests.
b) Bond Rod Mill and Ball Mill Tests
F.C. Bond devised these two tests to estimate the power needed for the crushing and grinding stages of a
closed circuit wet raw milling system.
4.1.5 Abrasion Tests
In addition to defining hardness of the raw materials, it is equally important to define how abrasive they are.
The abrasiveness of raw materials is tested by measuring the loss in weight of a test piece under standard
conditions.
The 'Yancy-Geer-Price' apparatus used for coal is a relatively simple apparatus in which a sample is ground in
a 'pestle and mortar' type machine with grinding blades replacing the pestle. The test is run for a standard time
with a size graded feed, after which the metal loss from the blades is weighed. A 20 kg sample of material is
needed. The test results are compared with previous tests to give a ranking order for the materials.
The Christy-Norris mill uses larger quantities of raw material (100 kg). The mill is a hammer mill and the loss
in weight of the breaker bar is recorded after a fixed weight of a graded feed has been passed through the mill.
Again, a ranking order of abrasive ness has been established covering a wide range of materials.
The abrasive nature of raw materials is often associated with the presence of a significant quantity of free
silica (or quartz) in the material.
The important factor is whether there is a significant proportion of quartz larger than 90 µm present which
could limit the use of some types of mill. Roller mills are particularly prone to excessive wear with siliceous
materials and their use is not recommended. Their suitability may be assessed by making abrasion tests on a
laboratory sized roller mill if sufficient material is available.
Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
Module 10
Section 7
Milling Fundamentals
T-2. PSD: Ross SIDPES
SSA 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
4 5 Micron
Reai&e
3 1.35 1.32 1.29 1.27 1.25 1.23 1.22 1.21 1.20 1.19 1.17
. 4 1.33 1.30 1.28 1.26 1.25 1.23 1.21 1.20 1.18 1.17 1.15
5 1.30 1.28 1.26 1.25 1.24 1.22 1.20 1.18 1.16 1.14 1.12
6 1.28 1.26 1.24 1.22 1.20 1.19 1.17 1.15 1.13 1.11 1.10
7 1.25 1.23 1.21 1.19 1.17 1.15 1.13 1.11 1.09 1.08 1.07
8 1.23 1.21 1.19 1.17 1.15 1.13 1.11 1.10 1.08 1.06 1.05
9 1.20 1.18 1.16 1.14 1.13 1.11 1.09 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.03
10 1.19 1.17 1.14 1.12 1.11 1.09 1.07 1.06 1.04 1.02 1.01
11 1.18 1.15 1.12 1.10 1.09 1.07 1.05 1.04 1.02 1.00 0.99
12 1.15 1.13 1.10 1.09 1.07 1.05 1.03 1.02 1.01 0.98 0.97
13 1.13 1.11 1.09 1.08 1.05 1.03 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.97 0.95
14 1.12 1.09 1.07 1.05 1.03 1.01 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.94
15 1.10 1.07 1.05 1.03 1.01 0.99 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.92
PAL/MSS/PEWW/D53
12.4DOV2
SAMPLING AIMS
* To collect a manageable size,

REPRESENTATIVE of the whole.
All particles in the total (bulk)

MUST have the same probability of
being included.
* All parts of the total MUST be

EQUALLY accessible.
GOLDEN RULES
* Sampling should be carried out

preferably from a moving stream.
* A sample of the whole stream

should be taken for many periods
rather than a part for the whole
time.
SELECTION FUNCTION
/
Sj = Rate of grinding of
part size j
( = Pr :bility of breakage in
unit time )
Sj =P 1 . P2 . P 3
PI = Probability that Q 2 Q’
P2 = Probability that breaking
energy of particle 6 Q’
P3 = Probability that energy Q’ is

applied to particle
Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
Module 10
Section 8
The Influence of Hold-up, Residence

Time Distribution on Cement Milling
Performance
THE INFLUENCE OF HOLD-UP, RESIDENCE TIME AND RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION
ON CEMENT MILLING PERFORMANCE
INTRODUCTION
Cement grinding involves the transport of particulate material through a rotating cylinder, i.e. a ball mill. In
the simplest case where there is no mixing as particles pass through the mill the type of flow is referred to as
plug flow and all the particles have the same residence time in the mill. Conversely, in the case where the
contents of the mill are well mixed and uniform in composition, such that the exit from the mill has the sane
composition as the contents of the mill, the flow is referred to as back-mix or fully mixed flow.
In each case, for steady-state, the residence time,-t- , is defined as the ratio of the mass of material in the mill
to the feedrate.
= W/F -(1)
where W = Mill hold-up (tons)

F = Feed rate (tons)(hour -1)
τ = Residence Time (hours)
In practice however, the flow of cement through mills is non ideal because of partial back mixing as a result of
the mixing effect of mill internals. Hence there is a deviation from the types of ideal flow mentioned above
and there is a distribution of residence times for particles in the mill. The distribution is a function of material
characteristics and mill design and operation.
The residence time distribution can be determined in practice using tracer techniques, e.g. with sodium
fluorescein. A pulse of tracer is introduced in the feed and the concentration in the product is monitored
against time. A typical tracer curve is shown in Figure 1.
For Convenience and to compare residence time distributions (rtd’s) the curves are plotted using
dimensionless variables of concentration and time (a summary of calculations is shown in Figure 2).
To further simplify comparison (and importantly to allow mathematical representation, eg in the mill
modeling approach using breakage parameters) the actual rtd can be modeled. one such modeling technique
represents the actual rtd by a series of equal sized fully mixed mills (see Figure 2). Hence it is possible to
describe the rtd in terms of the mean residence time and the number (j) of fully mixed mills in series (see
Figure 1).
The larger the number of fully mixed mills in series the closer the rtd is to plug flow (see Figure 3). From the
mean residence time and the feedrate the mill hold-up can be calculated, and thus the steel/clinker ratio found.
If a bulk density is assumed it is also possible to determine the voids filling, although it is advisable to
cross-check this with a visual inspection following a crash stop immediately after determining the rtd.
Both the mean residence time, hence mill hold-up, and the residence time distribution influence mill
performance.
MEAN RESIDENCE TIME, HOLD-UP, STEEL/CLINKER RATIO
The rate of breakage, i.e. grinding efficiency, is reduced as powder loading increases (Figure 4) and the degree
of grinding achieved is increased for longer residence times. At a constant mill feed rate, in steady state, the
residence time is only influenced by the hold-up. Hence for increased hold-up the residence time for grinding
is increased but the rate of breakage is decreased, thus there is an optimum powder loading for maximum
overall grinding efficiency (see Figure 5). This can be represented mathematically as follows:-
E = 3.26258 e –1.2U (U) - (2)
where E = mill grinding efficiency (fractional)

U = void filling (fractional)
The optimum powder loading from. the above is found for U = 0.85 (steel/clinker = 7-10 depending on typical
in-mill material bulk density).
Note: For closed-circuit operation there will be a compromise between the operating conditions for optimum
hold-up and the conditions for optimum circulating load resulting in a powder loading above the theoretical
optimum. Optimum closed-circuit conditions usually result in powder loadings of U 1.10 - 1.20).
RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION
Over the years the residence time distribution of a number of mills has been determined and the number of
fully mixed mills in series representing the actual rtd is typically found to be in the range 4 - 20. However, it
has not been possible to systematically examine in detail the effects of rtd on railling efficiency.
A recent survey of the influence of mill L/D, undertaken by CETIC, inferred higher efficiency for longer
L/D’s:-
Log (kWh/ton) = 0.001825 (SSA) - 0.014951 (L/D) + 0.99609 -(3)
Direct comparison of mills of differing length invariably involves other factors such as media, number of
diaphragms, etc, but it can be expected that residence time and residence time distribution will be influenced
by mill length.
Comparisons of the rtd's for mills at two different Works are shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7 and the material
flow characteristics are seen to be influenced by L/D with a tendency towards plug flow for the longer mills.
Further evidence of this relationship was also found during tests using the pilot ball mill facility at Greenhithe
where the L/D can be changed. For an L/D of 1 the flow characteristics approach back mix flow (j = 2)
whereas for a L/D of 3.5 the flow characteristics move away from back mix flow (j = 6) (see Figure 8).
In these examples it was not possible to accurately monitor the effect of mill efficiency although it is generally
observed that shorter L/D mills produce cements with a wider particle size distribution. The theoretical effect
of rtd has, however, been examined using the mathematical modeling approach using breakage parameters and
the relationships between rtd and mill efficiency (output) and particle size distribution (residue) are shown in
Figure 9. It is noted that enhanced efficiency is found for a tendency towards plug flow. Furthermore this
coincides with the production of a narrower particle size distribution. The latter effect is perhaps expected as a
narrower rtd results in less particles with either extremely long or extremely short residence times and thus
this is reflected in a narrower range of particle sizes in the product.
From this figure it is possible to estimate the increase in efficiency (or reduction in kWh/ton) for the examples
of mill L/D discussed above.
In the first case, Figure 6, the I,/D's were 4 and 5.5 and the values of j were 5 and 10 respectively. From Figure
9 it is estimated that the longer L/D should result in a 5.4% higher efficiency (or a 5.1% lower kWh/ton).
From equation (3) a 5% lower kWh/ton is calculated. Similarly, for the results in Figure 7, the longer L/D is
predicted to result in a 3% lower kwh/ton from Figure 9 and an 8.2% lower kWh/tome from equation (3).
Finally for the results in Figure 8 the kWh/ton are predicted to be 12.0% and 8.3% lower respectively. These
calculations are summarized in Figure 10.
SUMMARY
It is evident that mill efficiency is influenced by both the mean residence time, i.e. hold-up, and residence time
distribution. The influence of hold-up is perhaps better understood but work is still required to assess the
effect of both of these parameters on grinding efficiency. It is also clear that these two parameters are
influenced by the majority of mill design and operating parameters. The effect of mill design and operation is
perhaps better understood for mill hold-up but less so for residence tine distribution. A summary of the
possible influence of changes in mill parameters on hold-up and residence time distribution is shown in Figure
11.
M S Sumner
Materials Services
Product R & D
Blue Circle Industries PLC
Greenhithe
Kent
England
FIGURE 2
RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION
1. Receive values of t (time) and C (concentration)
2. Mean residence time, t =

∑ tc
∑c
t
3. Dimensionless time θ =
t
= t (E )(t )
C
4. Dimensionless concentration, E =
Co
C
where (E)(t) =
∑ C∆t
TANKS IN SERIES MODEL
1. It is possible to represent the actual reactor (mill) by a series of j equal sized fully mixed mills
2. Variance, σ² =
∑θ E −1
2
∑E
1
3. Number of reactors in series, j =
σ2
C j j θ j−1 − jθ
4. Simulated dimensionless concentration = e
C O ( j − 1)!
REFERENCE : Chemical Reaction Engineering (Wiley International Edition) - Octave Levenspiel

Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
Module 10
Section 9
Design Guideline- Vertical Spindle

Mills for Raw Milling
DESIGN GUIDELINE
VERTICAL SPINDLE MILLS FOR RAW MATERIAL GRINDING
1. Mill Output Selection
The required mill tph is determined based on the guarantee kiln output, the theoretical raw mix factor as
determined by Research Division, a running time of 140 hours per week time and 10% extra for grindability
variations.
If a bypass is installed on the kiln, 3% extra mill output is required for every 10% of kiln gases bypassed.
2. Physical and Chemical Tests Required
The type of milling system to be installed depends on the physical and chemical properties of the raw
materials. It is essential that representative samples are supplied to Research Department, with identical sets of
samples being made available for prospective suppliers. The following test results are normally obtained:-
- Full chemical analysis of mix components

- Full chemical analysis of proposed mix
- Free silica content plus 90 microns
- Abrasion characteristics (Yancey, Geer and Price)
- Combinability
- Grindability
- Bond rod mill
- Bond ball mill
- 18" ball mill
- Roller mill
- Hardgrove Index
- Moisture content
- Microscopic examination
From the interpretation of these results, it is possible to specify:-
- Required kiln feed residue (+ 90 microns)

- Mill kwh/t gross
- Types of mill not suitable because of material abrasion characteristics
3. Material type
A vertical mill has a wide range of application and is most appropriate for materials described as medium hard
to soft, low or non abrasive, moisture above 12%.
A roller mill is preferred to a tandem hammer mill system because of the possibility of feeding larger stone
and so avoiding the finer crushing of very wet materials. High quartz content (above 4% of feed) should be
avoided. Auxiliary heating will be needed if moisture exceeds 8%.
4. Drying in the Mill

A product moisture of 0.5% maximum should be specified.
Normally, raw materials with moisture contents up to 8% can be dried using preheater exhaust gases.
Above 8%, auxiliary heating is required. Cooler exhaust air can be used, but the quantity of heat available
depends on whether the cooler air is used for coal drying, on whether the kiln has a precalciner, and on the
type of precalciner.
5. Raw Mill Feed Bins
For a bin being fed by material from a blending stockpile, 2 hours capacity (hours at maximum feed rate and
estimated maximum percentage addition rate). The bin should be on load cells so that the reclaim rate from
the stockpile can be controlled automatically.
For continuous circular stockpiles, a smaller bin may be acceptable.
For a major component (greater than 5% addition rate) not being reclaimed from a blended stockpile, 12 hours
minimum. Space for separate storage should be made available depending on the supply situation.
For an additive or corrector at less than about 5% addition rate, 3 days capacity. These materials should be fed
to the mill bin via a reception hopper (approximately 50 t capacity) and screen or roll crusher. Feed size
depends on mill type.
6. Dimensioning (First order estimates ± l0%)
Empirical Relationships
a) Table Diameter
The following correlation represents the median between Polysius and Loesche. The extremes are 10%
either side.
d = .385 x tph 0 .435 where d is in metres;
See fig 1 for correlations for various mill suppliers
b) Installed Motor Power
kw = 148.6 x d 1.79 where d is in meters
See fig 2
7. Rotation Speed
66.35
Nc = where d is in meters
d
Speed factors % critical

FLS old design 89% of Nc
Loesche + FLS new design 84.4% of Nc
MPS typical 70.4% of Nc
Polysius 81.4% of Nc
8. Theoretical Relationships
a) Table velocity α R
b) Power α R2..5
c) Grinding force α R2
9. FLS Power Relationship
FLS apply a relationship based upon power α d2..5
Kwh = u x kt x speed factor x d 2..5
U = rolling friction factor 0. 118 for Cauldon normal expectation 0.09
kt = grinding force per unit of roller projected area kN/m²
speed factor = Actual RPM/Nc
10. Static + Dynamic Forces
Static - Total weight of all grinding assemblies which rest on the table = W tonnes
Static Force = Wx 9806.65 Newtons
π
Dynamic Force = N x P x 105 x (dc² - dr²) cos θ.Newtons
4
where N = No of rams
P = hydraulic press (bar)
dc = cylinaer dia W
dr = piston rod dia W
dynamic force
Define: Dynamic load factor = Should maintain load factor >3
static force
e.g. For Cauldon Static = 84 x 9806.0 = 823705 Newtons

Dyn = 3 x 160 x 105 x /4 x (.3² - .15²) x Cos (10) = 2,506,030 Newtons
Sta + Dyn = 3329735
Dyn factor = 3.04
For Cauldon Roller dia = 2m
Roller width = .85 m Area = 5.1 (for 3)
Total Kt = 3329735/5.1 N = 652889 N
= 653 KN/m²
11. Nozzle Ring Velocity
Mill with static separator 60-70 m/sec

(velocity calculated at mill inlet ternp)
Mill with dynamic separator 50-65 m/sec:

and external recirculation
12. Specific Air/Gas Volume based on mill exit gas
Specific gas required
for raw mills 1.8-2.1 kg gas/kg solid

for coal mills 2.4-3.0 kg gas/kg solid
See BCI - Evaluation (fig 3)

Polysius Nomogram (fig 4)
13. Mill Feed Size

Generally larger than ball mill feed
Typical feed PSD for limestone to a mill
100% < 130 mm

80% < 75 mm
50% < 35 mm
20% < 8 mm
Too many fines leads to 'rough' operation
14. Roller Size
This is a function of plant supplier and table dia.
e.g. Polysius mills: Roller dia. = table dia. x .5

Loesche mills: Feed 90% passing size = 5% of roller dia. or roller dia. = 20 x 90% passing size
15. Water Sprays
Required to control bed properties and outlet temperature.
Need to allow for water injection rate up to the same injection level as GCT normal supply. No atomisation
required (direct pipe) feed directly to bed of material. It is more effective to spray to a point directly in front of
roller(s). Independent control of each spray to each roller is required.
16. Mill Differential Pressure
At constant gas flow mill differential is proportional to feed rate. Hence its use to control feed. Control of fan
volume and recycle gas is required to provide for constant gas f low.
17. Dynamic Separators
The effect of improving the separator efficiency is to reduce the quantity of fines on the table. See Fig 5 -
Effect of table material fineness on a laboratory mill.
Dynamic separator retro fits generally increase mill throughput ca 10%. They also generally increase mill
motor kw by the same margin.
Separator kw (rule of thumb) = 0.3 kwh/t.
Size recycle elevator for up to 200% recycle in systems with external recirc.
18. Mill Gearbox Service Factor
A gearbox is supplied with a service factor (Agema rating)
Example gearbox 1750 kw: Service Factor 2.8
What kw motor draw is possible if service factor reduced to 2.4 allowing 95% motor efficiency
1750 2.8
= × = 2149 kW
0.95 2.4
19. Mill Prediction from Lab Tests
A. Hardgrove (see fig. 6)
B. Prediction of kwh/t vs Hardgrove Index (fig. 7)
20. Capital Cost Relative Comparison
A. Relative costs and split

for Tube Mill, Grinding Roll + Roller Mill
for same output and fineness
B. Comparison of Roller Mill, Press + Ball Mill and Ball Mill
21. Mill Supplies Nomenclature
1) FLS e.g. Atox 50

50 = dia of table in dm
2) Loesche e.g. LM 41.450

41 = dia of table in dm
4 = No of rollers
50 = Model designation
3) Polysius RM 54/27/90
54 = dia of table dm
27 = dia of roller dm
90 = dia of separator dm
4) MPS MPS - 3450

3450 = dia of mill body (mm)
WMH/OAR June 91
Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
Module 10
Section 10
The Roller Grinding Mill- Its History

and Current Situation
Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
Module 10
Section 11
Upgrading Raw Mills

Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
Module 10
Section 12
Dry Raw Milling

DRY RAW MILLING
OVERVIEW
This paper is divided into four sections which cover the EQUIPMENT,
SELECTION, TARGETING and OPTIMISATION of Raw Mills.
SECTION I : EQUIPMENT
This section describes the various types of equipment ie. Ball Mills, Vertical
Spindle Mills and Roll Presses that are used for dry raw milling in the cement
industry.
SECTION II : SELECTION
Section II deals with the selection of equipment for raw material grinding. This
takes into account raw material characteristics ie. moisture, abrasivity, power
consumption and capital cost for selection of the most cost effective system.
SECTION III : TARGETING
In order to asses mill efficiency some measure of expected performance is

required. This section describes a method for targeting mill production rates
and power consumption.
SECTION IV : OPTIMISATION
Section IV focuses specifically on the optimisation of ball mills, although

several points are also pertinent to roller mills.
SECTION I
EQUIPMENT FOR DRY RAW MILLING
CONTENTS
1. BALL MILLS
1.1 Air Swept Ball Mills

1.2 Tandem Mills
1.3 Bucket Elevator Mills
1.4 Central Discharge Mills
1.5 The Aerofall Mill
2. VERTICAL SPINDLE MILLS
2.1 Description
2.2 Material Circulation
2.3 Operation
2.4 Mill Designs
2.5 Raw Material Moisture
3. ROLL PRESSES FOR RAW MATERIAL GRINDING
3.1 General
3.2 Rawang Roll Presses
3.3 Kanthan Roll Presses
The objectives of the raw milling plant are to:-
● DT raw material to a low enough moisture level to allow reliable handling and transport.
● Grind raw materials to a produce fineness suitable for burning in the kiln.
● Proportion and blend the raw materials to a desired consistent chemistry.
In addition, these operations must be carried out as reliably and economically as possible to
minimise operating costs.
1. BALL MILLS
Up until the early 1970’s, ball mills were the clear leader in equipment for raw material grinding.
They are suited for moderate capacities and moderate raw material moisture contents. They are
easily maintained and can achieve high availability. However, high power consumption due to
relatively inefficient grinding is the main disadvantage of this type of machine.
1.1 Air SweRt Ball Mills
In the air swept mill the ventilation gases dry the feed material and then transport the fine product
to the circuit separator, see Figures 1 and 2.
Air swept ball mills were frequently used in conjunction with 4-stage preheater dry process plants,
using hot preheater exit gases to dry the raw materials. Some limitation may be placed on the raw
material moisture level which the mill can accept dependent on the quantity and temperature of
the preheater exit gases. Atypical limit is 8°A moisture at a gas temperature of350”C. On some
installations an auxiliary fin-nace is fitted to provide additional heat when seasonable increases in
moisture occur.
In several instances a separate drying chamber was added to the air-swept rnillbody to provide
additional d~g capacity before the feed enters the grinding chamber. Again an auxiliary fin-nace
would be provided to supply extra heat when necessary. The drying chamber contains lifting
flights and is separated from the main grinding chamber by means of a lifter diaphragm. The air
swept grinding chamber is of conventional design with an L/T) of 2.0-2.5/1 and maybe fitted with
a classivlng lining. The raw mills at Ashaka Works are of this design mainly because the shale
can become very wet and sticky in the rainy season.
1
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MATERIAL T
8/ AIR
OUTLET
FIGURE 2: SECTION THROUGH AIR-SWEPT MILL

1.2 Tandem Mills
Another development of the air swept mill was the tandem hammer mill (Figure 3). Where a
hammer mill is placed in tandem with the ball mill, the raw stone is fed into the hammer mill for
precrushing and drying before being finish ground in the ball mill (Figure 4). Hot gases sweep
through the crusher where the raw stone is simultaneously crushed and dried before being carried
up to the separator to remove the fines. The rejects are fed back into the ball mill for fine
grinding. Drying is very rapid in this system as it occurs mainly in the crusher and the ascension
pipe leading to the static separator.
It is usual to provide an auxiliuy flu-nace to boost the hot gases from the preheater when the raw
stone is very wet. The maximum feed size to the crusher is about 100rmn.
In some cases additional silica maybe needed in the raw mix (especially for some dry process
, m). To avoid high wear rates on the tandem crusher the siliceous component may have to be
ground separately or fed directly to the ball mill.
1.3 Bucket Elevator Mills
One of the limitations of an air swept ball mill is that the whole system is dependent on the
transport of material by means of the gas stream. The available fan power dictates how much
material can be moved and this tends to keep the recirculating load in the system down to about
75-150V0. Some advantages in grinding efficiency can be gained by operating at higher
recirculating loads and thk can be achieved by conveying the material mechanically by means of
bucket elevators. In most bucket elevator installations a recirculating load capacity up to 500%
is designed into the system. An added advantage of the bucket elevator mill is that the grinding
efficiency within the mill tends to be greater than in an air swept mill due to the improvement in
control of material flow.
Bucket Elevator mills are not designed for gas sweeping and hence they are limited to drier raw
materials - either intrinsically dry or dried in a separate dryer prior to milling. A top limit of about
4% moisture is usually applied to bucket elevator mill feed stock. A common arrangement is to
feed fine raw stone to the elevator for drying in the separator and allow the mill to handle dried
rejects.
1.4 Central Discharge Mills
Central discharge mills attempt to combine the advantage of the air swept mill and the bucket
elevator mill in one unit. Essentially the mill has a dfig chamber, a coarse grinding chamber and
a fine grinding chamber. Wet feed enters the d~ing chamber which is fitted with lifters to
improve the contact of the feed with the hot gas stream. Afler drying, the material passes into the
coarse grinding chamber which is loaded with balls. The ground material passes through a lifter
diaphragm, into a discharge chamber at the centre of the mill. The fines are carried away in the
gas stream up an ascension pipe into a separator. The coarse material from the mill which
4
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drops out into an elevator boot is also conveyed to the separator. The coarse rejects are passed
via airslides to be recirculated either to the drying chamber inlet or the secondary grinding
chamber inlet at the other end of the mill (Figure 5). The fine product is taken away to storage
from the separator.
One advantage of the centre discharge mill grinding system is that the fines are removed from the
first chamber quite rapidly. The secondary grinding chamber acts as a finish grinding mill with
a more efficient non-air swept action.
The system is, however, fairly complicated and consequently more expensive to purchase and
maintain.
These mills have been used in conjunction with Aerofall mills for secondary grinding.
1.5 The Aerofall Mill
The Aerofall mill system which was originally used in the mining industry was found to be
particularly usefid for the handling of wet sticky materials which are difficult to crush and grind
in more normal systems. Figure 6 shows a typical circuit.
Grinding takes place in two stages. The Aerofdl mill combines drying, crushing and coarse
grinding in a single unit to a grit which is finished off in a regrind mill. The Aerofall mill product
fineness is about 60’?40on 90 ,um sieve. The fines are separated in a three stage classifilng system.
The regrind mill may be a Polysius double rotator or a straight forward tube mill.
Basically the Aerofall mill is a large diameter short air swept bail mill with a semi-autogenous
grinding action. A ball loading of 35 tonne of 130rnm balls occupies about 15% of the mill
volume in our standard 23 fl diameter UK mills. The total mill load of 30°/0 is made up of with
mill feed. Feed material up to 9“ (225mm) may be accepted and the larger lumps contribute to
the autogenous grinding action of the mill. The mill products are carried away in the hot gas
stream to the primary classification chamber where the coarse material drops out. The fines pass
onto the classification and collection systeq whilst the coarse material is returned to the Aerofdl
mill or the regrind mill for firther grinding.
7
FIGURE 5: CENTRAL DISCHARGE MILL
SECOND RECYCLE OF
MATERIAL DRYING
GRINDING CHAMBER OVERSIZE MATERIAL
INLET CHAMBER DISCHARGED MATERIAL
/ 1 I
/
PREL
/
MI NARY
“-
CENTRAL DISCI-ARGE
OPENINGS
DISCHARGED
T-MATER AL
\v
\
GRINDING
\
CLASSIFYING LINING
2. VERTICAL SPINDLE MILLS
2.1 Description
The development of the Vertical Spindle Mills also known as Roller Mills over the last two
decades has now placed this machine as the preferred choice for raw material grinding. This mill
offers high capacity, high grinding efficiency and a high drying capacity.
Vertical spindle mills are a modern air swept version of an old design of milling machine using
millstones on edge. Two or more rollers under pressure rest on a driven horizontal table onto
which the material to be ground is fed and subsequently squeezed under the rollers (Figure 7).
Air sweeps the ground material up into a classifier which returns the coarse fraction to the table
for fin-ther grinding (Figure 8). The air swept fines are carried over to a cyclone separator and
dedusting plant for separation from the gas stream. Then they are transferred to raw meal
blending silos. (Figure 9 shows such a circuit).
Roller mills are capable of drying and grinding coarse wet feed up to 80-100 mm in size. They
are compact in size with the classifier built into the mill body and they have a lower power
consumption compared to ball milling grinding systems.
Their control systems are arranged to match which ever system is chosen, but basically the
fineness of grind is controlled by the rate of feed and the setting of the classifier.
Early designs were supplied with static separators, but now dynamic separators are provided as
standard
2.2 Material Circulation
Circulating load to the separator is normally 200-400’?40of the mill feed rate. However, circulation
in the lower body of the mill can be over 10OOO/O.Test work carried out on the Dunbar Polysius
raw mill revealed a circulating load of only 700/0to the separator, but a 700°/0 recirculation above
the nozzle ring.
During the same tests the material distribution around the mill body was measured. This is shown
in Figure 10. The high circulation of material in the gas stream at the roller trailing edges is very
apparent.
It is now common to have a mill fitted with external recirculation. That is a transport circuit to
collect reject material from the mill nozzle ring and return it to the mill for regrinding. It is
possible, with external recirculation, to reduce the air velocity and volume through the mill in
order to reduce fin power consumption. Oilen the nozzle ring area is made adjustable so that the
velocity across the nozzle ring may be reduced with lowering gas flow. The distribution of air
flow around the mill can also be optimised using thk device.
10
●☛☛
●
●
9
FIGURE 7: PARTICLE FLOW PATTERN IN A ROLLER MILL

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FIGURE 8: LOESCHE ROLLER MILL

~ = MATERIAL
~ = HOT GAS/AIR
FEED BIN
I
CYCLONE COLLECTOR
BY-PASS
ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATOR
l!i
v’v+A+–”–”–
—
H + ‘AWMEAL
I I HOT GAS
ROLLER MILL I
-E %2!LJER’NGUN’T
FIGURE 9: ROLLER MILL CIRCUIT
FIGURE 10- DUNBAR DISTRIBUTION OF RAW MEAL ABOVE NOZZLE RING
lb
2.3 Ot)eration
Although roller mills can be very reliable they are more complex than ball mills and require more
maintenance.
Operationally, roller mills are quite sensitive to changes in parameters. For example, a short
period of uncontrolled reduced feed rate would have little effect on a ball mill (except for a finer
product) however, if thk occurred on a roller mill it would more than likely result in a vibration
trip.
Mills with dry raw materials require water sprays into the mill not only for gas conditioning, but
also to help retain the bed of material on the table to stabilise operation.
Inleaking air also tends to be problem due to high mill pressure losses. This requires carefhl
attention to sealing around the hydraulic cylinder tie rods, table drive, external recirculation and
mill feed chute.
When the raw materials are abrasive e.g. when using a significant quantity of sand, the wear rate
of the grinding surfaces can be quite rapid. In some cases the liie of the table lining can be as little
as 1 year.
In this case even more attention is required to keep the mill operating efficiently,
Material is retained on the table using a dam ring, which is a raised ring of metal fitted to the
circumference of the table. As the table wears, the depth of material on the table increases and
the power consumption of the mill increases. This would not normally be a problem unless the
mill motor was approaching fill load. If this was the case, then it would be necessa~ to reduce
the darn ring height to compensate for table wear, otherwise the mill feed rate would need to be
restricted. Usually this would involve cutting 10-20mm from the ring with a gas cutting torch.
Several attempts have been made by suppliers to construct an adjustable dam ring to make this
operation easier. However, none have been successful to date.
When speci&ing a new mill and raw materials are to be abrasive then due allowance should be
made in the sizing of the mill motor and gearbox for high power consumption with table wear.
2.4 Mill Desires
Although each supplier can offer a roller mill, the designs differ significantly, Some of the main
differences are:-
● Grinding paths (see Figure 11):- These table designs differ markedly, flat table, grooved
table, twin rollers, etc.
● Maintenance of rollers:- The Loesche design offer rollers that can be easily removed from
the mill reducing maintenance time.
15
FIGURE 11
LOESCHE PFEIFFER MPS
.-
---
.
/’7 .-
---- .-
RAYMOND POLYSIUS
FLS - ATOX BABCOCK “E” MILL

● Mill start up:- Several suppliers offer designs that the rollers are lifted clear of the material
bed forstart-up. ~herskve matih~dtive tostafi therollers moving onthematetid
bed, rather than lifting them. The former design allows feed to be established before
starting grindtng by lowering the rollers. The latter design has the advantage that the
depth of material on the table can be seen before start-up. This is measured by
instruments fitted to the piston rods to monitor their extension. However, this also has
the disadvantage that the rollers can contact the table should the material bed be lost.
2.5 Raw Material Moisture
The raw material moisture has a dramatic effect on the design of a new milling circuit. For normal
moisture of up to 6°/0,preheater exhaust gases from a 4 stage preheater are sufficient for drying.
In some cases additional drying capacity has been provided by allowing feeding of the preheater
tower at the second stage cyclones to increase preheater exhaust gas temperature. This has been
found usefhl when high moistures are experienced for only 2-3 months of the year.
Higher moisture levels require the use of cooler gases or ancillary heating or oilen both.
Since the mill sizing is for a particular volume of gas, higher moisture raw materials require larger
mill bodies which has an impact on the capital cost of a new raw mill.
17
3. ROLL PRESSES FOR R4W MATERIAL GRINDING
3.1 General
The conventional approach to raw material drying and grinding uses either Ball Mills or Vertical
Spindle Mills. In recent years, alternative milling systems have been developed involving the use
of Roller Presses. The Roller Press can be used as an integral grinding unit with its own gas
circuit for drying or it can be retrofitted to an existing Ball Mill in order to increase the mill’s
capacity. Examples of both types of installation are found at APMC’s factories in Malaysia.
APMC recently uprated Rawang Works from 4150 TPD to 5200 TPD and Kanthan Works from
2500 TPD to 3370 TPD clinker output. As part of these uprating exercises, the following systems
were installed using K.H.D. Roll Presses:-
3.2 Rawan~ Works - Roll Press
An integral Roll Press for grinding 100 tph of limestone and sand was installed. This unit was
equipped with its own gas handling and drying circuit consisting of a Hammer crusher
disagglomerator, static separator, cyclone collectors and final ID fan.
This unit was installed tier considering several options ie. addtional V. S.M., H.I.C. pregrinder,
Roll Press addition to the existing 240 tph Limestone Ball Mill. Conversion of the existing Ball
Mill presented several problems including downtime, poor mill design with limited drying
capacity, plant layout etc. Hence it was decided to install a separate milling unit which was
generously sized for the additional kiln output required.
Since it is necessary to add sand to the Limestone (to improve flow characteristics throught he
preheater), it was anticipated that this would increase the wear on the welded roll surfaces. The
guaranteed Roller wear life was 6000 hours without sand and 4,500 hours with 4’% sand addition.
Technical details of the Rawang and Kanthan Roll Press are shown in Table 1 and Figure 12
shows the process flow dlagrarn for the roll press circuit. The Roll Press was designed to handle
100 tph of fxxi as well as 350 tph of recycled grits form the static separator, giving a total of 450
tph through the press.
Comparison of the actual versus the design petiormance is shown in Table 2.
18
RAW MILLING - ROLL PRESSES ORDERED FOR A. P.M.C. MALAYSIA
ORIGINAL DESIGN BASIS
7
WORKS RAWANG
System: Integralgrindingwith@ing Grindingcoarsegritsfromchamber1ofDR

mill
Material: RawLimestone(-50mrn) Limestoneplus clay(-15rnrn)Pre-driedfeed
output: 100tph (standalone) IncreasefromDR millfrom215 to 260 tph =
45 tph extra
ROLL PRESS
DESIGN
Make
Size RP 10.0- 120/120 RP 06.3- 100/63
Roll diameter(m) 1.2 1.0
Rollwidth(m) 1.2 0.63
Motorsize (kW) 2 X 600 2 x 300
Totalmateralthrough
press (tph) 450 170
Press Kwh/tonneof total
materialthroughpress 2.04 2.29
Desire Absorbed
Power (Kw) of Main
Drives
Roll Press 920 390

Disagglomerator 270 90
Fan 530 12extraon exisitngfan
SeparatorandElevator o 107
TOTAL 1720 599
Note:- for Kanthan, the additional power of the press circuit was to be partly offset by a reduced
power requirement in the ball mill of 236 Kw. Hence the extra Kw absorbed would be 599-236
or 363 Kw.
output 100tph 45 tph extra

Powersavingexcluding 20.9 -17,2 = 3.7 Kwh/tonne 22.8 -20,3 = 2.5 Kwh/tonne
minorancillaries
19
TABLE 2- Actual Versus Guaranteed Performance
Actual Guarantee
Output tph 114-117 100
Meal residue at 90 microns - % retained 8.2- 9.3 10
Meal moisture ?40 0.2-0.27 1.0
Power consumption kwldtonne meal 12.3 -12.5 I 17.0

I
The power consumption figure was significantly lower than the existing Limestone Mill which
consumes 20.9 kwh/tonne meal. The power consumption was also lower than KHD had
estimated at the design stage. An approximate breakdown of the power consumed is shown in
Table 3.
Table 3- Roll Press Circuit Power Consumption
~ Achieved Kwh/t Meal Design Kwh/t Meal

, 1
Roll Press 4.8 9.2
Disagglomerator 2.8 2.7
Fan 4.9 5.3
TOTAL ! 12.5 I 17.2 I
Hence the power consumption saving was around 20.9 -12.5 = 8.7 kwhhonne compared with
an expected 3.7 kwhhonne. The main reason for this was the much lower power drawn by the
Press itself.
Analysis of the various streams around the Roll Press circuit demonstrates that the sand addition
becomes concentrated in the separator rejects. These contain approximately 13°A free silica
compared with 3 to 4°/0free silica in the finished meal. This free silica increases the wear on the
Roll Press and the hammer crusher. The Roll surface wear life has been approximately 3,500
hours.
20
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Table 4 shows the comparison between the finished Limestone and sand meal from the Roll Press
and Ball Mill circuits.
Table 4- Meal P.S.D. from Roll Press and Ball Mill Svstems
0/0Finer than:-
Microns Roll Press Ball Mill
500 99.9 99.95

125 94.9 94.6
90 89.7 89.2
63 82.2 81.9
45 71.7 71.8
20 49 52
10 31 35
5 18 22 ~
2 8 11
As expected, the Roll Press circuit produces lower quantities of sub sieve material and has a
steeper particle size distribution than the Ball Mill product.
3.3 Kanthan Works - Roll Press
The existing raw mill at Kanthan Works consisted of a 215 tph KHD Double Rotator Ball Mill.
For the kiln uprating, the raw meal production level needed to be increased to 260 tph. Whilst
it was considered desirable to install a similar size Roll Press to the Rawang unit (for spares
commonalhy), this was not done for the following reasons.
(i) Additional capital cost.
(ii) Potential capacity of Larger Roll Press could not be realised without major uprating of the
gas circuit at additional cost.
Hence a smaller press was installed. Technical details of the Press are shown in Table 1.
The modfied Raw Mill circuit is shown in Figure 13. KHD’s laborato~ tests had indicated that
the Roll Press could not be used as a pregrinder unit before the Ball Mill. The mill feed includes
partly dried clay which is premixed with the Limestone on a blending stockpile. It was claimed
that this material would not treat well when subjected to Roll Pressing. However, KHD claimed
that some of the d~ mixture leaving the mill’s first chamber would treat well in a Roll press. The
circuit design shown in Figure 13 allowed for 120 to 170 tph of material leaving chamber 1 to be
sent to the Press, disagglomerated by a hammer crusher and then sent to the separator handling
gases horn the mill. This separator was originally of the static type. As part of the uprating it was
converted to a dynamic separator (see Figure 13a). Rejects from this separator, up to 50 tph
maximum would then be used to “top-up” the feed requirements of the Press. Whilst there was
some doubt whether this design would work as proposed, it was decided to install the Roll Press.
Subsequent commissioning experience showed that the material leaving the first chamber of the
22
(23W
LItlE- FILTER
STONE CLAY
IRON
\
ORE A
4 CLAY
WEDAG
SEPARATOR
[EXISTING]
—.
mnp=-q~
~1
I I
_ I lE!mi ~ p-iq
Ati
y
EEml
m ROLL
PRESS
I GRITS
I
2’ -----
I IEimil
tlATERIAL
EX CHAtlBER 1
+
FIGURE 13: KANTHAN WOIWS - ORTGINAL DESIGN - RAW MEAL GRINDING/CAPACI~ INCREASE WITH ROLLER PRESS
FIGURE 13A : KANTHAN WORKS - CONVERSION OF D.R. MILL
STATIC SEPARATOR TO DYNAMIC SEPARATOR
,
I
.— —.
–
—_
-1
I
!. I
1-
11 r I I
1
\ I /l:l\ I \ l\ I
DYNAMIC I
— \
SEPARATOR
CAGE I
I
II
I
I
I I
1
HEAL
I
I
I I
I
L$ 1
!
GASES EX HILL
CENTRAL DISCHARGE
mill was too fine to be effectively handled by the Roll Press. Following the evaluation by
APMC/BCTC, KHD agreed to modfi the mill circuit to allow partial pregrinding of the mill feed.
Site testwork had shown that this material was suitable for Roll Press treatment despite KHD’s
misgivings.
The Roll Press/Ball Mill circuit was subsequently modified to allow some fresh feed to pass
directly to the Roll Press. KHD designed the system for 70 tph fresh feed but APMC/BCI
required the new fwd system to handle higher throughputs. This proved beneficial since the Press
currently handles approximately 114 tph of fresh feed. In addition, some 7 tph of grits is recycled
to the press giving a total press tonnage of121 tph. Figure 14 shows the revised mill circuit
arrangement.
During performance guarantee tests, the modified circuit achieved the following performance:-
Actual Guaranteed Pre Conversion

Performance Performance data Mill only
Roll Press/RawMill output (tph) 265 260 215
Power consumption kwhhonne meal 17.9 20.3 22.8
*Power saving kwh/tonne meal I 4.9 I 2.5 I Base case
Raw meal residue - ‘?40

retained at 90 I 9.5 I 10 I 10
microns
* The power consumption excludes an additional 1.3 Kwh/tonne for minor ancillaries,
The Roll Press draws approximately 264 KW for 121 tph material throughput, hence the specific
power consumption of the Press is:-
2.18 kwh/tonne of material through the Press

1.0 kwhhonne of finished raw meal.
As in the case of the Rawang Roll press, it was found that the Roll Press did not draw the
expected drive motor power to achieve the guaranteed output.
In both installations, roller wear is a feature of the Press operation and the wear rate is high due
to the ii-ee silica content of the raw materials and the high recycle of siliceous material at Rawang.
However, the Roll presses have proved to be a capital cost effective means of uprating the plant.
The power consumption savings are attractive. Offset against these savings will be the cost of
rewelding the Rolls and the high wear on the hammer crusher disagglomerators.
25
I I
—
I
—
-EzI-
SECTION II
MILL SELECTION
CONTENTS
1. PARAMETERS FOR SELECTION
1.1 Raw Material Moisture Content

1.2 Raw Material Feed Size
1.3 Raw Material Hardness and Abrasivity
2. OPERATION AND COST CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 Availability of Hot Gases for Drying

2.2 Reliability
2.3 Maintenance Requirements
2.4 Capital Cost
2.5 Power Consumption
SECTION TI
1. PARAMETERS FOR SELECTION
The selection of the type of raw milling and drying equipment is primarily determined by the
characteristics of the raw materials, namely:
● Moisture content.
● Feed Size
● Hardness and Abrasivity
Each of these parameters and an explanation of their overall significance is given below. Table 1
compares the suitability of any of the systems reviewed in section 1 to a particular selection
criteria. However, this table cannot be used for selection, as it only gives a general guide to the
ability of each type of equipment. In practise mill circuits can vary widely in equipment supply
and hence costs. Therefore each milling application needs to be evaluated separately.
1.1 Raw Material Moisture Content
Generally in the past most raw materials chosen for dry process cement manufacture were in the
3-8 ?40 range of moisture content. However, more recently raw materials with higher moisture
contents have been used, in fact, in excess of 20 0/0 moisture has to be dried from the raw
materials in certain cases.
A conventional precalciner kiln with a 4 stage preheater would normally have a fhel consumption
in the range of 750-800 kcal/kg clinker and a preheater exit temperature of350 -4000 C. The
heat content of the waste gases in this case would be sufficient to dry raw materials with a
moisture content of up to So/O.
However, for higher moisture contents than 8?40 additional heat would be required. It is normal
to supply this using an auxiliary firnace, although in several cases this is combined with waste
heat from the clinker cooler.
In modern vertical spindle mill circuits for higher moisture contents, where auxiliary heating is
required, it is becoming common practise to design with a mill inlet temperature as high as the
equipment can withstand. This effectively minimises the mill exhaust volume which has a direct
effect on the size of the mill body and downstream equipment and the power consumption of the
raw mill gas circuit. Milling plant equipment suppliers now can design a raw mill to withstand
inlet gas temperatures of up to 5500 C.
The milling plant needs to be designed to handle the maximum moisture content that the plant will
experience for any significant period. The period that this high moisture will prevail is also an
important consideration. In several cases the duration that the plant operates at the maximum
moisture is only 1 or 2 months. In some of these instances additional heating has supplied from
the preheater by feeding to a lower stage in the kiln preheater to increase exit gas temperature,
when required.
Raw materials with a high moisture content can be sticky and prove difficult to handle with some
types of equipment, which may again affect the choice for a new plant.
1
TABLE 1
COMPARISON OF MILLING EQUIPMENT
Air Swept Ball Tandcm Hammer Bucket Elevator Central Aerofall Mill Vertical Spindle Roll Press
Mill Mill Mill Discharge Mill Mill
Ability to Dry Wet 4 3 7 5 2 1 6

Material
Ability to Handle ‘2 5 2 2 1 6 6
Abrasive Material
Maximum Feed 30 mm 100mm 30 mm 30 Inn-l 300 nun loomm 60 mm

Size
Specific Power 6 4 5 3 7 2 1
Reliability 3 4 1 1 5 6 7
Capital Cost 1 6 3 5 7 1 4
Note: Equipment ranking 1 refers to most advantageous and 7 least. Eg. 1 for capital cost indicates lowest, yet 1 for feed moisture highest drying
capability.
1.2 Raw Materinl Feed Size
The maximum feed size that can be tolerated varies for different types of grinding installation.
Tube mills have the lowest feed size requirements of the equipment available. Aerofall mills, roller
mills and tandem hammer mills can accept larger feed sizes than a tube mill and would offer a
cost saving in the capital plant for the crushing system. Thus the suitability of a particular crushhg
system to the raw materials must also be examined.
1.3 Raw Material Hardness and Abrasivity
Grinding power requirements are obtained via small scale empirical laboratory tests such as the
Bond test. An example of these calculations can be found in section 3. The material hardness has
implications in two areas of the milling system selection - these being energy consumption and
wear rate of the milling system chosen. Both of these categories are compared in Table 1.
Abrasivity affects the wear of the milling system (often stated as grams of wear per tonne of
material ground) and so affects the cost of wear parts within the mill. The main abrasive
component of raw materials is silica in the form of quartz. When quartz content is in excess of
about 5°/0 and the grain size is large, then abrasivity is likely to be a problem.
When raw materials are tested for suitability for cement production abrasivity is usually tested.
In addition, part of suppliers tests on the laboratory scale vertical mill usually involve analysing
the various material streams within the circuit for free silica.
Vertical spindle mills handling an abrasive raw material are particularly prone to high wear of the
table and roller wear liners. In extreme cases table replacement can be necessary with less than
12 months operation. These replaceable items are usually castings of special alloys and can be
quite expensive. This may also have an impact on the plant production planning, as some mill
designs require several days to take out the old linings and replace with new ones. This factor
should be taken into the overall cost of the chosen milling system.
2. OPERATION AND COST CONSIDERATIONS
In addition to the raw material characteristics, operation and cost considerations are significant
factors that will influence the choice of system. These include:
● Availability of Hot Gases for Drying

● Reliability
● Maintenance Requirements
● Capital Cost
● Power Consumption
2.1 Availabiiitv of Hot Gases for Drving
In most cases for new dry process plants, waste gases from the kiln plant are used for drying as
described in the section on moisture. However, in the past, situations were fiel costs were not
significant, drying was effected totally by additional heating. Hence there are several Plants, still
operating in this fashion. Although on many of these plants waste heat utilisation has been retro-
fitted to reduce energy consumption.
2.2 Reliability
The reliability of a mill system relates to the complexity of the mill and associated circuit. Thk
tiects the ease of operation and the maintenance requirements for the system. In general, a ball
mill circuit is easier to operate and maintain than a vertical mill and can achieve higher availability.
2.3 Maintenance Requirements
The maintenance requirements of a plant could influence the choice of system depending on the
availability of spares.
2.4 Capital Cost
Investment cost is ‘h.nimportant factor in the selection process, and at present the vertical spindle
mill would appear to be the most economic system in terms of capital cost, especially for materials
containing higher moisture. Some of the alternative types of mill would require addition of a drier
to reduce moisture content prior to grinding.
2.5 Power ConsumWion
In most parts of the world electric power consumption contributes a significant proportion of the
production cost of cement. Hence the efllciency of the overall system is an important
consideration.
4
DRY RAW MILLING
SECTION III
TARGETING PERFORMANCE FOR RAW MILLS
1. ENERGY REQUIREMENT FOR SIZE REDUCTION.
2. TARGET PERFORMANCE FOR BALL MILLS.
2.1 Actual Mill Power Consumption

2.2 Theoretical Mill Power Consumption
2.3 Opportunities for Improvement
2.4 The Effect of Feed Size and Product Size on Ball Mill Manufacture
3. TARGET PERFORMANCE FOR VERTICAL SPINDLE MILLS
3.1 Grindability Testing for Vertical Spindle Mills

3.2 Example of the Sizing of a New Vertical Spindle Mill
3.3 Raw Meal Residue and 80% Passing Size Prediction.
SECTION Ill
TARGETING PERFORMANCE FOR RAW MTLLS
1. ENERGY REQUIREMENT FOR SIZE REDUCTION
In order to be able to target raw mill performance some guideline is required for energy
requirements for grinding. The mechanisms involved in size reduction are very complex and
hence attempts to predict energy requirements have been of an empirical approach.
The genera.kd equation for size reduction relates that for a small change in particle size dx, the
energy required dE is a power fi.mction of the particle size X:
dE
—=cxn
dx C & n are constants
Using this formula, it is possible to derive the 3 laws of comminution:-
● Kicks Law states that the energy requirement is a fimction of the reduction in
particle size. Hence, putting n = -1 and solving the above
equation:-
where X~feed size
& product size
E= Cln;
P
● Rittin~ers Law expresses the energy requirement as proportional to the new
surface produced. Hence, putting n = 2 and solving:-
E=C~-~
[1x
P ‘f
● Bonds Law proposes an intermediate law with n = 3/2:-
E=2C —— —1
x Xf
[ ;C P 1
Kicks Law relates to reduction of large particles and hence is more applicable to crushing whereas
Rittingers Law is valid for fine grinding. The Bond Law falls in the middle range and is suitable
for prediction of raw milling energy requirements.
FIGURE 1
BOND DATA FOR BCI RAW MILLS

20
III=
Y
IY
g5
o ‘ ATL “ ‘ TUL ‘ ‘ GLD ‘ ‘ PLM “ “MLh

‘ HRL ‘ ‘SHG ‘ ASH ‘
WRD RWN EWE CLD KNT WRD ABW DBR RAv
b
_ ROD MILL _ BALL MILL I
2. TARGET PERFORMANCE FOR BALL MILLS
The following method is used for establishing the performance of a Ball Mill used for dry raw
milling. This method is based upon relating the actual mill only power consumption to the
theoretical power consumption using the Bond test method. The ratio of actual to theoretical mill
only kwhhonne gives a “Bond Factor” for the mill which can then be compared with typical
factors for different types of mill.
WORKED EXAMPLE
A practical example of how the actual “Bond Factor” is compared with the expected value is
given below. This requires a working knowledge of the milling system to be established by means
of -
● Mill inspections
● Axial sampling tests
● Observation of the mill performance, i.e. monitoring operating data and observing what
factors affect performance e.g. mill feed size or raw mix proportion variations etc.
The Bond test results and the interpretation of these results using the BCTC method is as
follows:-
● Carry out grindability testing of the raw materials including Bond tests to establish the
Bond work indices. Typical bond data for BCI raw mills is shown in Figure 1.
● The Bond Rod mill index establishes the power requirements for coarse grinding i.e. size
reduction from mill feed size to 2. lmm split size (80°A passing size).
● The Bond Ball mill index establishes the power requirements for fine grinding between
2.1 mm and the finished raw meal fineness (i.e. 80% passing size).
● Measure the fill psd of the mill feed and finished raw meal and estimate the 80’?40passing
size of both.
2.1 Actual Mill Power Consum~tion
Calculate actual power consumption as per the following example:-
Mill absorbed power = 4065kw
Cumulative raw meal residue at

90 microns = 10%
Mill output = 215 tph dry raw meal
Mill motor power consumption = 4065

— = 18.91 Icwh/t
215
3
22 Theoretical Power Consumr)tion
Wr = Work Index (by BCTC tests) - Rod mill= 16.1
Power consumption (Kwh/t) = Wr

()
~
6$
- ~
Where F = 80V0 passing size of feed

= 16.8mm = 16,800 microns
and S = 80?40passing size of material

. at the split size of 2.1 mm or 2100 microns
10 10
Power consumption = 16.1 — -
[ m- )
—
2.27Kwh/t
2.2.1 Fine Grinding Power Consumption
Wb . Work Index - Ball mill = 9.52
Power consumption (Kwh/t) = Wb

[1
~
fifi’
- ~
Where P = 80?40passing size of finished meal which equal 56 microns

for 10?40residue at 90 microns (see Table 3).
Power consumption = 9.52

[:-%)
—
— 10.65 Kwh/t
2.2.2 Theoretical Overall Power Consumption
. 2.27 + 10.65 = 12.92 kwhh

2.2.3 Evaluation of Mill Performance
Having estimated the theoretical power consumption for the mill, this is compared with
the actual power consumption, i.e.
Actual kwh/t
Bond Factor for Mill =
Theoretical kwhh
18.91
= — = 1.464
12.92
This, in turn, is compared with typical Bond factor for different types of mills, i.e.
Mill Type Typical Bond Factor for Mill
Bucket elevator mill 1.2-1.3

Tandem/Airswept mill 1.4-1.5
Airswept mill 1.4-1.55
Double rotator mill 1.2-1.3
Best known raw mills within BC group 0.95-1.0
The mill examined above is a double rotator mill. Hence, its performance is somewhat
lower than expected for this type of mill, i.e.
Actual Bond Factor = 1.46, Expected Factor= 1.2- 1.3
2.3 Ormortunities for Imm-ovement
Full mill inspections and axial sampling tests showed that the main limitation was
overfilling of chamber 1 by coarse material when mill capacity was pushed. Possible ways
and means of improving the raw mill performance are as follows:-
Increase proportion of 90mm in first chamber charge to improve the crushing

action.
A longer first chamber would be desirable, but it is not possible to increase this
due to the mill design with its central discharge arrangements.
Use a finer feed to the mill. Note that the ratio of Rod to Ball mill indices is:-
16.1
— = 1.69
9.52
5
This suggests that coarse material crushing is relatively diillcult. Hence, any
means of reducing the mill feed size could give benefits.
● The latter point was demonstrated in practice! A reduction in mill feed size from
100°/0passing 50mm to 100°/0passing 30mm size had previously given an increase
in output from 200 to 215 tph!
● Consider a precrusher addition to the mill in order to reduce the mill feed size
further e.g. Barmac, HIC or even Tandem precrushers to achieve finer feed.
Whilst such precrushers can be arranged in closed circuit to give 3-5mm feed size,
the minimum feed size depends upon the raw material moisture level. Thk varies
seasonally and hence the benefits of the precrusher will depend upon the screening
petiormance and moisture level variations.
● Carry out fill mill inspectionslaxial sampling tests, circuit gas flows, fan tests,
inleaking air level checks etc., in order to find out any possible gas flow/drying
capacity limitations.
● Check capacity/size of all ancillary plant such as airslides, bucket elevators,

product pump, etc.
● Consider improving method of mill control, e.g. use of first chamber noise level
(i.e. sonic control) to permit mill to be run closer to its maximum output limits
most of the time.
2.4 The Effect of Feed Size and Product Size on Ball Mill Performance
2.4.1 Product Size
Conventional raw materials tend to be ground to a fineness of 10-1 5?40retained on a 90 micron

sieve. The finished raw meal fineness has a major effect upon a raw mill’s output as demonstrated
by the following Table 1 for a ball milling system.
Table 1- Mill Output Versus Raw Meal Residue
Raw Meal Residue - VO

cumulative residue at Mill Output Mill only
90 microns tph &h/tonne
5 113 29.1
10 140 23.4
15 160 20.5
20 175 18.7
25 188 17.5
30 198 16:6
6
Hence, plants with dhlicult raw materials which require grinding to, say, 5’%residue at 90 micron,
will require 66°/0 more energy for grinding than a plant with, say, 25°/0 residue and easy
combinability raw materials. Within the BCI group, there is wide range of raw meal residue
targets ranging from 5°/0 (Aberthaw) to 34V0 (Ravena) on a 90 micron sieve.
We, therefore, recommend that the raw material combinability aspects should be examined to
determine the relationship between raw meal residue and the combinability temperature at a given
free lime. This should be studied at the earliest opportunity to determine whether there is any
opportunity to increase output by increasing the raw meal residue. In addition, raw material mix
design has a significant effect upon the grindability characteristics and should also form part of
the early investigations.
2.4.2 Mill Feed Size
Using the Bond formula, the effect of reducing the mill feed size can be predicted. However, in
practice, it has been shown that the benefits from reducing the feed size to a mill are better than
predicted by the Bond formula!
Whilst this is promising, unfortunately, it is not always easy to predict accurately the effect of feed
size on an individual mill. In addition, the improvement gained will depend upon the initial and
final feed size range involved as well as other factors such as the ancillary plant limitations. There
are examples where raw mill output may not significantly increase with finer feed materials due
to other known limitations such as:-
● Insufficient drying capacity to handle higher throughput.
● Ancilla~ plant limitations such as pneumatic conveying system limitations, etc.
However, as a general rule, the benefit from fxxi size reduction is typically 2 to 6 times the benefit
predicted when using the Bond Rod Mill Index for coarse grinding. The upper limit of 6 times
the predicted benefit is exceptional and should not be used as a general guideline. It applies more
to mills handling very coarse feed sizes with high ratios of Rod Mill to Ball Mill Index. As a
“safe” figure, a figure of 2 times the predicted benefit by Bond is recommended.
Current feed size = 80% passing 16.8 mm. Wkh finer precrushing, the target feed size is 80%
passing 12mm (i.e. 12,000 microns).
Revised Coarse Grinding Power Consumption
10 10
Power consumption = 16.1 — -
[ mm
— 2.04
Hence, predicted power saving for coarse grinding = 2.27- 2.04= 0.23 kwhhonne.
7
However, from practical experience, the actual benefit is expected to be twice the Bond
prediction.
Hence, coarse grinding power consumption 2.27- (2X 0.23)
1.81 kwh/tonne
Fine grinding power consumption

(unchanged for 10% residue at 90 microns) 10.65 kwh/tonne
Theoretical overall power consumption by Bond 10.65 + 1.81
12.46 kwhhonne
Actual power consumption using 1.464 Bond Factor 18.24 kwh/tonne
hlill output expected 4065

18.24
223 tph
Current output 215 tph
Output increase 8 tph equivalent to a 3.7%

increase
In practice, the actual output increase could be greater than this due to the following factors:-
a) The ratio of Rod to Ball mill index is high at 1.69 which implies that the benefits from feed
size reduction may be better than predicted. Against ths is set ‘the fact that the mill feed
size is already reasonably fine. The limited size of the mill’s first chamber also made it
very beneficial to reduce the mill feed size. This example is based upon an actual mill
where the benefit gained was 4 to 6 times that predicted by Bond due to the first chamber
limitations.
Table 2 shows some typical data for raw material mixes tested by BCTC. This shows the
range of Rod Mill to Ball Mill Indices using the Bond Test.
b) Reduction of the mill feed size could allow the mill internals to be optimised by using less
power for coarse crushing. Carry out axial sampling tests to see if there is any scope for
modifying the ball charge grading, first chamber length, etc. In practice, it may not be
possible to filly optimise the mill since the mill may have to cope with occasional
oversized stone. Remember that producing a finer feed size to the mill may create
bottlenecks at the crushing and screening stages. Look at the overall picture before
carrying out this type of exercise.
TABLE 2- BOND INDICES FOR RAW MATERIAL GRINDING
Rod Mill Ball Mill

Work Index Work Index Ratio of
kwh/tonne kwh/tonne Rod/Ball
Works (Coarse Grinding) (Fine Grinding) Indices
Aberthaw 15.42 12.30 1.254

Cauldon 13.92 9.68 1.438
Cememto Melon 17.92 14.12 1.269
Dunbar 17.92 11.60 1.545
Kanthan 14.43 10.10 1.429
Modi 17.45 12.63 1.382
Plymstock 16.52 12.59 1.312
Ravena 17.56 10.50 1.672
Portland NZ 15.82 9.46 1.672
Yanbu 9.58 9.03 1.061
3 TARGETING PERFORMANCE FOR VERTICAL SPINDLE M~LS
3.1 Grindabilitv Testing for Vertical S~indle Mills
The Bond test data can also be used for predicting the performance of Vertical Spindle raw
mills (VSM). A distinction is made between the following types of VSM.
● VSM with Static separator

● VSM with Dynamic separator
Current new raw mill installations tend to be provided with Dynamic separators. Whhin the
BCI group, the Static separators at Cauldon and Dunbar Works have been replaced by
Dynamic separators.
Other test methods are available for determining the energy requirements for VSM’S. These
include the following facilities at BCTC Greenhithe:-
● Hardgrove Index Testing
● Loesche LM 3.6 Vertical Spindle Mill Test
● Ball Mill (1 8“) grindability test
The relationship between the various test methods has been established by testing many raw
mat erials over recent years.
Hardgrove Indices are usually carried out on the individual mix components as well as the
combined mixes. This can give an indication of which components and mixes are likely to
require the highest energy for grinding.
For normal test purposes, the Bond Test results are usually tak,en with factors applied to suit
the type of mill involved. An example of VSM sizing for a new 560 tph raw mill is given
below.
3.2 Example of the Sizing of a New VSM
3.2.1 Representative raw materials were analysed and several potential mixes were
considered.
Hardgrove Indices were estimated for two mixes with the following result:-
Normal raw mix - Hardgrove Index = 93

“Harder” raw mix - Hardgrove Index = 92
(Note the lower the Hardgrove Index the more difilcult the material is to grind).
Bond Indices were determined for the normal raw mix. In addition, abrasion losses
were measured on the normal and “harder” raw mixes using the Yancey, Geer and
Price test.
The following results were obtained:-
3.2.2 Normal Mix - energy required for coarse grinding
Rod Mill Work Index Wr -—14.43 kwh/t
Feed size = 80?40passing 100mm = 100,000 microns
I Energy requirements for coarse

grinding to 2.1 mm split size
= 14.43 — 10 - 10
m- )
3.2.3 Energy required for fine grinding
Ball Mill Work Index Wb = 10.10 kwhh
Product size = 10°/0 retained on

90 micron sieve or 80°A passing 56 microns
Energy required for fine grinding
‘1O’1O [:-%1
—
- 11.293 kwh/t
Total energy required by Bond

= 2.693 + 11.293
= 13.986 kwh/t
3.2.4 Bond Factors for VSM
The following factors are used to estimate the actual power consumption from the Bond
kwhh prediction.
Bond Factor
VSM with Dynamic Separator 0.5

VSM with Static Separator 0.56
Since we are sizing for a modern VSM using the latest dynamic separator design, the
Bond factor of 0.5 is used, i.e:-
Actual absorbed mill power = 0.5 X 13.986
Mill output = 560 tph dry raw meal

Mill absorbed power = 6.993 x 560 = 3916 kw
3.2.5 Mill Installed Power
When sizing the main motor for a new VSM, allowances must be allowed for the
following:-
● Variations in grindability - normally we allow 10?40additional power consumption

when sizing a Ball Mill. However, for a VSM it is recommended that a greater
allowance is made for the combined effects of grindability and wear on the table
and rollers.
● Table/Roller wear can result in high power being drawn.
In the above case, the abrasion loss figure was between 194 and 221 mg which is
relatively high. A typical range of abrasion loss figures is as follows:-
High - Dunbar raw materials 379

Low - Portland NZ raw materials J
Average Mix Materials ~
● Allowances must be made for the extra load under mill startup conditions.
Taking all these factors into consideration, the following allowances can be made.
Minimum allowance for mill motor — 12’%0

Hence, minimum mill motor size = 1.12x3916 = 4386 kw
11
o’
0
w
N
to
(9
z
(0
co
a
L o
o
\
o
0
Qo
w
>
o o
0
0
Maximum allowance for mill motor — 20%
Hence, maximum mill motor size = 1.20x3916 = 4699 kw
Taking the minimum motor size of4386 kw is not recommended in this case since the
raw materials are abrasive and we know that the “Harder” mix has a Hardgrove Index
of 92.
Hence, minimum motor size for “Harder” mix, by ratio of Hardgrove Indices
=4386 x~=4434kw
92
In this case, the mill motor size is in the maximum range currently produced. It was
therefore decided to install two raw mills of 280 tph capacity each instead of the single
large 560 tph mill. This decision was also based upon other factors such as:-
● Higher mechanical failure rates of larger mill units.

● Greater experience base with smaller mills i.e. more reliablejproven design.
Hence, 2 raw mills of 280 tph capacity with a motor size of approximately 2350 kw
each were selected.
The above example demonstrates how a new VSM is sized. The test data can also be
used to establish the performance of an existing mill by checking the actual kwh/tonne
against the theoretical factors (O.5 and 0.56) for VSM.
3.3 Raw Meal Residue and 80°! Passing Size Prediction
Figure 2 shows the relationship between the raw meal 90 micron sieve residue and the 80V0
passing size. This table and graph can be used to predict the 80% passing sizes if full psd data
is not available.
Raw Meal Residue 80°/0 Passing Size (urn)

90 Microns
5 36
10 56
15 74
20 90
25 105
30 117
13
SECTTON IV
OPTIMISATION OF RAW MILLS
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ASSESSMENT OF RAW MILLS
3. OPTIMISATION
3.1 Drying Aspects

3.2 Grinding Aspects
3.3 Control Aspects
3.4 Transport Aspects
SECTION IV
OPTIMISATION OF RAW MILLS
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper focuses specifically on the optimisation of ball mills, although several points are also
pertinent to roller mills. The optimisation of a raw mill is an ongoing process i.e. a raw mill
should, in theory, be run at it’s optimum performance level at all times; this could be in order to
achieve reductions in power consumption or to ensure an old mill can provide sufficient raw meal
to meet the existing capacity requirements of the kiln. However, in practice this is often not
possible due to external factors but regular attention should be paid to the performance of the
milling system.
In many cases, a significant increase in output is required due to an increased requirement of raw
meal in order to match a kiln output uprating. This exercise is more comprehensive and takes into
consideration not only the mill, media and internals but also the raw materials and their treatment
upstream of the mill, the circuit around the mill and the requirements of the uprated plant.
In either of the above situations, it is essential that a complete picture is obtained of how the mill
is performing horn which possible improvements can be identified and achieved. This process will
also indicate the limitations of a milling system and be beneficial in the uprating of a raw milling
system.
2. ASSESSMENT OF RAW MTLLS
As previously mentioned, the most desirable scenario would be to ensure that the mill is running
under optimum conditions at all times. For this reason a database of principle operating
parameters is the best way of monitoring the mill performance over a long period of time. Such
databases are oilen compiled for kilns and are used to identifi trends in parameters and would be
used for the same purpose with a raw mill. For example, factors such as “seasonality” in the
weather, where the moisture of the raw materials can vary significantly, can be identified and the
impact of thk on mill performance can more easily be quantified.
A list of the key parameters can be found below:
Mill ‘?40run time

kWh/ton (mill only)
Tph (Dry product)
Product fineness
Mill only kW
Product moisture
Feed moisture
Mill feed size
Mill inlet temperature
Mill outlet temperature
Furnace fiel consumptionhon of dry product
Circulating load
As an absolute minimum the first four of these criteria should be monitored. Another criteria that
is used for kiln performance analysis and that is equally applicable to raw mill performance is
downtime analysis. This method is particularly usefhl in terms of looking at the whole system as
it highlights the reasons for lack of mill availability which should then lead to areas that could be
targeted for improvement. For example, a significant amount of stoppages due to mill blockages
would indicate a problem in relation to drying capacity. Factors external to the mill itself would
also be highlighted, for example feeder starvation would indicate handling and drying problems
prior to the mill in the crushing department.
Plant testing is essential to establishing the base case performance of the mill system. This involves
not only the consideration of the operating parameters of the system at both normal and maximum
operation (when the mill has been taken to it’s maximum feed without causing unstable operating
conditions) but also sampling of the raw materials at various points around the circuit to establish
any bottlenecks. Visual inspection of the system at the maximum output is also invaluable, as it
allows the identification of possible bottlenecks external to the mill once the mill itself has been
optimised; for example, the loading of an air slide can be easily established by a visual inspection.
To carry out the necessary measurements and take the mill samples required for raw mill
assessment, the mill needs to be stopped at the maximum sustainable throughput under steady
conditions with the mill feed on - this is often referred to as a “crash stop”. Prior to the mill being
stopped, the following measurements should be taken:
Mill inletiheater outlet temperature and suction

Mill outlet gas temperature and suction
Filter inlet gas temperature and suction
Filter outlet/exhaust gas temperature and suction
Mill only power consumption
Mill throughput total feed wet tph
Mill gas flow - through mill
- through main fan
- through filter exhaust
Heater of firnace consumption and fbel pressures (where applicable)
2
The following material samples should be collected prior to the crash stop to allow the
recirculating load calculations to be carried out: (
● Mill feed material

● Mill discharge material
● Separator feed, fines, rejects
● Any cyclonelpre-collector product
● Finished product mixture
Once the mill has been crash stopped, the Axial Testing sampling and measurements should be
carried out. The procedure for carrying out this test work can be found in the paper entitled
“Cement Mill Optimisation”. The purpose of the axial test is to establish where there are
inefficiencies in either the crushing and/or grinding sections of the mill, and gives an indication of
the efficiencies of the mill internals. The samples collected during both the axial and circuit testing
should be analysed for moisture content, and 90 (or 75 micron) and 45 micron residue sieves.
Axial samples of grinding media should also be taken from the mill to help buildup the overall
picture.
With the above data, an assessment of the drying eiliciency should also be carried out by the
means of a circuit heat balance. The method used for these calculations can be found in the paper
entitled. If a fimace is installed in the circuit, it’s capacity can be checked against the original
design to identi~ if the heater is under performing. The heat balance also provides the means to
size/design a new fhmace for a new installation.
The results of the mass balance calculated as part of the heat balance, along with the circulating
load calculations, allows the identification of areas for optimisation of the dedusting/air flow
system.
3. OPTIMISATION
Once the baseline performance of the mill has been identified by following the above methods, it
should be possible to identi~ problem areas within the mill and/or milling system. This section of
the paper attempts to elaborate on the possible causes of the limitations on the ding system and
the action that should be taken to overcome these limits and thus achieve optimum performance.
The majority of problems can be attributed to the following:-
● Drying Aspects
o Grinding Aspects
● Control Aspects
● Transport Aspects
3
3.1 Drvin~ Aspects
The design criteria for a milling system is typically to target for a product moisture of 0.5 ‘?40.
Moistures much above this level lead to lumping of the material; thk can lead to problems in
transporting the material by the use of air slides with respect to both buildup and the volume of
material conveyed. Other effects of such material are the reduction of blending aeration and
mixing efficiency in blending silos and difficulties in material extraction from silos. If kdn off gas
is being used, it is obvious that the maximum amount of drying ,should if possible be carried out
in the mill circuit to maximise the use of the heat available.
The principles of heat transfer show that the factors that can be influenced to maximise the drying
carried out in the mill are the mass of gases available and the temperature difference between the
gases and the raw materials. As the raw material temperature is unlikely to vary significantly, the
temperature of the gases available is the significant factor.
The normal checks that are carried out on plant with regard to the mass of gas available are:
● Final fhn capacity - fan performance check for flow, pressure and power for comparison
with the fan curve supplied by the manufacturer. The motor size should also be checked
to ensure it’s optimum peflormance.
● Inleaking air survey and flow checks - the inleaking air sumey should be carried out by
oxygen testing around the circuit and the flows such be measured by pitot tube
measurements.
●
Circuit design pressure survey to identifi the pressure drop across pre-collectors, cyclones
etc. The pressure drop over ductwork needs to be identified to minimise system resistance.
Ductwork (especially horizontal) should also be externally examined for signs of material
build-up (cold ducts in a hot gas circuit) which leads to increased pressure drop
● Mill internals design diaphragm and vent grid blockage, mill inlet build-up
● Bag filter design and cleaning cycles to reduce system resistance.
● Furnace design with respect to combustion air fan duty (as for final fan above) and
blockages at firnace outlet.
4
The normal checks that are carried out on plant with regard tothe, temperature of the gas
available are:
● Inleaking air at the mill inlet reducing the temperature of the gas,
● Furnace fiel oil or gas capacity.
● Kiln gas temperature available (depending on whether preheater. precalciner process).
●
Drying chamber lifiers mechanical condition and design.
●
Operation/mechanical condition of mill feed flap seal device.
Although some of the above points may seem trivial, it is important that the whole system is
examined to gain an appreciation of the limiting factors of the raw milling circuit. Some of the
above factors have very simple solutions and can be corrected by regular cleaning, for example
the regular removal of build-up at the mill inlet, and maintenance, for example regular attention
paid to the baghouse and it’s ancillary systems.
3.2 Grinding Asnects
The level of fineness of the raw meal is dictated by the requirements of the kiln section -in general
the finer the raw meal the easier the meal is to bum resulting in better quality clinker and higher
cement strengths and kiln outputs.
The fineness of the raw meal must however be considered with the following factors:
● Raw mill product fineness has a significant relationship with mill output - the finer the
material the lower the mill output. A good balance between these parameters must be
found so that the mill can still produce sufficient quantities of raw meal to supply the kiln
at a residue that does not compromise the kiln quality and output. Particular care must
be taken when the raw meal contains significant quantities of silica in the coarser fraction.
Significant increases in the mill product residue can severely affect kiln fiel consumption
(and hence output) and also affect final cement strength development.
● The most desirable raw meal size distribution is one that does not contain an excessive
amount of fines - which hinder optimal burning in the kiln and can increase the dust loss
for certain types of processes, e.g. long dry process. Increased dust loss increases fbel
consumption and reduces clinker capacity.
To ensure that the optimum chemistry and fineness are always maintained, it is recommended that
raw meal grindability tests are carried out at different residues on a regular basis. A typical raw
meal fineness would be around 10- 15 ‘A on a 90 micron sieve (or 75 micron for the USA).
However, this can vary significantly from location to location depending on the raw materials and
the equipment used. Product residues in BCI range from 5°/0to 30°A on a 90 micron sieve.
Using the database set up as part of the raw mill monitoring, mill output and kWh/t against
product fineness should be tracked so that the implications of changing mill product fineness can
be compared with output and energy efficiency.
The factors to investigate with respect to grinding aspects areas below:
3.2.1 Mill Feed Size
Feed size is one of the most significant factors that can limit mill performance. In any single
chwber mill this becomes even more significant as its performance is largely constrained by the
ability to keep the largest feed material in the larger media crushing zone end of the mill. If thk
is not achieved and the larger material passes to the smaller media zone end of the mill then the
mill performance deteriorates.
Crushing of the raw material to a finer size outside the mill can offer large benefits, and it is
possible to predict the effects of this theoretically using the Bond grindability test with the Rod
Mill test and Bond equation. This is covered in Section 111- Raw Mdl Targeting - of this paper.
For example, the effect of reducing mill feed size at Tulsa from 9mm to 6.9 mm (80?40passing
size) would theoretically increase output by 8 O/O.The implications of such a change on the
crushing section of the plant must also be considered before the decision is taken to reduce mill
feed size.
3.2.2 Mill internals Design and Conditions.
Within this section there are several individual aspects that must be considered. Any changes in
the design of mill internals must be approached with caution due to their high cost and long life.
Axial testing gives a good indication as to the petiormance of the mill internals. As mill design is
extremely variable, axial test results need to be interpreted with regard to the specific mill
configuration, but as a rough guide the following results give an indication of how axial test
results can be used to assess mill performance.
These results are taken from three central discharge closed circuit mills having 12 mm diaphragm
slot sizes.
Cumulative VOresidue
on 300 micron sieve
33 Efficient first chamber handling fine stone - mill under run - Capribk of
slightly higher output
43 Typical mill installation - efilcient first chamber handling reasonable size

stone
6
72 Mill with first chamber over-filled due to coarse feed size and inadequate
ball size. Extra 90 mm or even 10Omm media required to improve
crushing action
On the basis of the above results, mill internals should be designed and maintained in good
condition to suit the 40 0/0retention on a 300 micron sieve. This level of first chamber material
size can be used as a general guideline, this being twice the residue considered acceptable for a
cement mill.
Mill Dia~hra~ms
As stated above, selection of mill diaphragm is specific to the mill configuration but is dependent
on factors such as feed size, type of circuit and mill length and diameter.
The diaphragm should have the following characteristics to allow optimum performance:
● Slot size large enough to allow sufllcient transfer of material but not to allow transfer of
oversized material from the crushing zone of the mill through to the grinding zone. If the
results of the axial test for the first chamber are within a satisfactory range but the
diaphragm is significantly blocked then it is likely that the slot size is too small. Typical
slot size is 10-12 mm
● The slot area should be at least 10 YO of the diaphragm body. Circumferential slots are
preferred to allow self cleaning.
●
Central vent grid should be designed to allow maxi~um airflow whilst taking into account
‘the volume load and it’s potential for charge expansion.
Media Charge Grading
Again, the grading is influenced by the internal configuration of the mill internals, and is also
significantly afiiected by feed and product size along with the liner design, condition and the mill
r.p.m.
Grading is particularly important in single chamber, where the selection of the ball sizes is made
on the basis of the maximum anticipated feed size. It should be remembered that the purpose of
the mill is to grind and not to crush, although it is essential that sufficient grinding of the feed
takes place in the first section of the mill.
Axial tests should be used to confirm the correctness of the media grading design. An example
of a typical media grading has been given in Table 1 at the end of this paper.
7
Mill Linings
In single chamber mills, it is essential that the crushing is complete before the grinding zone and
for this reason it is important to have a very effective lifling action in the crushing zone which
leads to the selection of an active liiig liner. For example at Hope, a reverse step liner was used
and a Loraine liner used at Atlanta; both with very positive results.
For large feed sizes, up to 50mm, length of the lifting sections should be 50?40of the mill (as a
starting point). Smaller feed sizes ex: 30mm can reduce the length of their lifting section to
around 300/0of mill length. However, if the critical speed of the mill is too high - above 76 0/0-
with a high lifl liner, lining damage could be caused due to excessive media lifting.
The profile of the liners is important as a larger profile needs to be maintained when there is a low
critical speed to provide extra lift to compensate for that lost due to the mill speed. The typical
lifting edge step profile for a mill in the range of critical speeds between 70 and 76% should be
around 70mm, with the maximum and minimum depths being 80 to 60mm; replacement of the
liners should take place at 40-50 mm.
For the grinding section of the mill, classi~lng linings are not recommended as they reduce the
available volume for mill loading and also reduce the liiling effect. This in turn reduces the
potential power drawn by the mill. Their replacement is the lifter/classifier which, as it’s name
suggests, combines elements of each of the two above properties to both deal with the larger
material by liting and to prevent the natural reverse classi~lng of the balls. Descriptions of these
liners can be found in the Mill Testing, Optimisation and Targeting Paper in Volume IV.
Sewwator and Circulating Load Effects
Optimised separator efficiency is important as it is essential to ensuring a uniform size distribution

for the raw meal, with no excessively coarse particles nor super fines in the material. An
inefficient separator leads to significant by-pass of fine material through the separator returning
to the mill thus increasing the circulating load.’ These fines interfere with the grinding process and
therefore limit the output of the mill.
Any raw mill should be operated at maximum circulating load transport capacity of the circuit,
i.e. within elevator, separator and air slide sizing capacity in order to maximise production at a
given product fineness. It is essential that grinding efllciency is optimised with respect to media
charge, linings, diaphragms etc as expkiined above, thus generating the minimum circulating 10ad
from the grinding process itself.
Material and Gas Flow Optimisation
The product from the mill can be crudely characterised as “open” and “closed” circuit material.
A certain amount of material is lifled out of the mill by the large amounts of drying air used, and
this is characterised open circuit material. Obviously that which passes through the separator is
classed as the closed circuit. The product of the “open” circuit, which is normally added to the
fines from the separator before passing through the collection equipment, should be slightly finer
than the product target and not coarser than this fineness.
8
By examining mill operation and the circuit samples, the quantities of “open to closed” circuit
product should be optimised wherever possible. The factors that are tied in with this part of
optimisation are the drying capacity and the grinding capacity. The general solution is as follows:
● Adjustment of mill fan darnper or fan speed to obtain the balance of material as above,
providing that drying capacity is not limited and so these changes are not
compromising overall mill output.
●
Check the design and conditions of any existing static air classifier of pre-cyclone by
means of a circuit mass balance. If no such equipment is installed in the circuit then
installation of a static air classifier in the duct as a pre-collector could give benefits by
removing oversized material, to be returned to the mill, prior to the bag filter.
3.3 Control As~ects
Simple control loops can be a cheap and effective way of increasing average mill output.
Examples of control loops are:
● Fresh feed to elevator kW.

,0 Fresh feed to separator kW.
● Fresh feed to rejects quantity.
● Fresh feed to mill sound level.
● Fresh feed to mill pressure differential.
● Furnace fuel to mill outlet gas temperature, or bag filter temperature (bag filter
temperature can provide a more stable signal than the less stable mill outlet temperature).
In general terms the essential parameters that require control are:
● Feed rate control.

● Feed proportioning.
● Air/gas quantity control
●
Fuel rate control.
In addition to this, it is important that materials are correctly proportioned to the mill to ensure
the correct kiln feed chemistry. This is achieved by ensuring that the following criteria are
satisfied:
● All weigh feeders are calibrated and have good control responses (i.e. tuned P.I.D loops).
● All weigh feeders mush have sufficient capacity for the maximum mill output.
● Feed hoppers should be designed in such a way to handle wet or sticky material without
preventing holdups prior to the weigh feeders.
Variable mill feed quantity and quality can have a significant effect on the average output as
changing the raw meal proportioning or throughput can lead to drop in production rates.
Consistent raw meal “campaigns” when producing more than one type of raw meal should be
carried out (where raw meal storage permits) in preference to short “batch’’runs.
9
3.4 Trans~ort Aspects
The equipment comprising the raw milling circuit could be a limiting factor on the overall system
capacity, and the areas that need to be checked are as follows:
e Circuit air slides capacity.

● Circuit elevators capacity.
● Transfer chute dimensions.
And for airswept and partially airswept mills:
● Main fan capacity.

● Mail fan motor capacity.
● Inleaking air over circuit and fan.
Once a transport limitation has been identified, the solution can be easily identified. Guidelines
are available for equipment such as air slides, bucket elevators and FK pumps and uprating
exercises such as pump capacity increases, transfer chute enlargening reduction of inleaking air
(for increased air transport) can give significant output gains.
10
TABLE 1
MEDIA GRADINGS FROM RAW MILLS
BALL SIZE COARSE VO FINE %

mm
100 35
90 208 96
80 113 96
70 6 147
60 6 147
50 106 147
40 141 218
30 158 147
25 120
FEED SIZE MAXIMUM 50 30

mm
11
f ●
1,
Fi[ter I .
Feed
\ /
Tertiary
L
Regrinds 1} sep~atw
Fihr
4
Static
separator
Double
Second rotator milt
double
rotator
I
1 Product
FIGURE 6: THE AEROFALL MILL CIRCUIT

Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
HBM PROCESS ENGINEERS

CONFERENCE
• Drying and Grinding Limitations

On Raw Mills
• A Raw Mill Bottleneck Example-
HIMA CEMENT
Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM

CONFERENCE
• Drying and Grinding

Limitations on Raw Mills
K. Rabson
CONTENTS
L INTRODUCTION
II. PROCEDURES & TECHNIQUES FOR ASSESSMENT OF RAW MILLS
A. HISTORICAL AND OPERATING DATA ANALYSIS
B. OPERATIONAL CHECKS
C. PROCESS ENGINEERING TESTING
III. PARTICULAR LIMITATIONS AND SOLUTIONS
A. DRYING ASPECTS
B. GRINDING ASPECTS
(i) MILL FEED SIZE
(ii) MILL INTERNALS CONDITION &c DESIGN
(iii) SEPARATOR / CIRCULATING LOAD PERFORMANCE
(iv) MATERIAL AND GAS FLOW CIRCUIT OPTIMISATION
(v) MILL SYSTEM CONTROL
C. BLENDING ASPECTS
D. TRANSPORT ASPECTS
Iv. CONCLUSION
Blue Circle Cement
PROCESS ENGINEERING TRAINING PROGRAM

CONFERENCE
• A Raw Mill Bottleneck

Example – HIMA CEMENT
A RAW MILL BOTTLENECK EXAMPLE
HIMA CEMENT
1.0 BACKGROUND
Hima Cement is located in Western Uganda close to the town of Kasese and also close
to the border of Zaire. The works was originally built as a single 300 tpd line in 1969.
This was followed by a second production line for 600 tpd installed in 1973 but not fully
commissioned until 1982, when No. 1 kiln line was shut down due to a fire in the raw
mill motor house. The No. 1 kiln line is currently out of service and in poor condition,
but No. 2 kiln line is being intermittently operated and is in reasonable operating
condition.
2.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Quarried limestone is brought to the double gridded hammer crusher five days per
week, two shifts per day, and is crushed at a rate of 150tph. The crusher suffers from
blockage problems when the limestone quality is poor (i.e. marl) and wet. Product
stone from the crusher passes to the crane hall at a size grading averaging 15% on
25mm. Limestone has an average moisture of 10-13% depending on the season. The
maximum limestone stored is 14,000t. There is no attempt to blend limestone in the
store. The clay is processed via a double roll crusher directly into an area of the store
with a maximum capacity of 6000t. Originally the clay was dried as well as crushed but
the drier has now been abandoned as a result of a flashback in the oil combustion
chamber during the 1980s. Limestone and clay are both recovered by overhead crane
(2 x 8t) to No. 2 Raw mill storage bins (2 off). Limestone and clay are proportioned into
the Raw mill using calcium carbonate results only.
There are two raw mills of which only No. 2 is in operation. No. 1 comprises a closed
circuit single compartment 900hp bucket elevator mill. No.2 is a similar, single
compartment 1600hp bucket elevator mill, originally rated at 48tph but at a feed
moisture of 6-8%.
Raw mill blending and storage are provided on No. 2 line by two 550t batch blending
silos piggy- back above two 1650t storage silos. No. 1 line also has two 550t blending
silos above two 1140t storage silos, but these are not currently in use.
No. 2 kiln, currently in operation, is a 4-stage Wedag preheater kiln of dimensions 3.5
x 5Om, and rated at 600tpd. It is equipped with a Fuller 733H cooler. The kiln is fired
by HFO through a Pillard burner. Clinker from the cooler passes to the 16000t clinker
storage area in the crane hall. No. 1 kiln line, not used since 1982, comprises a similar
4-stage Wedag preheater kiln of dimensions 3.23 x 45.28m, and rated at 300tpd. The
cooler is a Fuller 629H.
Clinker and gypsum are transferred by crane into the cement mill hoppers. Both
cement mills are currently available for operation but only have one starter available
and thus have to be used alternately. Both are Vickers open circuit mills of 3
compartments and are externally water cooled. Mill 1 is an 800hp mill of dimensions
2.46 x 13.12m and Mill 2 is a 1600hp mill of dimensions 3.12 x 13.78m.
3.0 PLANT/KILN OUTPUT
Cement sales have been increasing over recent years as shown below:-
1992 30,000t cement

1993 47,000t cement
1994 41,000t cement
1995 85,OOOt cement
In addition it should be said that the plant did produce 97,000t of clinker during 1995 but
16,000t of this have been added to stock due to poor cement sales. In order to achieve
this level of clinker output in 1995 NO. 2 kiln operated at an average 385 tpd and an
average run time of 70%.
Preliminary analysis of the 1995 kiln stoppage analysis showed that the principal
causes of kiln down time were:-
(i) Power outages, which are frequent (1-2 a day) and normally of short duration.
(ii) Preheater blockages, which are said to be more common during the use of high
alkali, high carbon clay.
(iii) Maintenance periods, which appear to relate to short brick life, but may also
encompass kiln stops due to poor cement sales.
4.0 BOTTLENECK
Other than the limitation on the cement sales, the principal limit to kiln output is the
availability of raw meal due to a drying limit on the raw mill. The raw mill rarely operates
at above 40tph and for 1995 averaged 27.6 tph with monthly averages of between 21.3
and 31.5 tph.
The reasons for this are three-fold.
(i) A diaphragm with relatively small slot size (8mm) being installed, reducing gas
volumes through the mill.
(ii) It has been found that when excessive volumes of gas are used raw mill residue
becomes uncontrollable as there is no static separator in the gas flow circuit.
(iii) Owing to the ductwork arrangement the hot gas generator is not used in
conjunction with preheater exit gases as a boost to raw mill inlet temperature.
There is also no drying drum and there will be a limit on gas inlet temperature
due to the trunnion bearings.. This is currently unknown for certain but was felt
to be around 450°C.
5.0 DE-BOTTLENECKING
There are several bottlenecks to plant production, the most important of which are listed
previously.
The main restriction to the kiln achieving nominal capacity is the lack of raw meal. The
initial design of the plant was based around a limestone moisture of 6-8%. In reality the
limestone has a moisture varying between 10 and 13%, as a result of which the raw mill
output has become severely limited. During dry periods the mill has proved capable of
outputs up to 40tph but it is frequently less, necessitating forced reduction of kiln feed
rates in order to balance raw meal stocks. Raw mill inlet temperature is relatively low
(32O”C), but without testing it was not possible to be specific as to the cause being
inleaking air or good preheater efficiency. Several steps are available to remove the
raw mill drying bottleneck including:
(i) A change of raw mill diaphragm slot size from 8mm to 12mm.
(ii) The installation of a static separator in the gas duct to the raw mill cyclones or
alternately feeding final cyclone product back to the Wedag separator.
(iii) Re-ducting of the hot gas generator to allow this system to boost heat to the raw
mill, giving a higher inlet temperature.
(iv) Installation of a drying drum at the raw mill inlet in order to allow even higher raw
mill inlet temperatures to be tolerated, with higher boost from the hot gas
generator.
The possibility of a second raw mill bottleneck centred around the grindability of the raw
materials was investigated. Historical grindability data indicated that the probable target
output for the raw mill is approximately 55tph dry raw meal, more than sufficient to
sustain a kiln output of 600tpd (nominal capacity) and possibly up to 800 tpd.
6.0 CONCLUSION
On first inspection there could have been a myriad of reasons for No. 2 kiln line not
achieving its nominal capacity ranging from power failures and preheater blockages
through to equipment sizing deficiencies. However, closer inspection and analysis
revealed that the most significant barrier to achieving 600 tpd (nominal capacity) was
the availability of raw meal.
-- .
The preheater, kiln and cooler line has frequently performed at 600 tpd (nominal
capacity), albeit for only short periods and therefore there should be no difficulty in
achieving this output on a regular and consistent basis given good raw meal availability.
The only barrier to achieving good raw meal availability is the drying limit on the raw mill
as a result of higher than anticipated limestone moistures. However, having established
the main root cause of the failure to reach nominal capacity, action can be taken and
a significant output improvement achieved.
HIMA CEMENT-RAW MILL BOTTLENECK
BACKGROUND:-
LOCATED IN WESTERN UGANDA,AFRlCA
2 KILN LINE WORKS
NO.1 KILN LINE - 300 TPD NOMINAL CAPACITY

- OUT OF COMMISSION
I NO.2 KILN LINE - 600 TPD NOMINAL CAPACITY

- INTERMITTENT OPERATION
NO.2 KILN LINE
RAW MILL CIRCUIT:-

- CLOSED CIRCUIT,SINGLE COMPARTMENT BALL MILL
- 3.6 M DIA ,8.0 M LENGTH MILL SHELL
- 1600 HP BUCKET ELEVATOR MILL
- WEDAG SEPARATOR
- 48 TPH @ FEED MOISTURE OF 6-8 %
AND 12 % RESIDUE ON 90 MICRON
KILN & COOLER:-

- 4 STAGE WEDAG PREHEATER
- 3.5 M DIA ,50 M LENGTH KILN
- FULLER 733H COOLER
- 600 TPD NOMINAL CAPACITY
HIMA CEMENT-1995 PRODUCTION
CLINKER PRODUCTION - 97,000 TONNES

- I.E. APPROX 52 % OF NOMINAL ANNUAL CAPACITY
q 70 % KILN RUN TIME
AVERAGE DAILY CLINKER PRODUCTION - 385 TPD

- I.E. APPROX 65 % OF NOMINAL DAILY CAPACITY
SIGNIFICANT SHORTFALL - WHY?
BOTTLENECK INVESTIGATION
KILN DAILY OUTPUT VARIATION:-
ANNUAL AVERAGE = 385 TPD
ON A DAILY BASIS KILN PRODUCTION OFTEN 600 TPD
PREHEATER/KILN/COOLER WOULD SEEM TO BE ABLE

TO SUPPORT 600 TPD (NOMINAL CAPACITY)
RAW MEAL SUPPLY IS LIMITING FACTOR

- KILN OUTPUT BEING MATCHED TO RAW MIL
OUTPUT
HOT GAS
GENERATOR
HIMACEMENT - RAW HILL CIRCUIT
RAW MILL DATA:-
ORIGINAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION:-

- 48 TPH @ 68 % MOISTURE
BASED ON ZEISF GRINDABILITY FACTOR:-

- 55 TPH DRY RAW MEAL
CURRENT OUTPUT:-
- 27.6 TPH DRY RAW MEAL - 1995 ANNUAL AVERAGE
- 21.3 TO 31.5 TPH DRY RAW MEAL - 1995 MONTHLY AVERAGE
- 40 TPH DRY RAW MEAL - OCCASIONAL HOURLY PEAKS
- 25 % RESIDUE ON QO MICRON
CURRENT FEED MOISTURE:-

- LIMESTONE = 10-13%
- CLAY = UNKNOWN BUT NO LONGER DRIED
RAW MILL DATA:-
PREHEATER EXIT GAS TEMPERATURE APPROX 320 C

- THEREFORE LIMITED FLASH DRYING EFFECT
TYPICAL PREHEATER GAS SPLIT:-

- 30-35 % TO RAW MILL
- 65-70 % TO RAW MILL BYPASS
THEREFORE BOTH LOW QUALITY AND LOW

QUANTITY OF HEAT
WHY ?
14 727 49 460 580 657 695
16 831 56 510 648 734

INCREASE QUALITY OF HEAT:-
UTILISE HOT GAS GENERATOR IN CONJUNCTION WITH

PREHEATER EXIT GASES
- NOT REALISTIC DUE TO DUCTWORK ARRANGEMENT
- NO DRYING DRUM OR DRYING CHAMBER
- LIMIT ON GAS INLET TEMPERATURE DUE TO

MILL INLET TROMMEL BEARING
INCREASE QUANTITY OF HEAT:-
INCREASE GAS VOLUMES TO MILL

- KILN FEED RESIDUE INCREASES LEADING
TO A HIGHER COMBINABILITY TEMPERATURE
- OUTLET DIAPHRAGM HAS RELATIVELY SMALL SLOT

SIZE OF 8 M.M.
RAW MILL DRYING CAPAClTY:-
RATIO OF RAW MILL FAN KW TO RAW MILL KW

- 11.3 %
TYPICAL RATIO OF RAW MILL FAN KW TO RAW MILL KW

-15%TO23%
- 15 % FOR I-2 % MOISTURE
- 23 % FOR 4-6 % MOISTURE
LIMITED RAW MILL FAN CAPACITY,THEREFORE LIMITED

DRYING CAPACITY
TYPICAL RAW MILL AIR CHANGES:-
TYPICAL HIMA AIR CHANGES

- APPROX 9 PER MINUTE
TYPICAL ABERTHAW AIR CHANGES

- APPROX 1
1PER MINUTE
TYPICAL HOPE AIR CHANGES

- APPROX 20 PER MINUTE
RAW MILL DRYING CAPACITY IMPROVEMENTS:-
INSTALL STATIC SEPARATOR IN GAS DUCT PRIOR TO

RAW MILL CYCLONES
OR
FEED RAW MILL CYCLONES PRODUCT BACK TO
WEDAG SEPARATOR
CHANGE RAW MILL DIAPHRAGM SLOT SIZE FROM

8 M.M. TO 12 M.M.
RE-DUCTING OF HOT GAS GENERATOR TO ENABLE

HIGHER MILL GAS INLET TEMPERATURES
INSTAL I ATION OF A DRYING DRUM TO ENABLE

HIMA CEMENT-RAW MILL BOTTLENECK
SUMMARY:-
VARIOUS POSSIBLE/CONTRIBUTARY CAUSES TO LOW OUTPUT

- CEMENT MILLS
- CEMENT SALES
MOST IMMEDIATE & SIGNIFICANT

- DRYING CAPACITY ON RAW MILL
INAPPROPRIATE DESIGN FOR LIMESTONE MOISTURE CONTENT

- POOR/INCOMPLETE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
- POOR RAW MILL CIRCUIT SELECTION
- AVERAGE MOISTURE USED IN DESIGN RATHER
THAN PEAK MOISTURE
HAVING ESTABLISHED MOST PRESSING BOTTLENECK

- ACTION PLAN TO ELIMINATE
- MOVE ON TO NEXT BOTTLENECK
Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
PRESENTATIONS
RAW MILLING – Colin Paxton

DRY RAW MILLING – C J Holt
Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
PRESENTATION
RAW MILLING – Colin Paxton

RAW MILLING
COLIN PAXTON
Raw Milling
• Grinding Aspects
• Atox Mill Features
• Operational Aspects
• Process Control
SIZE REDUCTION
How much energy do I need ?

Energy Considerations
• Raw material grindability
• Feed size
• Product size
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
ABERTHAW
ASHAKA
ATLANTA
BOWMANVILLE
CAULDON
CEMENTO MELON
COOKSTOWN
Darker blocks
DUNBAR
Rod mill index
EWEKORO
GOLDEN BAY
HARLEYVILLE
HOPE
KANTHAN
MANRESA
BCI Raw Mills
PLYMSTOCK
Lighter blocks
RAVENA
Ball mill index
RAWANG
SHAGAMU
ST MARYS
TULSA
WEARDALE
Effect of Feed Size
426 6
425
424
Power Consumption kWh/t

5.95
Mill Production tph
423
422
421
5.9
420
419
418 5.85
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Mill Feed 80% Passing Size mm
Effect of product size
450 10
400 9

350 8
Mill tph
300 7
250 6
200 5
70 75 80 85 90 95
Product % Passing 90 um
Vertical Roller mills
(Vertical spindle mills)
• Range of Application
• Principles of Operation
• Mechanical Design
• Process Design
• Mill Operation
• Process Control
Range of applications
• Widely used for coal grinding

• Wide range of potential feeds -clinker, slag
• Can handle larger feed than ball mill
• Excellent drying capability - 20% +
• High wear rates if quartz content high
• Efficient grinding compared to ball mill
• Mill more sensitive to changes than ball mill
* Above 10% moisture needs auxiliary heat source

ATOX MILL
Principles of operation
• Combined drying and grinding unit.

• Feed via side (or top) chute to centre of
“table”
• Material passes under “rollers”
– grinding pressure, roller weight + hydraulic
• Wet material meets rising hot gas stream
• Recirculation of coarse material
– internal, via separator, external option
• Fines leave mill with gas flow
GAS + PRODUCT
Schematic TO CYCLONES
Mill assembly
Mill with Recirculation
Operation - Hydraulics
• Hydraulics
– Grinding force is adjusted using set point on
the hydraulics system.
– Atox Mill - rollers raised for mill start.
– Polysius - start with rollers on material bed
Schematic - roller hydraulics
ACCUMULATOR
TIE ROD
PISTON
Design Aspects - Mill Internals
• Dam ring
– A circumferential ring fixed to the mill table,
assists in controlling material retention, ie
bed depth. May be adjusted as table liners
wear
• Table liners
– Wear protection for the table casting.
• Roller liners
– Wear protection for the rollers
Internals Design
Pfeiffer Loesche
Polysius Raymond
Babcock FLS - Atox

Design aspects - Process
• Gas flow and temperature (inlet and

outlet)
– to meet drying requirements
– to provide gas velocity for material transport
– determines “port ring area” and can affect
mill body diameter
• Power requirements for milling
– to achieve capacity required
– determines motor size and mill table
diameter.
Mill Circuits - 2 Fan System
Conditioning
Tower
Water
Sprays
Mill Circuit
Atox fan Preheater fans
Cyclones
ATOX
MILL
Bag House and fan

Cold Air Bleed
Material Movement
Nozzle Ring
Louvre Ring
Port Ring
Mill Body
Rollers
Table
Operation - Material flow pattern
Velocity m/s
Fines to
separator Coarser material
back to table
Particle Size mm
70 - 90 m/s
Oversize
to scraper Dam Ring
channel
Circulating Loads
100 %
200 %
400 % 100 %
800 %
Power Consumption
• Typical power consumption kWh/t

– Mill main drive 6.5
– Separator 0.5
– Mill Fans 6.5
Mill with Recirculation
Operation -Material Bed
• Material bed formation
– Mill operates with a stable material bed
under the rollers. Typically 50 mm.
– An unstable or thin bed causes vibration,
mill stops, mechanical wear/damage.
– A thicker bed can reduce vibration, but
draws more power.
– With dry materials bed stabilised using
water
– Excess fine material in the bed can cause
vibration
Mill Sealing
• Air sealing
– mill table to body seal
– mill feed Chute seal
– seals tie rods to casing
– Target <15% inleak at mill
Mill Seals Feed Chute
Mill Seal
Tie rod
seals
Mill Operation
What happens to ? Mill Power Pressure Drop Vibration

When
1) Grinding Pressure Increased
2) Mill Feedrate Increased
3) Classifier Speed Decreased
4) Mill Airflow Decreased

Mill Control
Atox fan Preheater fans
Cyclones
ATOX
MILL
Bag House and fan

Cold Air Bleed
PROCESS CONTROL
IMPORTANT PARAMETERS
• Feed proportioning
• Product chemistry and particle size
• Throughput
• Differential pressure
• Hydraulic pressure
• Vibration
• Mill motor power
• Elevator power
• Outlet temperature
• Inlet temperature
• Gasflow
PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS
• Mill feed proportioning, QCX online

analysis
• Mill inlet temperature control by cold air
bleed
• Mill outlet temperature control by Atox
fans
• Hydraulic pressure control
• Vibration interlocks
THE END
Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
PRESENTATION
DRY RAW MILLING – C J Holt

Dry Raw milling
Ball milling systems
C J Holt
Raw mill operation
• Milling requirements
– i.e. What must the system achieve
• Types of Milling system

– i.e. description and features
– of mill different mill circuits
• Mill operational features

– i.e. process limitations
– circuit characteristics
Milling requirements
• Fineness
– UK 10-15% residue on 90 micron sieve (170#)
– US 75-80% passing 75 micron sieve (200#)
• Moisture
– 0.5-0.8% moisture in final product
• Chemistry
– Correct and controlled LSF
– silica and alumina ratios
* 1 micron = 0.001mm or approx 1/25000”

Dry Raw milling systems
ball mills
• Air Swept ball mill
– ASM with tandem hammer crusher
• Single/2 Chamber mill

– with bucket elevator
• Central Discharge Mill (double rotator)

• Aerofall Mill
Air swept mill
Material inlet
Feed airseal
Note - large trunnions

low volume load - 26-28%
Material
and gas Hot gas
outlet inlet
Mill power calculation
- DAWN Formula
NETT KW = 0.2846 DAWN
Where D = Internal Diameter of Mill
A = 1.073 -J
(Where J = Fractional Volume Load i.e. if VL = 30% then J = 0.3)
W = Charge weight in Tonnes
N = Mill speed in RPM

Air Swept mill circuit
Cyclones Mill
fan ESP
ESP
fan
Separator
Booster Preheater
duct fan
Feed belt
Mill
Air swept mill + drying chamber
Note - large outlet

trunnion
Lifters - Classifying lining

important to
maintain Partition wall with lifters
Air swept mill systems - features
• Good for abrasive • High power costs
materials – fan pressure drop
• Simple mill circuit • Inefficient mill
• Simple mill design – low circ load
• Sensitive to stone size
• Good drying ability -
up to about 8% – preferred < 15 mm
Tandem hammer crusher
1 4
7
• 1 Feed seal
3
• 2 Inlet chamber
2 • 3 Kiln Gas inlet
8 • 4 Discharge pipe
6
• 5 Deflectors
5 • 6 “
• 7 Gas inlet
• 8 Mill outlet trunnion
Tandem crushing circuit
• 1 Feed bins
• 2 Weighers
• 3 Feeders
• 4 Airlock
• 5 Hammer mill
• 6 Static sep’tor
• 7 Grits return
• 8 Airlock
• 9 Ball mill
• 10 Cyclones
• 11 Screw
• 12 Mill fan
Tandem crushing - features
• Increased drying • Abrasive wear on crusher

capability – maintenance intensive
– up to 12% (with
HGG)
• Uprate of existing mill
• Feed abrasive
materials direct to mill
Single chamber mill
partially or non-airswept - with bucket elevator
Note - smaller trunnions

Typical BE Mill Circuit
60,000 Acfm
80-100 kW -16"wg
Mill
filter
14,000 Acfm
Separator
filter
Turbo separator Final

Cyclones 190 degF Product
Pump
12-14” wg
Elevator
Rejects return
1500-1600 degF
Fresh feed
and hot gas
210 degF -.4"wg
Bucket elevator mills - features
• 2 chamber - • Single chamber -
– can accept feed to sensitive to feed
50mm size >15mm
– (pref max 30mm)
• Limited drying
• OK for abrasive capability <5%
materials even with drying
• Lower power cost chamber
than air swept mill,
– Better circulating load
ability.
– Lower fan power
Central discharge mill
Second
Fresh Material grinding Rejects
feed Drying Chamber discharge chamber return
First grinding Material

chamber discharge
Central discharge mill circuit
Cyclones
Airslide
Elevator Mill
fan
Dynamic Airslide
Separators
Static
separator
Airslide
Fresh feed
Mill
Airslide
Central discharge mill - features
• Drying capacity up to • Complex mill
12% with aux heating circuit
• Efficient mill circuit • Need to balance

– high circ load capacity rejects flow
– pre-separation of fines
generated in ch 1
– relative low fan power
Lifting rails
Aerofall mill
• Mill details
Deflector – Diameter 7m (23 ft)
plates – length 1.8m
– power 1800 HP
– throughput 180 t/h
Slide shoe Large trunnions – media 35t (15% vol)
bearings – 130mm balls
– Speed 12.8 rpm (~80% NC)
Aerofall mill circuit
Aerofall mill circuit - features
• Accepts large feed size • Complex mill circuit
– up to 150mm – operation and
maintenance
• Good with abrasive
materials • High fan power
– effectively an air swept
• Good drying capacity mill
– probably same as ASM
with kiln gas and aux
heat.
Raw mill operation
• Milling requirements
• Milling system type
• Mill operational features

Blue Circle Cement

PROGRAM
PRESENTATION

Vertical Spindle Mills
VSMs - Development.
• Modern version of olive mills.

• Two (or more) rollers on rotating
horizontal table.
• Air swept; coarse material returned to
table, fines to classifier.
• Drying and grinding in one.
• Capable of larger feed size cf. ball mills.
• Lower power consumption cf. ball mills.
VSMs - Principle of Operation.
• Combined drying/grinding.
• Feed via side or top chute to
centre of table.
• Material travels outwards and
passes under rollers.
• Wet material meets rising hot
gas stream.
• Internal recirculation of coarse
material.
• Product leaves mill with gas
flow.
VSMs - Design for Raw Meal.
• Raw materials moisture. May require

auxiliary heat source.
• Product moisture 0.5%.
• Combinability of feed.
• Quartz level in feed.
VSMs - Design Aspects.
• Gas flow and temperature (in and out).

• to meet evaporative load.
• provides material transport.
• gives port ring area (70-90 m/s) and can
affect mill diameter if large evaporative load.
• Power requirement.
• to achieve capacity required.
• determines motor size and table diameter.
VSMs - Material Circulation.
• Circulating loads vary

from 1000% - 100%.
• External circulation
allows reduced
airflows. ‘Spill Over’.
Material Flow
Airflow
Material Flow Pattern in a VSM
Velocity m/s
Fines to Finer material
separator
Particle Size mm
70 - 90 m/s
Oversize
to scraper Coarse material
channel Dam Ring
VSMs - Operation.
• More complex than ball mills and require

more maintenance.
• Sensitive to changes.
• Water sprays to stabilise bed.
• High pressure drops give inleaking air.
• Concentration of hard materials within
recirculating load leads to wear.
VSMs - Operation cont.
• Dam ring fitted to edge of table to

maintain bed depth.
• bed increases as table wears - higher power
consumption.
• reduction of dam ring height necessary to
release full mill capacity during table life.
VSMs - Operation cont.
• Material bed.
• Bed to be stable under rollers (typ. 50mm)
• Thin → wear, vibration.
• Thick → reduced vibration, more power.
• Excess fines → vibration.
• Water used to stabilise.
VSMs - Control.
• Mill inlet temp by GCT or cold air bleed.

• Mill outlet temp by recirculating flow and
water sprays.
• Feedrate generally controlled by mill
differential pressure.
• Vibration of mill will shutdown system.
Size Reduction Theory
• For a small change in size, energy required is a

n
power function,n, of particle size. dE/dX=CX
• Kick
• Proportional to reduction in size, n=1
• Coarse crushing
• Rittinger
• Proportional to new surface produced, n=2
• Valid for fine grinding
• Bond
• Intermediate law, n=3/2
Theoretical Power consumption
• Rod Mill index = Coarse crushing down to

2.1 mm
• Ball Mill index = Fine grinding from 2.1
mm to product fineness
• Raw material grindability testing gives
Rod & Ball mill indices – site specific
Theoretical Power
Rod Mill (Coarse Crushing)

 10 10 
Power Consumption ( kWh / t ) = Wr *  − 
 S F
Ball Mill (Fine Grinding)

 10 10 
Power Consumption (kWh / t ) = Wb *  − 
 P S
F = 80 % passing size of feed
S = 80% passing size of split size = 2.1 mm = 2100 micron
P = 80% passing size of product
Wr = Rod mill work index
Wb = Ball mill work index
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
ABERTHAW
ASHAKA
ATLANTA
BOWMANVILLE
CAULDON
EMENTO MELON
COOKSTOWN
DUNBAR
Bond Indices
EWEKORO
BCI Raw Mills –
GOLDEN BAY
HARLEYVILLE
HOPE
KANTHAN
MANRESA
PLYMSTOCK
RAVENA
Ball mill index
Rod mill index
RAWANG
SHAGAMU
ST MARYS
TULSA
WEARDALE
Bond Factor for Mill Sizing
Actual kWh / t
Bond Factor For Mill =
Theoretical kWh / t
Mill type Typical Bond Factor for
Mill
VSM with Dynamic Separator 0.5
VSM with Static separator 0.56
Bucket elevator ball mill 1.2 – 1.3
Double rotator ball mill 1.2 – 1.3
Tandem/airswept ball mill 1.4 – 1.5
Airswept ball mill 1.4 – 1.55
VSMs - Effect of Feed Size
426 6
425
424

5.95
Mill Production tph
423
422
421
5.9
420
419
418 5.85
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Mill Feed 80% Passing Size mm
VSMs - Effect of Product Size
450 10
400 9

350 8
Mill tph
300 7
250 6
200 5
70 75 80 85 90 95
Product % Passing 90 um
VSMs - Applicatons
• Coal grinding.
• Slag/Cement grinding.
• Raw Meal Grinding. Can handle wet feed
(>20%).
VSMs - Coal Grinding.
• Static separator
with guide vanes.
• Central feed
through yoke.
• Approx. 30% less
grinding power.
• Less abrasive
coals.
VSMs - Cement Grinding.
• Dynamic separator.
• Large external recycle.
• PSD is steeper than ball
mill, giving better
strength development.
• Maintenance costs vs.
power savings.
VSMs - Variations by Vendor.
• Table design.
• Roller number and design (shape).
• Ease of roller change.
• Roller Tensioning arrangement.
VSMs - FLS Atox.
• Three rollers on central yoke.

• Table track is flat.
• Rollers are able to move in all
planes.
• Isolated torque arms keep
roller assembly in position.
• Separator grits returned
through cone.
VSMs - Pfeiffer MPS.
• Three rollers suspended

on overhead beam.
• Table track is bowl
shaped.
• Rollers ‘swing’ outwards
when table is rotating.
• Separator grits are
returned is airstream.
VSMs - Polysius Quadropol.
• Four rollers, individually

supported.
• Table track is hollowed.
• Rollers move in all
planes.
returned via cone.
VSMs - Loesche LM.
• Two, three or four rollers,

individually suported.
• Table track is flat, rollers
are tapered.
• Rollers move in one
plane.
returned via cone.
Design of Internals
Pfeiffer Loesche
Polysius Raymond
Babcock FLS - Atox

VSMs - Choice?.
• Current is Loesche mill.

• Quadropol is yet to be
proven.
• Easy change of rollers, can
run on two.
• Hydraulic system is shorter,
less transmitted movement.
• Can handle very wet material.
• Up to 5400kW and 6.3m.
VSMs - Cement Grinding.
• Not current BCC practice.

• Loesche mill probably has
edge.
• 2 small & 2 large rollers.
• Maintenance cost vs.
power saving.
• Grinding power saving
offset by larger fan.
VSMs - BCC Installations.
• Raw Meal
• FLS Atox at Cauldon and Bowmanville.
• Polysius at Dunbar.
• Loesche at Bamburi and Golden Bay.
• Fuller (Loesche copy) at Harleyville
• Pfeiffer MPS at St. Mary’s, Republic.
VSMs - BCC Installations.
• Coal
• All US plants Raymond Mill.
• UK plants 50/50 Babcock/Pfeiffer.
VSMs - Installations.
• Biggest VSM in
Thailand. Loesche
LM63.4, rated at 750
t/hr Raw Meal, 6.3m
table, 5400kW.
• Cement equivalent is
LM63.4 (2+2), rated
at 250 t/hr at 360
Blaine.

Mod 10-Raw Milling

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Process Engineering

HBM Process Engineering Conference

PROCESS ENGINEERING TRAINING

In the U.S. 80% particle size ratio is in use.

b) Degree of reduction which refers to the mean particle size

c) Effective degree of reduction of a size reduction machine

d) Apparent degree of reduction of a size reduction machine.

Where m = feed opening of the size reduction machine.

5.1 JAW CRUSHERS

5.1.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

5.1.2 SINGLE TOGGLE JAW CRUSHER

Fig 7.1 SINGLE TOGGLE JAW CRUSHER

Fig 7.2 DOUBLE TOGGLE JAW CRUSHER

Fig 7.3 SAFETY TOGGLE PLATES.

Fig. 7.4 HYDRAULIC SAFETY OVERLOAD DEVICE.

Fig. 7.5 CRUSHING ACTION OF RIBBED LINERS.

Fig. 7.6 VARIOUS STYLES OF JAW CRUSHER LINERS.

For the case shown in Fig 7.6c

Where n = number of revolutions per minute

Below is an example of an empirical formula derived for capacity calculations:

Q = 150. n. b. s. d.µ.γ. (LEVENSON)

Where Q = Crusher capacity t/h

γ = spec. gravity of crusher feed

Feed opening = 2500mm x 1600mm

To find S (amplitude of swing jaw) :

To find Q (capacity) at min. and max. settings:

Q min. = 678 T/h (manufacturer's rating 600-650 t/h)

Q max. = 814 T/h (manufacturer's rating 700-800 t/h)

Feed opening = 600mm x 150mm

To find S (amplitude of swing jaw)

To find Q (capacity) at min. and max. settings:

Q min. = 9.77 t/h (manufacturer's rating 9-11 t/h)

5.2 THE GYRATORY CRUSHER

5.2.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

5.2.2 LINER PLATES

FIG. 7.9 SIZE DESIGNATION OF GYRATORY CRUSHERS.

1. By adjusting the nut from which the shaft is suspended.

Fig. 7.10 TYPICAL ARRGT. OF CHOKE FED GYRATORY CRUSHER.

5.3 THE SYMONS CRUSHER

5.3.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

5.4 ROLL CRUSHERS

5.4.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

5.4.2 SLUGGER ROLL CRUSHERS

5.5 IMPACT CRUSHERS

The principle of impact crushing expressed as a formula is:

5.5.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:

5.5.2 CONSTRUCTION (TYPICAL)

Fig. 7 18 DOUBLE IMPELLER IMPACT CRUSHER WITH BREAKER BARS

5.5.3 COMPOUND IMPACT CRUSHERS

Typical output ratings for impact crushers are shown in Appendix 5

5.6 HAMMER CRUSHERS (HAMMER MILLS)

5.6.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The principle of impact crushing still applies as expressed in the formula:

Fig. 7.21 SCHEMATIC VIEWS OF HAMMER CRUSHER

Fig 7.22 TYPES OF SWING HAMMERS

5.6.2 REVERSIBLE HAMMER CRUSHERS

5.6.3 IMPACT HAMMER CRUSHERS

Fig 7.24 IMPACT HAMMER CRUSHER

5.6.4 COMPOUND IMPACT/HAMMER CRUSHERS

Fig. 7.25 COMPOUND IMPACT/ HAMMER CRUSHER

5.7 FEEDER BREAKERS

6 PRIMARY CRUSHING IN THE QUARRY (MOBILE CRUSHERS)

6.1 ASHAKA WORKS MOBILE PRIMARY CRUSHING PLANT

7 SELECTING THE PRIMARY CRUSHER