Prq. Energy Combua. Sri. Vol. 24. pp. 221-255.

1998

Pergamon 0 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd

Printed in Great Britain. All rights ragged
036%l2w98 $19.00
PII: SO360-1285(97)OW33-6

OPTICAL DIAGNOSTICS FOR SOOT AND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

IN DIESEL ENGINES

H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brunei University, Uxbridge lJB8 3PH, U.K.

Abstract-This paper reviews the optical techniques for in-cylinder combustion temperature measurement,
particularly soot measurements in diesel engines. The review starts with the two-colour method for in-cylinder
soot and combustion temperature measurement. The principle and implementation of the two-colour technique
are described in detail. Both signal point and full-field temperature and soot measurements by the two-colour
method are considered. In the second part, the soot diagnostics based on light scattering, especially the light
extinction method for in-cylinder soot concentration measurements, am discussed. In the third part, optical
techniques for spatially resolved two-dimensional measurements of soot particles in diesel engines are
introduced. Since laser induced incandescence (LB) is a relatively new technique and is particularly suitable for
the two-dimensional imaging of soot distribution, the operating principle and implementation of LB are discussed
in detail. At the end of each part, examples are given to illustrate the understanding gained about diesel
combustion as a result of the application of these optical techniques. This paper provides a comprehensive review
for those who are interested in using optical diagnostics for in-cylinder soot and combustion temperature
measurement in diesel engines. 0 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: soot, diesel combustion, optical diagnostics, two-colour method, light extinction, laser induced
incandescence.
CONTENTS

I. Introduction 222
2. Measurement of Flame Temperature and Soot Loading Using the Two-colour Method 222
2.1. Introduction 222
2.2. Theory of the Two-colour Method 222
2.2. I. Flame temperature measurement 222
2.2. I. I. Definition of flame temperature 222
2.2.1.2. Principle of two-colour temperature measurement 222
2.2.2. KL factor and soot concentration 223
2.3. Implementation 224
2.3.1. Selection of a 224
2.3.2. Selection of wavelengths 224
2.3.3. Calibration 226
2.3.4. Data acquisition and analysis 227
2.4. Accuracy 228
2.4.1. Effect of soot deposition on window 228
2.4.2. Wall reflections 228
2.4.3. Effect of non-uniform temperature and soot 228
2.5. Temperature and Soot Imaging by the Two-colour Method 228
2.5. I. Introduction 228
25.2. Two-colour imaging by films 228
252.1. Principle 228
2.5.2.2. Film analysis using off-line calibration 229
252.2. I. Determination of effective wavelength 229
2.5.2.2.2. Determination of calibration curves 229
2.5.2.2.3. Recording of the calibration source 230
2.5.2.2.4. Correction of temperature and KL factors 231
2.5.2.3. Film analysis with on-line calibration 231
2.53. Full-field temperature measurement using solid-state cameras 232
2.6. Application of the Two-colour Method to Diesel Engines 233
3. Soot Diagnostics by Means of Light Scattering 235
3.1. Introduction 235
3.2. Soot Concentration Measurement by the Light Extinction Method 235
3.2.1. Principle of the light extinction method 235
3.2.2. Implementation of the light extinction method 236
3.2.3. Application of the light extinction method to diesel engines 237
3.2.3. I. Single point light extinction measurements 237
3.2.3.2. Soot visualization by light extinction 238
3.3. Soot Particle Sizing by Scattering and Extinction 240
3.3. I. Principle 240
3.3.2. Adaptation and application of light scattering and extinction to a diesel engine 241
3.3.2.1. The scattering and extinction technique 242
3.3.2.2. The radiation and scattering technique 243
3.3.2.3. Implementation 243
3.3.2.4. Results 243
221
222 H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos

4. Two-dimensional Soot Imaging 244

4.1. Introduction 244
4.2. Laser Induced Incandescence (LII) 244
4.2.1. Theoretical analysis of LII 245
4.2.1. I. Energy and mass balance equations 245
4.2.1.2. LII signal and its relation to soot volume fractions 246
4.2.2. Implementation of LII 247
4.2.2.1. Selection of excitation and detection wavelengths 247
4.2.2.2. Effect of laser output 248
4.2.2.3. The selection of temporal resolution 249
4.2.3. Calibration of LII for soot volume fraction measurement 250
4.3. Soot Particle Sizing Using LII and LIS 250
4.4. Two-dimensional Soot Imaging in Diesel Engines 250
4.4.1. Introduction 250
4.4.2. Application of two-dimensional soot imaging to diesel engines 250
5. summary 253
Acknowledgments 254
References 254

1. INTRODUCTION high luminosity caused by the thermal radiation of soot

Diesel engines offer significant fuel economy advan-
tages over other power plant used for road transportation.
However, ever stricter standards are being introduced for
diesel engines. To meet the rising standards, an improved
understanding of the combustion and emission formation
and removal processes in a diesel engine is essential for
engine designers. Such intense interest in reducing
exhaust emissions has prompted the development of
various techniques for analysing the progress of the
combustion and pollutant formation in a diesel engine.
While NOx formation is fairly well understood, soot
formation and oxidation in a diesel engine are far more
complicated and difficult to study. The study of soot
generally involves the use of physical probing and
optical techniques. The physical probing, typically per-
formed by a fast sampling valve, is capable of providing
information on the chemical composition of soot as well as
soot concentration measurements. The in-cylinder
sampling technique has been reported previously.‘+*
Meanwhile, the last few years have seen the rapid
development and application of optical diagnostics for
soot measurement in diesel engines. In this paper, the
optical techniques for soot measurement in diesel
engines will be introduced and reviewed. This review
starts with the two-colour method. Then soot diagnostics
based on light scattering theory are described, especially
the light extinction method for soot concentration
measurement. Laser induced incandescence (LII) is a
relatively new but powerful tool for two-dimensional
soot concentration measurement. Its principles and
operational considerations are discussed. As more
applications of two-dimensional imaging of soot are
being used in diesel engine combustion studies, different
imaging techniques are reviewed and discussed.
2. MEASUREMENTOF FLAME TEMPERATUREAND SOOT
LOADINGUSINGTHE TWO-COLOURMETHOD
particles at high temperature. To take advantage of its
luminous nature, the two-colour method has been
developed and used to measure diesel combustion
temperature since the 1940~.~-~ In the following
sections, the theory and implementation aspects of the
two-colour method will be discussed in detail. Then
particular features of the full-field two-colour method are
considered. This part of the paper concludes with some
examples of the application of the two-colour method
to in-cylinder temperature and soot concentration
measurements.
2.2. Theory of the Two-colour Method
2.2.1. Flame temperature measurement
2.2.1.1. Definition of flame temperature. During diesel
combustion, both solid soot particles and gaseous
combustion products are present. However, diesel
combustion is dominated by the intense radiation from
the soot particles. Since the two-colour method utilizes
the thermal radiation from soot particles, it directly
measures their temperature. The temperature of the
combustion gases is not directly measured. However, it
can be shown that the temperature difference between
the two temperatures is negligible (< 1 K) when the
ambient gas and soot particles have attained thermal
equilibrium,6 which can be attained in about 10-50-
10m6s within the cylinder.’ In the absence of surface
reaction on the soot particles, it can also be proven that
the soot particles can faithfully follow the surrounding
gases’ temperature when the temperature of the
surrounding gases changes with time.
From the above discussion, it may be assumed that the
soot particle and combustion gas temperatures are
approximately the same. In the rest of this paper,
therefore, the flame temperature refers to the soot
particle temperature.

2.1. Introduction 2.2.1.2. Principle of two-colour temperature

measurement. In the two-colour method, the thermal
One of the characteristics of diesel combustion is its radiation at two different wavelengths is detected and
 Optical diagnostics for soot and temperature measurement 223

the flame temperature is then determined from their ratio where

by eliminating an unknown factor. The introduction to
K = an absorption coefficient;
the two-colour method therefore starts with the theory of
= proportional to the number density of soot particles;
thermal radiation.. The intensity of radiation from a
black body varies with wavelength and it also depends L = the geometric thickness of the flame along the optical
on the temperature of the black body. This is described axis of the detection system.
mathematically by Planck’s equation
The value of the parameter LYdepends on the physical
Cl
Eb,h(T) = x5 [eGIX~) - ]] and optical properties of the soot in the flame. The
selection of the (Y value will be discussed later. Matsui
where et aL9 carried out validation studies of the above
correlation by simultaneous measurements of the soot
Eh.h = monochromatic emissive power of a black body at
emissivity at three wavelengths in a diesel engine. They
temperature T (W m -‘);
concluded that at least in the visible range this is a
A = wavelength (lrm); correct functional relation between emissivity and
wavelength.
T = temperature (K); Combining Eqs (4) and (5) gives

Cl = the first Planck’s constant

= 3.7418 X 10mr6Wm2;

C? = the second Planck’s constant

The unknown product KL can be eliminated by rewriting
= 1.4388 X lO-‘m K.
the above equation for two specific wavelengths, XI and
x2:
The monochromatic emissivity of a non-black body is
defined as

where Ii(T) and Ib,X(T) are the monochromatic emissive
power of a non-black body and a black body respec-
tively, at the same temperature T and wavelength X. In
other words, EAis the fraction of the black body radiation
emitted by a surface at wavelength X.
In the two-colour method, an apparent temperature T,
is introduced and defined as the temperature of a black
body which will emit the same radiation intensity as a
non-black body at temperature T. T, is also known as the
brightness temperature. From this definition of T, it
follows that
lb, i(Ta) = h,(T)
Combining the definition for monochromatic
emissivity eh with the definition of apparent temperature
T, gives:
(7)
The actual flame temperature T is independent of wave-
length, whilst the apparent temperature T, and, possibly,
the parameter cr vary with wavelength.
It can be seen that this equation can be solved for the
flame temperature T, provided the apparent temperature
T,, and TaZ for the flame are known at the two
wavelengths A, and h2. These two apparent flame
temperatures can be measured at these two wavelengths
using a calibrated two-colour optical pyrometer system.
In fact, this is the purpose of the two-colour system: to
provide instantaneous measurements of the apparent
temperatures T,, and Ta2 for the flame at two chosen
wavelengths X, and AZ. The choice of the two
wavelengths at which T,, and Ta2 are monitored will
be discussed at a later stage.

(3) 2.2.2. KL factor and soot concentration

Combining Eqs (1) and (3), the monochromatic emissiv- Once the value of the flame temperature, T, has been
ity is given theoretically by estimated from Eq. (7), substitution of T back into Eq. (6)
gives an estimate for the value of the product KL which is
eCzlXT
-1
proportional to the soot concentration.
CA := eC21XTa _ , (4) It is most common to obtain an estimation of the flame
temperature, T, and the KL factor from the two-colour
In practice, eh has been estimated for soot particles by the method. However, if some assumptions are made an
widely used empirical correlation of Hottel and estimate of the volumetric density of soot, C, (the
Broughton,’ volume of particles in a unit of space), and soot
gravimetric density, C, (mass of soot per unit
EX=, _e(-Kux”)
(3 volume), can be obtained.
224 H. Zhao and N. Iadommatos
Fig. 1. Schematic layout of a two-colour system
It is shown in Section 3.2 that the volumetric density
of particles, C,, is given by
1 KL
C” = (8)
F
where m is the complex refractive index of the soot
particle. Thus, using the estimate of the KL factor it is
possible to obtain an estimate of the volumetric density
of soot particles. Of course, the values of L, OLand m are.
needed.
The gravimetric density of soot particles, C,, can also
be obtained if the value of soot density p is known or can
be estimated. The estimation of the soot number density,
i.e. the number of soot particles per unit volume, requires
knowledge of the size distribution of soot particles,
which is normally difficult to obtain.
2.3. Implementation
A typical arrangement for the implementation of the
two-colour method in a diesel engine is shown in Fig. 1.
In this system, a window (usually made of quartz, or
sapphire for measurements involving infra-red radiation)
allows optical access to the engine combustion chamber.
The radiation emitted by a cloud of incandescent soot
particles passes through the optical window and the
aperture, and then it is guided by a fibre-optical bundle to
a bifurcation where it is split into two beams. Each beam
then passes through a band-pass filter which only allows
radiation within a narrow wavelength range (usually 5-
20 nm) to go through. The instantaneous signals
generated by the photo-diodes are amplified and the
resulting voltages at each wavelength are then recorded
by a data acquisition system.
It should be pointed out that the aperture inserted
between the optical window and the receiving fibre
limits the field of view of the system to a narrow cone
that lies within the combustion chamber. The use of an
aperture increases the spatial resolution but the instru-
ment sensitivity is reduced as a result of less radiation
reaching the receiving optics. Another important func-
tion of the aperture is to reduce the possibility of leaving
the field of view unfilled. When only part of the field of
view is filled with combustion gas, the brightness
temperature of the flame will be underestimated.
2.3.1. Selection of a!
From Eqs (6)-(8) it can be seen that the estimation of
the flame temperature, the KL factor and the volumetric
density of soot particles depends on the values chosen for
the parameter 0~. Thus it is necessary to consider the
choice of a suitable value for (Y.
The value of OLis a function of a number of factors. It
depends on the light wavelength, the soot particle size
and the refractive index of soot. Fuel type may also have
an influence on the value of a.” Before selection of the
value of (Y, it should be noted that when the two
wavelengths are selected to be in the visible region, then
the choice of the value of 01 is less critical to the
estimation of the flame temperature. This is because the
flame temperature given by Eq. (7) is not sensitive to the
value of cr. This point is clearly shown in Fig. 2, which is
calculated for a! = Q!1= (~2.It is also noted from Fig. 2
that for wavelengths in the infra-red region the influence
of the value of 01is significant.
A similar effect of cr on the estimation of KL is
observed. As shown in Fig. 3, the estimation of KL is less
sensitive to the value of Q if the two wavelengths are
chosen in the visible spectrum, whereas the sensitivity is
rather large when these two wavelengths are in the infra-
red region.
Table 1 summarizes the values of (ILused in the
literature. From these values, it can be recommended that
a fixed value of 1.39 would be appropriate for most fuels
when using visible wavelengths. For the infra-red region,
the choice of the value of (Yis less clear-cut, but a fixed
value close to unity appears to be appropriate for diesel
fuel flames for the wavelength range of 0.8 pm to about
7 j4m.
2.3.2. Selection of wavelengths
It will be recalled that an estimate of the flame
temperature can be made using Eq. (7). However, the
 Optical diagnostics for soot and temperature measurement 225

- CUNS!l
*... wrve*

\ -*-- curve3
\
.. ---.--- Cu,.,e4
2366 - I.
\ .*.,
\ *.-.
\
. .\ -,._
\\ -.
2100 - \
\

1900 - .

1700 1 ’ I ’ I ! , I ,
0.6 0.6 1.0 1.2 I .4 1.6 1.6 2.0
Value of parameter a

Wavelengths: cu~esl and 2.055 and 0.7 urn (visibk);

curves 3 and 4: 2.5 and 4 urn (infrared)

Apparenttemper&me crave 1,190ClK and 1850 K; CUIW 2: 1700 K and 1640 K

curve 3, 1400 K and 1050 K; curve 4,1600 K and 1200 K

Fig. 2. The effect of the value of the parameter (Yon the estimated temperature.

Table 1. Compilation of values of the parameter a in the Hottel and Broughton correlation for soot emissivity

Value of parameter OL Reference

Visible wavelengths Infrared wavelengths Fuel or flame type

1.39 0.95 (X > 0.8 am) Steady luminous flame Hottel and Broughton’
1.38 0.91-0.97 (h = 2-4 am) Diesel engine soot Matsui et a1.l2
1.39 - Diesel engine soot Yan and Barman’’
- 0.94-0.96 (h > 0.8 pm) Liebert and Hibbardz9
- 0.89, 1.04 (X=1-7pm) Amy1 acetate Siddall and McGrath”
- 0.77 (X = l-7 pm) Avtur kerosene
- 0.94.0.95 (X= I-7fim) Benzene
- 0.93 (X = 1-7 pm) Candle
- 0.96, 1.14, 1.25 (X = 1-7pm) Furnace samples
- 1.06 (h = l-7 pm) Petrotherm
- 1.00 (h= 1-7gm) Propane
- (Y= 0.91 + 0.28 InX (X= I-7gm) Various fuels
1.43 - Acetone Rossler and Behrens”
1.39 - Amy1 acetate
1.29 Coal gas/air
1.23 - Benzene
1.14 - Nitrocellulose
0.66-0.75 - Acetylene/air

solution of Eq. (7) requires measurements of the
apparent temperatures of the flame at two wavelengths.
The choice of wavelengths for the two-colour method
involves a number of considerations which must be taken
into account.
In general, visible and infra-red wavelengths have
been used in the two-colour method. Visible wave-
lengths are preferred for a number of reasons. First, if the
wavelengths are chosen in the visible part of the
spectrum, the sensitivity of the measuring system to
changes in flame temperature will be greater because the
rate of change of spectral radiance with respect to
temperature, dIh/dT, is larger in the visible than in the
infra-red region, as shown in Fig. 4. Also, there will be a
greater difference in signal output from the system at the
two visible wavelengths, due to the fact that the spectral
radiance with respect to wavelength, dlh/dX, is higher in
the visible region for temperatures around 1000-2000 K,
as shown in Fig. 4. This makes the effect of the signal-to-
noise ratio on the calculation of flame temperature less
important. The larger separation of the two wavelengths
used will also improve the sensitivity of the two-colour
system provided that the parameters for the two
wavelengths are well known.
As shown in Figs 2 and 3, the estimation of
temperature and the KL factor is not very sensitive to
the choice of the value of the parameter (Y,when the two
wavelengths are chosen to be in the visible region.
226 H. zhao and N. Ladommatos

commercially. Also, there are commercially available

optical fibres for use as light guides which have a high
transmittance in the visible and near i&a-red regions.
Table 2 shows a compilation of the wavelengths used
by some investigators in the application of the two-
colour method.

2.3.3. Calibration
It will be recalled that the two-colour method
0’ measures the apparent temperatures of the flame T,,
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

vahe of pameter a and Td at wavelengths A, and h2. These apparent

temperatures can then be used in Eq. (7) to obtain the
0 Wav&n@hs: 0.55 and 0.7 w (visible); A&qmrmt tmperahms: 1700K 1640 K
actual flame temperature. Since the two-colour system
19WK 1850 K
A Wavelmgdu: 0.55 and 0.7 w (visible); Apjwent tcmperahnrs:
will produce initially only voltages Vh, and Vu
0 Wavelcmgdu: 2.5 and 4 pm (infrared); Appemt tan-: 16OOK 1200 K corresponding to the radiation from the flame at the
? ? Wavelengths: 2.5 and 4 pm (infrared); Apparent tempmuurca: 14COK IO50 K
two wavelengths, the system must be calibrated so that
Fig. 3. The effect of the value of the parameter (Yon the esti- the two voltages correspond to the apparent flame
mated KL factor. temperatures. This can be done using a source of black
body radiation to generate a calibration curve in the fotm
of a plot of voltage output against black body
temperature for each wavelength. Once the calibration
curves have been produced for the two wavelengths, the
instantaneous voltages can be converted to the apparent
temperatures T,, and T@.The flame temperature, T, and
the KL factor can then be obtained from Eqs (7) and (6).
Often, a black body may not be readily available and
in these circumstances it may be more convenient to use
a calibrated tungsten lamp. The lamp calibration is often
carried out at a wavelength of 650 nm only, but it is
sufficiently accurate at other wavelengths close to
650 nm. For wavelengths too different from 650 nm a
new calibration curve will be required for the tungsten
lamp at that wavelength. Another difficulty when using a
tungsten lamp for calibration is that the size of the
Fig. 4. The spectral radiance of a black body at various tungsten ribbon filament may be too small to illuminate
temperatures. the whole of the field of view of the two-colour system.
This problem could be overcome by using a lens as
During combustion, strong band emissions from shown in Fig. 6. The focal length and the position of the
gaseous species can be present as well as the thermal optical lens determine the size of the image of the
radiation from soot particles. In the reaction zones of tungsten ribbon D’, which should be at least the same as
flames, many radicals, such as OH, CH, C2, HCO, NH the diameter of the receiving optical fibre or window.
and NH2 may be formed and give appreciable emission The diameter of the lens should be chosen so that the
in the visible and near ultraviolet regions.” In the infra- field of view in the calibration is the same as that defined
red region, wavelengths must be chosen carefully to by the aperture in the probe.
avoid radiation or absorption from C02, CO, water When an optical lens is used some of the radiation
vapour and fuel vapour. Figure 5 shows the spectra from from the tungsten lamp will be lost through reflection
various gaseous species in the visible and infra-red and absorption by the lens. If the transmittance of the
region. lens is r, the voltage output Vfrom a photo-diode will be
Photo-diodes with high responsivity in the visible lowered by (1 - r) more than it would be without the
and near infra-red regions are readily available lens for a given value of T. Thus in constructing the

Fig. 5. Emission spectra in the infra-red region for various gas molecules.
 Optical diagnostics for soot and temperature measurement 227

Angle a mustbe smskr than the acceptanceangleof the opticalfibre

Angle a, dimensions d, 1,D, and fowl length f are specified
Calculate d’to give required angle cr from d’ =2 I tbn(aL?))- d
Calculate distance s’ from s’=f[l+(&D)j what d/D is the magnitication ratio
Calculate distances fk0m I J[l+(D@J
CalculatelensapertureLfromL=/Zs’urn(~)~
Note: if qerture is designed with both holes of equal diameter, then d-f’, in which
case d is specified and I is c&&ted hrn f==(aL?), to give the required
value of angle a.

Fig. 6. Optical set-up for the calibration of a two-colour system using a tungsten ribbon lamp.

Table 2. Wavelength used by various investigators in the application of the two-colour method
Wavelength (nm) Reference

Visible Infra-red

Al A2 Xl

549 750 - 2300 3980 Matsui ef al.l2

529 624 738 - - Matsui er ak9
550 700 850 - - Yan and Borman”
- - - 750 1000 Peterson and Wu*”
460 640 - - Kawamura et a1.28
550 650 - - - Shakal and Martin”
450 640 - - Arcoumanis et aLI
581 631 - - - Winterbone er a1.‘5.‘6
540 643 - - - Miyamoto et a1.25
600 - - - 1000 Bertoli et aLz4
470 65fl1 - - - Shiozaki et al.*’

Note: Band-pass half-width at the visible wavelength is usually 5-25 nm.

calibration curve for the two-colour system, the quantity
V/T should be plotted against the apparent temperature,
since when the system is operational in an engine
without the lens the voltage output will be somewhat
higher.
2.3.4. Data acquisition and analysis
The output from a two-colour system is normally
converted into voltages by the photo-diodes before
subsequent calculations are carried out to obtain the
flame temperature and soot loading. A high-speed data
acquisition system is used to collect the amplified signal
outputs from the photo-diodes on a crank angle basis
using the output from a shaft encoder as the clock for
data acquisition. Large cycle-by-cycle variation in
radiation, however, presents in diesel combustion. The
radiation signals could be very irregular because of the
motion of soot clouds. The irregularity in radiation
signals could also be caused by the random location of
ignition and combustion. It has been found that the large
cyclic variation of the radiation signals gives a large
variation in the results of the KL factors. The flame
temperature, though, has been found to be less affected
by the cycle-by-cycle variation. Some form of ensemble
average, therefore, is required to obtain the temperature
and KL measurement from the two-colour method.
There are two ways to obtain an ensemble-averaged
temperature and KL factor. In the first approach, which
Matsui et aL9 used, the voltage outputs corresponding to
the radiation intensity at the two wavelengths at each
crank angle for 1000 cycles are ensemble-averaged. The
averaged voltage outputs for the two wavelengths are
then used in the calculation of the flame temperature and
KL factor. An alternative approach is to use ensemble-
averaged temperature and KL factor. In this method, the
signal for each cycle is used to calculate the temperature
variation at each degree of crank angle during a
particular engine cycle. Then, the individual cycle
temperatures are ensemble-averaged over many engine
cycles. As the flame temperature and KL factor are not
linearly related to the radiation intensity, it is expected
that these two approaches may not generate the same
results. Yan and Bonnan]’ compared these two methods
and found that the difference between them is small for
the KL factor and temperature through most of the
228 H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos
combustion period. The first approach is preferred as it is
computationally faster and reduces the influence of noise
on the calculation of temperature.
2.4. Accuracy
2.4.1. ESfect of soot deposition on window
During engine tests, soot accumulated on the optical
window will reduce its transmissivity and cause an error
in the estimation of flame temperature and soot
concentration. Matsui et a1.12 found that in a direct-
injection diesel engine a reduction of 14% in transmis-
sivity at X = 0.55 pm resulted in an error of around 1% in
the flame temperature and less than 5% in the estimate of
the soot concentration. Yan and Borman” described a
self-cleaning sapphire window arrangement that main-
tains the window surface free of soot even after several
hours of operation.
2.4.2. Wall reflections
It should be noted that the radiation detected by a two-
colour system includes not only the direct radiation from
the flame (soot + gaseous species), but also the radiation
reflected from the walls, and the thermal radiation by the
wall surfaces. Because the surface temperatures of walls
are much lower than those of the soot particles, their
effect can be ignored in the visible region. In the infra-
red region, significant radiation from walls is present and
its effect needs to be taken into account. In their work,
Matsui et al.” found that the effect of reflected radiation
from an opposite wall on the estimation of temperature is
very small (of the order of 2 or 3 K), whilst the error in
the determination of the KL factor is at most 10% at very
low soot concentrations, falling to 2% at high soot
concentrations. When the infra-red wavelengths are
used, the error in the estimated temperature ranges
from 50 to 150 K, whilst the error in the estimated value
of the KL factor is up to 50% greater at low soot
concentrations than at high soot concentrations.
2.4.3. Effect of non-uniform temperature and soot
The two-colour method will only give a true flame
temperature if a spatially uniform temperature exists
along the line of sight. However, the non-uniformity of
temperature and soot concentration will affect the
physical meaning of the flame temperature as well as
the KL measured by this technique. Yan and Borman”
showed that the effect of the soot concentration non-
uniformity on the measured temperature is less severe
than the effect of uneven temperature on the KL factor. If
a severe non-uniform distribution of temperature exists,
the KL factor will be underestimated.
In general, the temperature measured by the two-
colour method is higher than the arithmetic mean
temperature, because the rate of change of mono-
chromatic intensity with temperature becomes greater
with increasing temperature. The flame temperature
Fig. 7. Experimental set-up for the high-speed recording of two-
colour images used by Ahn et al.l3
closer to the window will have a larger effect on the
measured temperature than flames further away. The
measured temperature will be closer to the maximum
flame temperature if the maximum values of temperature
and soot concentration are coincident with the line of
sight. The non-uniformity of soot concentration has less
effect on the measured flame temperature than does the
non-uniform temperature on the measured temperature.
2.5. Temperature and Soot Imaging by the Two-colour
Method
2.5.1. Introduction
The previous sections have discussed the salient
features associated with the two-colour method. The
two-colour method is used to obtain the temperature and
soot measurement in a small control volume defined by
the field of view of the probe. The signal output is
integrated over the control volume. Thus, it is essentially
a “line-of-point” measurement. In diesel engine com-
bustion, however, it is desirable to obtain the two-
dimensional temperature and soot distribution. This can
be achieved by use of an imaging device as the detector
in a two-colour system. The imaging device can be either
conventional high-speed cameras with film or solid-state
cameras. As will be shown in the next two sections, the
use of solid-state cameras considerably reduces the
overheads associated with the long and tedious film
development and data analysis processes. However,
using high-speed cameras with film is still the preferred
way to obtain high-speed and continuous two-colour
images because of the superior spatial resolution.
2.5.2. Two-colour imaging by films
252.1. Principle. The first measurement of two-
dimensional temperature and the KL factor in a diesel
engine was carried out using a high-speed camera with a
negative colour film.‘3 The experimental set-up is shown
 Optical diagnostics for soot and temperature measurement
in Fig. 7. The flame radiation is directly recorded by a
high-speed camera with a colour film. After the
recording, the density at each point on the film is
measured by a densitometer by illuminating the film
with a white light source. The measurement is done for
two different colours through colour filters. The ratio of
the densities for two different colours at each point on
the film is then used to obtain the flame temperature and
KL factor distributions in the cylinder. Negative colour
films are preferred for full-field two-colour
measurement owing to their wider density range than
positive films.
To realize the two-colour method by means of film, it
is necessary to find out the relationship between the
density of the film and the apparent temperature.
The relationship between the density of the film, Dh, at
a given wavelength and the magnitude of exposure E, is
Dh = yx log(E,) + const.
where ye is a constant of the film used, which depends,
among other things, on the process of and the chemical
used for the film development. E, is proportional to the
product of the radiation intensity and the exposure time.
The density of the film can then be expressed as
follows:
Dk = yx log( EXEbSkrhPXd~)+ const.
I
where
= emissivity of the soot particles;
= the black body radiation power;
= the spectral sensitivity of the film;
= the spectral transmissivity of the filter;
= the spectral sensitivity of the photo-multiplier of the
densitometer.
dh = the spectral bandwidth.
For narrow bandwidth interference filters, Q, Sk, Q
and PAare constants and the replacement of Eb by Eq. (1)
leads to the following formula:
c2
&=-XL_
2.3026 XT, + ‘Onst’
where C2 is Planck’s second radiation constant.
The above relationship can be obtained by exposing
the film to a source of black body radiation. The exposed
film is then illuminated by white light and recorded by a
photo-detector at a particular wavelength. A device
developed for this purpose is a densitometer, which is
essentially a photo-multiplier tube. An easy way to do
the job, however, is to use a charge-coupled device
(CCD) camera. If a colour CCD camera is available all
that is required is to shine white light through the film
and leave the camera to sort out the colours. In the
absence of a colour CCD camera, a monochrome camera
can be used with filters attached to it.
229
4.5 5.0 5.5 XIOd
I/T, K-’
Fig. 8. Film density plotted against the reciprocal of apparent
(9)
temperature, adapted from Ahn et al.”
2.5.2.2. Film analysis using off-line calibration.
Theoretically, two calibration curves at wavelengths )r,
and AZ can be obtained from a source of black body
radiation. The flame temperature can then be
determined using Eq. (7) once the apparent
temperatures Tal and Ta2 have been obtained by
(10) Eq. (11) from the density readings of flame images at
two different wavelengths AI and hZ. However, there are
a number of difficulties that need to be overcome before
the flame temperature can be calculated from Eq. (7).
2.5.2.2.1. Determination of effective wavelength. In
the point-wise two-colour measurements, the
wavelengths h, and hz are well defined by the band-
pass filters with narrow bandwidth (around 10 nm).
However, when the density reading of the colour film
is taken for a colour, the bandwidth of the colour filter
used is fairly broad (around 100 nm) in order to match
the sensitivity of the photo-detector in the densitometer.
As a result the wavelengths are no longer well defined.
Two hypothetical wavelengths Xe2and X,, are introduced
which are used to calculate the true flame temperature
from the apparent temperatures T,, and T,z.
From Eq. (1 1), if the film calibration constant yh is
known, the effective wavelength h, can be determined
from the gradient of the straight line on Fig. 8, -yhCZ/
(11)
(2.3026)\,). ye is determined by recording the black body
radiation at a known temperature through different
neutral density filters so that a line like Fig. 9 can be
plotted for two different filters. From Eq. (9) it is evident that
the gradient of these two lines are the values yhl and yh2.
2.5.2.2.2. Determination of calibration curves. In
high-speed photographs, calibration curves as shown in Fig.
8 cannot be obtained dimtly as it is impossible to vary the
tempemture of the black body during the experiment.
In order to get calibration curves for the 16 mm film in
a high-speed camera, first a 3.5 mm film camera is used to
obtain a calibration curve. Assuming that the values
determined for 35 mm film can be used in the case of
16 mm high-speed film, the gradients of calibration lines
for the 16 mm film, -yxC2/(2.3026X,). are known. If
230 H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos

one point on the calibration line (DA against l/T.) can be

found then the calibration lines can be drawn for the
16 mm films with flame images. These two points for
each calibration curve are determined from the black
body image recorded on the same film without attenua-
tion through neutral density filters, as shown in circles in
Fig. 10. Because of the difference between the develop-
ment processes of the two films, the gradient of each
calibration curve for 16 mm film may be different from
that for 35 mm film. This can be checked by plotting the
film density against the apparent temperatures of the
black body through different neutral density filters. If the
plotted lines at X1 and Xz are not the same as those
determined previously, the effective wavelengths are
adjusted by trial and error until they are the same.
0.0 0.5 1.0 2.5.2.2.3. Recording of the calibration source. As 7~
b30 depends on the film development process, it is necessary
to record simultaneously on the same roll of film the
Fig. 9. Film density plotted against the exposure function,
adapted from Ahn et a1.l3 images of diesel combustion and of the calibration light
source. This has been ma&d in two different ways.
In the first method,13 recording of the calibration
source is obtained after the experiments. The high-speed
camera starts to roll the film at 6000 fps when the engine
is motored. As the film reaches the end of the first 50
feet, a magnetic shutter is forced to open and the fuel
injection starts simultaneously. Therefore, the flame
images are recorded on the latter half of a 100 foot film.
The film is then loaded in the reverse direction and the
images of a calibration source are recorded on the
remaining 50 feet of film. The calibration images are
taken at 6000 fps through the detached optical window
and a rotating disc at 3800rpm in which 10 different
neutral density filters are installed.
In the second method, Kobayashi et a1.l4 developed an
on-line method for recording the images of a source of
black body radiation, as shown in Fig. 11. Both the
images of diesel combustion and those of the calibration
4.5 5.0 5.5
source, through a set of rotating neutral density filters,
l/T. R’ were recorded simultaneously on the film. A 16 mm
Fig. 10. True calibration lines obtained using predetermined high-speed camera (NAC ElO) was running at 6000 fps.
gradient, adapted from Ahn er al. The rotating disk with eight different neutral density

CalibrationLamp RotatinsN.D
Filter

Fig. II. Experimental set-up for the high-speed recording of two-colour images with on-line recording of the calibration source.
 Optical diagnostics for soot and temperature measurement
T=T’-AT
T’=2400K
-0.6i-_ , , I , L 2.5.2.3. Film analysis with on-line calibration. To
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
1800 2000 2200 2400
Fig. 12. Correction curves for the estimated temperature and KL
factors using films, adapted from Ahn er ~1.‘~
filters was rotating at 3000 ‘pm. The exposed film was
digitized by a colour CCD camera at two colours (red
and blue) for the flame and the calibration source.
2.5.2.2.4. Correction of temperature and KL factors.
Because the calibration curves are obtained using a
source of black body radiation, the emissivity variation
of the flame within the bandwidth is not considered. The
effect of emissivity variation will be negligible if a
narrow bandwidth ia used. When a broad bandwidth
filter is used, an error will arise if the calibration curve
from a black body is employed. As emissivity is directly
related to the KL factor, the calibration curves will have
to be corrected every time the KL factor varies, which is
troublesome to do. Instead, Ahn et al. I3 suggested the
use of correction curves for flame temperature and the
KL factors, as shown in Fig. 12. First, the initial flame
temperature, T’, and KL factor, KL’, are determined
Fig. 13. Experimental set-up for the high-speed recording of two-colour images with on-line calibration as used by Winterbone
et a1.‘5*‘6.
JPECI
21:3-t
231
using the procedure described previously. Then the
true values of flame temperature and KL factors are
obtained from the correction curves in Fig. 12. The
errors are larger with a decreasing KL factor. As shown
in Fig. 12, the correction AKL is more than 10% and AT
is 10 K with the smallest KL factor.
overcome the difficulty of ensuring the consistent
colour balance of the film, both during exposure and
during the subsequent processing, both a “live”
measurement of the temperature at one point in the
cylinder and high-speed combustion photographs over
the whole field of view were taken’s
As shown in Fig. 13, a single point two-colour system
and a high-speed camera for full-field temperature
measurement are used simultaneously. This requires
having optical access to the cylinder through two
independent paths. In one optical path, a single point
two-colour measurement is performed using a calibra-
tion camera to focus the light onto two photo-multipliers
via a bifurcated fibre. The other optical path is used to
take high-speed combustion photographs. The single
point measurement provides a continuous reading of
apparent temperature with crank angle. The film
provides a full-field colour image of the combustion
process over the whole chamber at particular times
defined by the framing rate of the high-speed camera.
Each image on the film is digitized twice by a
monochrome CCD camera through two interference
filters at 581 nm and 631 nm. Each time it is converted
into a computer image with 512 X 5 12 pixels and 256
grey levels.
First, the grey scale of these pixels, corresponding to
the live calibration point, is measured and averaged. This
process is repeated for each image on the film for each
wavelength. The apparent temperatures obtained at
various crank angles from the calibration camera,
232 H. Zhao and N. Ladonunatos

combined with the grey scales at the respective crank Fitter Roof prism
angles of the pixels of the computer images, produce an
apparent temperature versus grey scale correlation. A
similar correlation is obtained for the other wavelength
as well.
The next step is to extend this single information to the
whole combustion chamber. This is achieved by
applying the apparent temperature versus grey scale
(a) Full field two-colour system with one monochrome CCD camera
correlation obtained above. The apparent temperature of
each pixel is found for each wavelength. Once the two
apparent temperatures for each pixel are known, the
flame temperature and soot concentration (KL factor) for
each pixel are calculated from Eqs (6) and (7).
Calibration curves (grey level versus apparent tem-
perature) have to be determined for each film because the
film constant varies between film batches and with
development. As can also be noted from their results,t6
the calibration curves are rather scattered. The subse-
quent flame measurements show their two-colour
temperatures about 80 K higher than those measured
by the thermocouples.
Beam splitter

2.5.3. Full-jield temperature measurement using

(b) Full field two-colour systemwith two monccbmme CCD camem
solid-state cameras
While the use of high-speed cameras with film Fig. 14. Optical layout for full-field two-colour measurements
using solid-state cameras.
provides high-resolution time-resolved full-field tem-
perature and soot measurement, it requires lengthy film
development and processing and tedious data analysis.
A solid-state camera can be viewed as consisting of a
two-dimensional array of photo-sensors (pixels), which
converts the incident photons into electrons. The output Probeadapter Fibre-optical
from a solid-state camera can be easily digitized into a I bundle
number of grey scales, which can be calibrated to obtain
the apparent flame temperature. In this case, the
discussion on the single point measurement applies
readily to the full-field measurement with solid-state
cameras. By comparison with high-speed cameras with
film, the use of a solid-state camera dispenses with the
requirement for on-line calibration and tedious film
development. The most widely used solid-state cameras
are CCDs.
Two approaches have been adopted for full-field two-
colour systems with monochrome CCD cameras, as (a) Probe adapter with fibre optical bundle installed
shown in Fig. 14. If a single CCD camera is used
(Fig. 14(a)), the flame image is split up into two images 1OX Micm Intensified
side by side via an image doubler. Two band-pass filters
are inserted in a mount in front of each half of the CCD
camera respectively to obtain images at selected
wavelengths.” To obtain better spatial resolution, two
CCD cameras are preferred, as shown in Fig. 14(b).‘*
The drawbacks of a CCD camera are that it has a lower
resolution than film and normally it can take only one
image per cycle, though a high-speed CCD camera, such
as the Kodak ‘‘EktaPro HS solid-state motion analyser”,
has been used to obtain multiple images in the same
cycle. Its resolution is limited to 128 X 128 pixels.”
(b) OpticaI set-upof the imaging system
Multiple combustion images using the two-colour
method were also reported using a framing streak Fig. 15. Experimentalset-up for the full-field temperaturemea-
camera.20 surements using fibre optics by Shakal and Martin.”
 Optical diagnosticsfor soot and temperaturemeasurement
The full-field two-colour systems discussed so far are
designed to take photographs through a large optical
window, which involves substantial modification to
engines. To overcome this difficulty, Shakal and
Martin” developed an endoscope-type imaging system
that requires minimum engine modification. The system
set-up is shown in Fig. 15. A coherent fibre-optical
bundle is used as the means for light transmission. A
coherent fibre-optical bundle contains many single
optical fibres, whose relative positions are arranged
similarly at both ends so that image transmission is
possible. The use of a fibre-optical bundle also allows a
much wider field of view than viewing through a window
directly. The field of view is limited to 45” by a lens set
mounted at the tip of the bundle on the engine side. The
spatial position of the field of view is further determined
by a small mirror attached to the end of the fibre-optical
bundle, as shown in Fig. 15(a). The whole bundle is
placed 1 mm away from the optical window mounted in
a probe adapter, which prevents the fibre-optical bundle
from being exposed to the harsh combustion environ-
ment. The dimension of the optical access port is 14 mm
in diameter. The fibre-optical bundle has a diameter of
about 8 mm.
As shown in Fig. 15(b), the output from the other end
of the fibre bundle is magnified by a 10 X microscope
objective lens. The magnified image is then split into two
side-by-side images via an image doubler. Two 1Onm
bandwidth filters at 550 nm and 650 nm are used for the
two-colour measurements. Use of a gateable intensified
solid-state camera permits imaging at high effective
shutter speeds at arbitrary times in the engine cycle. Both
direct imaging and two-colour measurements of tem-
perature and the KL. factor were performed on a two-
stroke direct-injection diesel engine.
2.6. Application of the Two-colour Method to Diesel
Engines
In the last 20 years, the two-colour method has
become the most widely used technique for diesel flame
temperature and particulate concentration measurements
because of its simplicity, low cost and relative ease of
application. The technique has often been used in the
past to measure flame temperature in diesel engines.3-5
Matsui et a1.9z’232’ extended the technique to simulta-
neous temperature and soot concentration measurements
in a direct-injection diesel engine. Studies have also been
reported using this technique to investigate combustion
in the pre-chamber of indirect-injection diesel
engines.22.23
Line-of-sight in-cylinder flame temperature and the
KL factor were measured by Yan and Borman” on a
single cylinder Cummins NH engine. The two-colour
system consists of a trifurcated fibre-optical bundle and a
specially designed self-cleaning sapphire rod window,
which stays clean under steady-state full-load con-
ditions. Figure 16 illustrates some typical in-cylinder
temperature and KL factor results for different engine
loads using the two-colour system. As shown in Fig. 16,
233
I
5! :.:
0.5
0.0
-20
Fig. 16. Flame tempemttaeand KL factorsat different loads at
15CXtrpn1, from Yan and Bonnan” (reprintedwith permission
from SAE8813150 1979Societyof AutomotiveEngineers,Inc.).
the soot concentration during the earlier part of
combustion decreases but is retarded at the end with
load. It is also noticed that the second bump on the
curves of the KL factor is more pronounced for the higher
load. This is attributed to later burning and/or probably
poor quality of end of injection. The flame temperature
increases slightly with load as shown in Fig. 16, although
others ‘2.21*23have reported that the peak flame tempera-
ture decreased with load. However, for the injection
equipment used in Yan and Borman’s experiments the
injection timing was advanced with the load, while the
end of injection stayed approximately constant. The
results shown in Fig. 15 are therefore consistent with the
other measurements, if the timing is taken into account.
The effect of fuel properties on in-cylinder soot
concentration was investigated in a direct-injection
diesel engine with the two-colour method by Bertoli
et a1.24They found that for pure paraffin fuels the cetane
number has a strong effect on the measured KL factor
whereas the aromatic fuel content has a strong influence
on the soot loading only with lower ( < 58) cetane
number fuels.
Shakal and Martin” studied the effects of auxiliary
fuel injection on combustion in a two-stroke direct-
injection diesel engine using a full-field two-colour
system through coherent fibre optics as described in
detail in the previous section. Temperature measure-
ments indicated that pilot injection results in a high-
temperature region ( > 2300 K) around the injection
nozzle at the start of main injection. Neither tempera-
tures nor soot concentrations were detectable during the
two-stage ignition process of the port fuel injection,
indicating low temperature premixed combustion.
Miyamoto et a1.25 investigated the effect of oxyge-
nated additives on the combustion and emissions in a
direct-injection diesel engine using a high-speed camera
for full-field two-colour temperature and KL factors.
Their results showed that significant smoke and
particulate suppression could be achieved without
increases in NOx with every oxygenated additive.
These results were confirmed by the full-field two-
colour measurements, which showed that the KL
factors decreased during combustion while the flame
234 H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos

top row 5.04 ‘CA Al-DC; middle row 7.20 ‘CA Al-DC; bottom row 9.36 ‘CA ATLX
(a) flame images, temperature and KL factor distribution with 0% EGR

top row 7.2 ‘CA ATDC; middle row 9.36 ‘CA ATDC; bottom row 11.52 ‘CA ATTIC
(b) flame images, temperature and KL factor distribution with 30% EGR

Fig. 17. Flame images and two-colour results at 1000 rpm, from Arcoumanis er al.” ((reprinted with permission from SAE 950850
0 1979 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.).

temperature distribution was not affected by the addition
of the oxygenated additive.
Full-field two-colour temperature and the KL factor
were also measured by Kobayashi et a1.26 in a single
cylinder engine with optical access in the piston. The
engine speed was fixed at 1000 rpm and a high-pressure
injection system was employed. Photographs were taken
by a rotating prism-type 16 mm camera at 6000 fps.
Higher temperatures were observed in the central
portions of the combustion chamber. Higher KL factors
were observed at the ends of the spray plumes. Other
regions of higher KL factors were found to persist
through the combustion process and possibly contributed
to exhaust emissions. In general, the flame temperature
increased with injection pressure, but the soot was
reduced in the case of high-pressure injection.
The effect of EGR on flame temperature has been
studied using a full-field two-colour system with a CCD
camera by Arcoumanis et a1.l9 and Shiozaki et aLzO.
Using a single intensified CCD camera, Arcoumanis et al.
obtained flame images and two-colour temperature and
KL factor distributions in a four-cylinder direct-injection
diesel engine with optical access through the piston.
Figure 17 shows the results that were obtained when the
engine was running without load at 1000 rpm with 0%
and 30% exhaust gas recirculation EGR, rates. The
images at each crank angle were recorded from different
cycles. Comparing Fig. 17(a) and (b) it is clear that the
peak flame temperature is lower with EGR. At the same
time the detectable area of sooting flame is reduced with
increasing EGR while the KL factor values with each
area remain approximately the same. This indicates a
 Optical diagnostics for soot and temperaturemeasurement
reduction of soot with increasing EGR, which is not in
line with the expected values. This is likely to be caused
by the limited dynamic range of the CCD camera used.
There are also other applications of the full-field two-
colour method. For example, Winterbone et al.” have
examined the effect of swirl on combustion while
Shiozaki et al.*’ identified a dependence of OH radical
emissions on flame temperature.
Kawamura et al.** extended the application of the
two-colour method to an SI engine. Since the premixed
combustion in an SI engine is generally much less
luminous than the diffusion flame in a diesel engine, fine
alumina particles (0.3 mm) were mixed with the intake
air. The burning of these particles allowed them to obtain
some qualitative burned gas temperatures. The emissiv-
ity or the factor 01 has to be known as a function of
temperature and wavelength before quantitative tem-
perature distribution can be measured.
3. SOOT DIAGNOSTICSBY MEANSOF LIGHT SCATTERING
3.1. Introduction
Optical techniques have been used to characterize soot
particles because of their non-intrusive nature. Light
scattering is one of the most widely used optical
techniques for soot diagnostics. This section is restricted
to the elastic scattering of light. An elastic scattering
process is one in which there is no energy exchange
between the incident photons of light and the target
molecules or particles; thus the scattered light has the
same frequency as that incident. This rules out such
topics as Raman scattering, laser induced fluorescence
and any non-linear optics.
Two optical techniques will be discussed in this part of
the paper. The light extinction method has been a
popular and accurate way to measure the in-cylinder soot
concentration owing to its simplicity and accuracy. The
combined use of light scattering and extinction can be
used to measure soot particle size but with much more
difficulty. The principle and implementation aspects of
each technique are described first, followed by examples
of results from the applications of these techniques. The
descriptions of light scattering theory will be kept to a
minimum. For complete descriptions of light scattering
from small particles readers are directed to books by Van
de Hulst,32 Kerker33 and Bohren and Huffman.
3.2. Soot Concentration Measurement by the Light
Extinction Method
3.2. I. Principle of the light extinction method
When a cloud of particles is placed in a beam of light
radiation, as shown in Fig. 18,the power detected will be
reduced. In this case, we say that the presence of the
particles has resulted in the extinction of the incident
light. The attenuation of light is caused both by
scattering by the particles and by absorption by the
235
Incident \ 0
-0 00 -
-0 OoOo -
-oOO
-l-J o-0 0- -
-00 . o-O-
//
f 1 G
Fig. 18. Extinction by a collection of particles.
particles, i.e.
extinction = scattering + absorption
The light intensity after passing through the particle
cloud is given by Lambert-Beer’s law:
where
10 = the incident light intensity (W me2);
K ext = the extinction coefficient for a cloud of particles
(m-l);
L = the path length of the light beam (m).
From light scattering theory, the extinction coefficient
for a cloud of particles is related to the number, size and
properties of individual particles by
where
C” = the number density (m-j);
Qex, = the extinction efficiency of a particle;
D = the particle diameter (pm);
N(D) = the particle size distribution function defined such
that JN(D)~D= 1.
The value of the extinction efficiency of each particle,
Q em is a complex function of the particle size and the
refractive index of the particle. Tbe exact expressions for
QeXrdo not exist except for some special cases. Perhaps
the most important exactly soluble problem in the theory
of absorption and scattering by small particles is that for
a sphere of arbitrary radius and refractive index as
described by the Mie theory.35 Various approximate
techniques are available which can lead to simpler
expressions for calculation, provide physical insight and
allow solutions for situations not open to rigorous
analysis. One of the most common approximate methods
is Rayleigh scattering. This applies to small particles with
x << 1 andxlm - 11<< I, where m is the complex refractive
index and x = *D/X is the particle size parameter.
Soot particles, especially those encountered in diesel
engine combustion, have a size distribution over a range
236 H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos
from a few nanometres to 70nm. The shape of the
individual particle is roughly spherical though they may
form non-spherical agglomerates in the exhaust, which
take the form of branched chains. When visible light with
wavelength ranging between 0.4 pm and 0.7 pm is used,
sub-micron soot particles lie in the regime xIm( < 1. For
example, at wavelength of 0.5 pm and a typical refractive
index of 1.6~i0.6, we find that x 5 0.063 or xbn I 0.107
for D 5 10 nm. For larger soot particles with D 5 70 nm,
then x 5 0.44 or xbrrI 5 0.75. According to Kerker et a1.36
the Rayleigh approximation is valid to within 1% for xlml
< 0.2 and to within 10% for xlml < 0.5. Thus, we may
apply the Rayleigh approximation to the individual soot
particles but not to any but the smallest agglomerates. The
agglomerates are not spherical so that, strictly speaking,
the Mie theory cannot be used. But most authors have
tended to use the spherical assumption because of its
simplicity. Their results should be considered in that light.
In addition, because the composition of soot varies, the
refractive index is uncertain. This leads to error in the
calculation of the scattering properties and the analysis of
experimental results.
Applying the Rayleigh scattering approximation, the
extinction efficiency is obtained:
Qe,,=4xIm($$) =:x4Re(G) (14)
The first term is the absorption efficiency, Qabs.and the
second the scattering efficiency, Qscat.Thus, for Rayleigh
scatters the scattering efficiency is proportional to x4
whereas the absorption efficiency is proportional to x.
Since x < 1, absorption dominates where it exists at
all, i.e. QabS>> Qscat.Thus, since soot is heavily absorb-
ing, extinction efficiency is given by
Q,,, = QabS= 4x Im (15)
So, Lambert-Beer’s law becomes
(16)
The volumetric density of particles C, (the volume of
particles in a unit of space) is related to the number
density of particles C, (the number of particles in a
unit of space) by
cc
c ,N(D)D3 dD
It can be obtained from the extinction measurement by
(17)
where Q, is the mean extinction efficiency for a poly-
dispersed particle cloud
(18)
InN(D)D* dD
*-
032 is known either as volume/surface mean diameter or
Sauter mean diameter
m
o N(D)D3 dD
J‘
D32= m (1%
o NW2 dD
I
Kontani and Gotoh carried out a detailed analysis on
Q Rl*37*38It has been shown that for particles of size par-
ameter x < 0.5, such as soot particles in a diesel combus-
tion chamber, the difference between Q,,, and Q(Ds2) (the
mean extinction efficiency based on Ds2) is less than 5%
regardless of the size distribution function. The error will
be increased to 10% if the size parameter approaches 1.
With Q,,, replaced with Q(D32) and an expression for
Q(Dj2) (Eq. (15)) the volumetric density of particles can
be found:
c,= - (20)
It is obvious that the particle volume concentration can
be calculated from the ratio of I/Z0 without any knowl-
edge of particle size distributions. The only approxi-
mation will be the value of the refractive index to be
used. This could be the largest source of error as the
refractive index varies with wavelength. Chang and
Charalampopoulos39 have measured experimentally the
variation of refractive index with wavelength and com-
pared it with the more widely quoted earlier measure-
ments of Dalzell and Sarofim4’ and the theoretical results
of Lee and Tien.4’ Following are the refractive indices
from Chang and Charalampopoulos39 together with the
value from Lee and Tien.
Wavelength Refractivendex
Mam) m=n-ik
0.337 1.48-i0.77
0.532 1.75-i0.61
0.633 1.80-iO.58
0.810 1.8%i0.57
I.064 1.91-i0.59
- 1.90-i0.55(Lee and Tien)
A simple calculation using Eq. (20) shows that the
soot volume concentration is 33% lower if the refractive
index is changed from m = 1.9-i0.55 to m = 1.4-i0.55.
Thus the choice of the value of the refractive index has a
significant effect on the measured value of soot
concentration.
If the particle density is known or assumed, the soot
mass concentration C, can then be obtained by C, = C,p.
3.2.2. Implementation of the light extinction method
The set-up of extinction measurement is rather
straightforward. All that is required is a laser and a
 Optical diagnostics for soot and temperaturemeasurement
Fig. 19. Schematic layout for the light extinction measurement.
.P
E
g!
c vaporization is normally completed a few degrees crank
r angle (CA), after the end of injection. It can therefore be
,M
w, -100 -so 0 50 100
t
200
Crank Angle [“CA]
Fig. 20. Sources of interference in the light extinction measure-
ment in a diesel engine.
photo-detector, as shown in Fig. 19. A very narrOw band
interference filter (FWHM = 1.O nm) is normally placed
in front of the photo-detector to suppress the influence of
flame radiation on the measured light intensities. Using
such a filter, the flame radiation reaching the detector can
be reduced to the order of 0.1% of the laser beam. Light
deflection by the presence of hot combustion gases can
be minimized to a large extent by using a large detection
area and having the focusing lens placed between the
detector and the measurement volume. The interference
of scattering with extinction is quite a common source of
error when light extinction measurement is carried out
for large particles. It is less of a problem for measure-
ment involving soot particles as the first lobe of
scattering maximum is quite far from the optical axis.
In addition, in the case of soot, absorption far outweighs
scattering. For soot particles with a diameter D <
0.1 pm, or x < 0.5 in the visible, using Eq. (24), given in
the next section, the estimated ratio of absorbed power to
that scattered arriving at the detector is greater than
10 000 if a 1 cm aperture is used at a distance of 1 m.
Thus, aperture size may be neglected as a problem in the
case of soot.
Since light can be attenuated due to scattering and
absorption by molecules and particles, the total trans-
mitted light through the combustion chamber would
suffer from extinction by air, dust and any liquid droplets
as well as soot particles. This is illustrated in Fig. 20.
When the engine is motored light intensity is slightly
reduced due to Rayleigh scattering from compressed air
in the cylinder. If the engine is motored with ambient air,
the second peak may also appear during the expansion
stroke because of the presence of water droplets from
condensation of water vapour in the air.42 The second
source of interference with light extinction measure-
ments is the liquid fuel droplets, as shown in Fig. 20,
237
though the shape of the light intensity due to the liquid
fuel droplets may be obtained from the motored engine
with fuel injection and nitrogen to suppress the
combustion. The actual fuel vaporization process will
be faster in a firing engine. If the motored light extinction
curve for liquid fuel droplets from a motored engine with
nitrogen is subtracted from the measured total extinction
curve, the soot concentration will be underestimated at
the beginning of the measurements. Under a high-
pressure and high-temperature environment in a modem
diesel engine, Hentschel and Richter4’ found that the
assumed that extinction soon after the end of the
injection is caused by soot particles only.
3.2.3. Application of the fight extinction method to
diesel engines
3.2.3.1. Single point light extinction measurements.
Kontani and Goto37,38carried out theoretical studies on
the light extinction method. One of the important
conclusions is that the mean extinction coefficient Q,,,
of a soot particle cloud can be approximated by the
extinction coefficient for the particle group’s Sauter
mean diameter Q(D&. The spectral extinction method
and the two-wavelength dispersion quotient method
were also discussed in both papers to obtain soot
particle sizes. The idea is based on the fact that for a
limited range of particle sizes the ratio of extinction
coefficients at two different wavelengths (Q&A,),
Q,,&)) is a simple function of particle size.
Unfortunately, in the Rayleigh regime, Q& ,)/
Q,.Jhz) is independent of particle size. As a result no
information on particle size was obtained from their
spectral extinction or two-wavelength dispersion
quotient measurements.
The research group at Aachen applied the light
extinction method to study soot formation in a model
combustion chamber with pressure and temperature
typical of a direct-injection diesel engine.43 The
refractive index m = 1.90-i0.45 from Lee and Tien’s
work was used to calculate the soot concentration. The
calculations of soot mass concentrations were done
assuming a soot density of 1.8 gme3. The measurements
were carried out in a matrix of locations in the fuel spray.
The mass of soot in different layers below the nozzle as
well as the total mass of soot in the spray were then
calculated as a function of time from the measured data.
The effect on soot formation was investigated for
injection system parameters such as injection pressure,
injection rate, nozzle hole diameter and spray injection
angle. They found that higher overall injection rates lead
to much less soot formation in the spray but high
injection rates in the early phase of injection lead to
higher soot formation in the spray. A large overlapping
of injection and combustion leads to strong secondary
soot formation, indicated by a second peak of high soot
mass concentration close to the injection nozzle. From
these observations, the authors suggested an optimum
238 H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos

Flame
Lens2

Fig. 2 1. Idealized set-up for infinite numbers of light extinction measurements.

TDC 2OATDC 4OATDC

Luminous
Flame
(a) Schlieren

Swirl Chamber
Injector
Luminous Flame’ hc4enozzle)

Fuel-air
(b) Shadow Mixture

Fuel
Spray

(c) Back-illuminated
1in Air )

(d) Back-illuminated
(in Nitrogen)

Fig. 22. The effect of optical set-up on the full-field light extinction measurement, from Nakakita er ~1.~ (reprinted with permission
from SAE 902081 0 1990 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.).

injection history should be characterized by an increas-
ing injection rate during the injection process and a sharp
cut-off of injection.
Hentschel and Richter42 recently applied the light
extinction technique to a high-speed direct-injection
diesel engine. Laser beams from a helium-neon laser
and an argon ion laser were introduced to the combustion
chamber via a bifurcated optical fibre. The transmitted
light was then separated back to the two incident
wavelengths in another bifurcated fibre. A combination
of a narrow band-pass filter, a short pass filter and a
neutral density filter was employed in each path to
suppress the flame radiation. The outputs from the two
photo-diodes were recorded by a transient recorder. The
effect of EGR on soot formation and oxidation was then
studied. They found that increasing EGR leads to longer
ignition delay and delayed soot formation and oxidation.
The peak soot concentration was found a few crank angle
degrees after auto-ignition, which increases with
increasing EGR rates. The soot oxidation rate is reduced
with an increasing amount of EGR in the cylinder due
to the reduced combustion temperature and oxygen
concentration.
3.2.3.2. Soot visualization by light extinction. In the
previous section, the soot volume fraction was
measured along a line of points through the soot cloud
inside the combustion chamber. A matrix of
measurement points is required to build up an image of
soot distribution, which is tedious and time-consuming.
In addition, as the measurements have to be carried out at
different times, only the ensemble-averaged soot
distributions can be measured. Therefore, it is desirable
to measure the soot volume fraction at multiple points
simultaneously. It seems logical to think that infinite
numbers of extinction measurements can be
accomplished by means of an imaging device and an
expanded light source, as shown in Fig. 21. An
expanded parallel beam passes through the soot cloud
before it reaches an imaging device. The light intensity
will be reduced in the region of the soot cloud due to
extinction by soot particles. This set-up is very similar to
that used for Schlieren or Shadowgraph. However, the
system shown in Fig. 21 measures the light attenuation
due to extinction only when there is little scattering and
the soot particles are suspended in a quiescent and
isothermal environment. Because soot is highly
absorbing, scattering is negligible compared with
absorption. However, when there are disturbances to
the refractive index of surrounding gases, part of the
beam will be deflected, which forms the basis of the
Schlieren or Shadowgraph techniques. As a result, the
Schlieren effect will be recorded as well as extinction
caused by soot particles.
The effect of changes in the refractive index or the
Schlieren effect on the soot visualization has been
studied by Nakakita et aZ.44.They compared three optical
set-ups for soot visualization. The results are shown in
 Optical diagnostics
Diffuser
Fig. 23. Optical set-up for soot visualization
Fig. 24. The experimental set-up for the combined soot and flame visualization
Fig. 22. The images were taken from the swirl chamber
of an indirect injection (IDI) two-stroke diesel engine,
which has two quartz windows at each end, by a high-
speed tine camera at 4800 frames per second. The
images in the top row were obtained with a Schlieren
system, which is similar to the optical set-up shown in
Fig. 21 and comprises a 6 mm diameter circular stop at
the focal point. These images show fuel sprays, fuel/air
mixture, flame front and luminous flame regions. But it is
impossible to tell where the soot cloud is.
Figure 22(b) shows the photographs recorded without
the circular stop at the focal point, i.e. they are
Shadowgraphs of the mixture in the swirl chamber.
With the removal of the circular stop, the sensitivity of
the Shadowgraphs is lower than that of the Schlieren
photographs. The density gradients in the mixture are
still visible. Hence, the images at 2” and 4” CA after top
dead centre (ATDC) record both the density gradients in
the mixture and attenuation by soot cloud. It is still
difficult to separate the soot cloud from changes in
density gradients.
Figure 22(c) shows the images taken with a uniformly
diffused light by a diffuser (a frosted glass plate), as
shown in Fig. 23. The flame emission is block by a
narrow band-pass filter. In setting up the system in
Fig. 23, the camera should be focused on the measure-
ment section so that the Shadowgraph effect can be
minimized. The photographs with this back-illuminated
method do not show the variations caused by the density
gradients or temperature gradients seen in Fig. 22(a) and
(b). The Schlieren effect caused by the change in the
refractive index of the mixture is suppressed by the use
of diffused light. The dark areas are, therefore, caused by
extinction. Further comparison with photographs taken
for soot and temperature measurement 239
FlZUlX
emission
with back-illumination.
Stepwedge
Pre-chamber
Filter
in an indirect-injection engine, used by Greeves and
Meehan.45
in the swirl chamber with a nitrogen motored engine
reveals that the top shadow is due to the extinction by
liquid fuel droplets and the other shadow areas are
caused by the presence of soot cloud.
Having established the appropriate optical set-up for
soot visualization, Nakakita and his co-workers exam-
ined the soot formation process in the swirl chamber of a
two-stroke diesel engine operating at 400 rpm with a
single hole injector. They found that the main soot area is
much smaller than the luminous flame area, particularly
in the initial soot formation process. The main soot cloud
first appears in the tip region of the fuel/air mixture
downstream of the ignition position immediately after
ignition and is then carried away by the gas flow. The
soot cloud forms in the high-temperature region which is
at the outer region of the fuel-rich region.
Pioneering work on soot visualization was carried
out by Greeves and Meehan45 in 1975. The experimental
set-up is shown in Fig. 24. A lens collimates the
ultraviolet light from a mercury arc lamp. The beam is
slightly converging. Three images are recorded simulta-
neously on a black and white film by a high-speed tine
camera. The three images are an ultraviolet image of the
step wedge for calibration, an ultraviolet absorption
image of the soot cloud, and an image of luminous flame.
The optical density at each point of the ultraviolet
absorption image is measured by a micro-densitometer.
The attenuation of light is then obtained by comparison
with that on the ultraviolet calibration image. The third
image provides useful information on the location of
flame. The optical set-up was applied to the swirl
chamber of a Ricardo El6 engine operating at 366 rpm.
Limited results were reported on the spatial distribution
of soot in the swirl chamber with a single hole injector.
240 H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos

As their experimental set-up for soot concentration
measurements was essentially the same as for the
Shadowgraph, it is likely that their results could have
been affected by the density and/or temperature
gradients present in the combustion mixture.
Chang et ~1.~~ at Tokyo Institute of Technology
studied soot formation and combustion in a rapid
compression machine. Both quantitative point measure-
ment of soot concentration by the light extinction
method and soot visualization were used to study the
soot formation and oxidation in a diesel flame with a
rapid compression machine. The soot visualization was
realized by a Schlieren system. The Schlieren stop used
was a circular aperture. They found that the sensitivity of
the system to density gradient in the flame was
minimized when the diameter of the aperture was
increased to 10 mm. Their experimental results show
that the soot particles first appear near the tip of the flame
and reach a peak value immediately after injection,
which is similar to what Nakakita et al. have observed. It
was also found that the soot is concentrated in the high-
temperature but fuel-lean region, which was attributed to
the fact that evaporated fuel requires time to be pyrolized
Fraunhofer diffraction cannot be used, which determine
the particle size from the scattered light intensity
distribution in the forward direction. Neither can
information be obtained from wavelength variation,
such as spectral extinction or the two-wavelength
dispersion method where one can infer particle size
from the ratio of extinction coefficients at two different
wavelengths. In such circumstances Van de Hulst3’
proposed using the ratio of scattering to extinction.
The scattering intensity is given by
I scB= $-&Jsit?+ + cos20 cos2d) (21)
where
cp = the angle between the plane of measurement and the
direction of polarization of the incident wave;
0 = the scattering angle;
r = the distance between the measurement point and the
detector.
For Rayleigh scatters (x < 1) the scattering coefficient
K,, is given:

I IJo
as it travels through the burning fuel-rich region towards
the flame tip. K _2’5nlz-l2 -
Both Kontani and Gotoh and Miyamoto et ~1.~~ Dk,N(D) dD (22)
“-3X4 m2+2
studied soot formation using an optical set-up similar to
that shown in Fig. 21. A small aperture was placed at the To find the received power at the scattering detector P,,,,
focal point, which rendered the set-up essentially a I,,, must be integrated over the aperture of the detector,
Schlieren system. As discussed at the beginning of this i.e.
section, such a set-up will lead to images comprising
both the Schlieren effect as well as attenuation due to pm=v J ALa d4
soot cloud. Their soot concentration results, therefore,
have been very likely affected. where V = scattering volume, A = detector area.
A two-dimensional light extinction method was also From Rq. (12), the power detected by an extinction
reported in their earlier paper by Backer and Wiartalla.4* detector is
A back-illuminated system similar to that shown in Fig.
23 was employed. To compensate for the loss in the light
intensity due to the diffuser screen, an argon ion laser
(2 W) was used as the light source. The transmitted light
As discussed in the previous section (Rq. (14)). for Ray-
was filtered by a band-pass filter to suppress the influence
leigh scatters, the scattering efficiency is proportional to
of flame radiation on the measured light intensity and
x4 whereas the absorption efficiency is proportional to x.
recorded with a high-speed tine film camera. The film
Since soot is heavily absorbing and x < 1, the extinction
was then digitized with a video camera and the
is dominated by absorption:
transmission was calculated for each pixel by relating
the intensity after the start of injection to the intensity
just before the start of injection. Unlike the line-of-sight KCT.,
=Kabs= cIm(g)‘J,D’C”N(D)dD (23)
single point light extinction measurements, the recorded
light on the film is from scattered light as well as Both K,, and K,,, contain the unknown soot concentra-
extinction. Hence the soot concentration results mea- tion, C,, which can be eliminated by taking their ratio.
sured by the two-dimensional set-up will be less accurate K,$K,,, provides
than the single point measurements.

3.3. Soot Particle Sizing by Scattering and Extinction (24)

3.3.1. Principle

For soot particles lying in the Rayleigh region the Introduce a measure of the particle size, Db3:
scattering polar diagram is not sensitive to size. Popular
-6 -3 113
optical methods of particle sizing based on the Da3 =(D ID )
 Optical diagnostics for soot and temperature measurement
ED: extinction detector; SD: scat&kg detector; PR: pohisation
PSD: phase-sensitive detector; D: reference detector
Fig. 2.5. General optical set-up for light scattering
with
cc
p= o D6N(D) dD
5 commonly a laser because it produces monochromatic
b3 = o D3N(D) dD
Then Eq. (24) becomes
(25)
Therefore a measure of size, D63, can be obtained from
the measurement of scattered light and light extinction.
This method will give the true size for a mono-dispersed
cloud of particles. It will yield, however, a measure of
the size which is biased by the size distribution when the
particle cloud is polydispersed. There is not enough
information to recover the size distribution function. A
measure of the soot concentration can be obtained from
either the extinction or scattered power, using D63 as the
particle size. In any case the measured concentration
c “&I from scattered power or C,,,, from extinction is
different to the true concentration C, because of
L K C# = Cn,sca(D& IL, = C,b3 = C,,,,,(D,,)3
The other factor which affects the accuracy of this
method is the refractive index m, because the ratio of
scattering to extinction involves
I(m2 - l)/(m2 f 1)12/Im[(m2 - l)/(m2 + 2)]
For the range of refractive indices suitable for soot as
listed in Section 3.2.1 the ratio can vary by a factor of 2
or more and is an important unknown.
241
rotator;
and extinction measurements.
The scattering and extinction method for soot study
has been mostly used in flames. A typical apparatus for
light scattering and extinction measurements on sooting
flames would be that in Fig. 25. The light source is
light with high brightness, excellent collimation and a
high degree of linear polarizability. The transmitted
beam passes to an extinction detector. As mentioned in
the previous section, there is little interference from
forward-scattered light in the extinction measurement.
Due to temperature gradients and fluctuations of the gas,
the transmitted beam is continually in motion. A way of
overcoming the problem of movement of the transmitted
beam is to use a lens to image the flame onto the detector.
In this way deflections arising at the flame are brought
back to the optic axis of the system, and always arrive at
the same point on the detector. The use of a lens also
concentrates the flame radiation onto the detector. To
reduce the significance of this the laser beam can be
chopped and phase-sensitive detection used together
with a narrow band interference filter immediately in
front of the detector.
The scattered light is collected by a lens and focused
onto a detector at an angle to the forward direction. The
scattering volume is determined by the intersection of
the laser beam and the image of the aperture placed in
front of the detector.
3.3.2. Adaptation and application of light scattering and
extinction to a diesel engine
To apply the scattering and extinction method with an
optical set-up as shown in Fig. 25 in a diesel engine
requires three optical windows in addition to the beam
steering problem. To overcome this difficulty, Tree and
Foster49 designed an ingenious optical probe for
measurement of the soot diameter, number density and
flame temperature at the same time. The optical probe
used is shown in Fig. 26. An argon ion (488 nm +
5 14 nm) is used as the light source for the scattering and
extinction method, which is introduced into the cylinder
through a sending window in the probe via an optical
fibre.
242 H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos

Optical
Fibre I

Microscope Acusto-optical
Objective Modulator

sapphire
wiiow-

Unit

Fig. 26. The optical probe and experimental set-up for combined light scattering/extinction and scattering/radiation measurements in
a diesel engine used by Tree and Foster.49

Radiation and scattered light are collected from the
combustion chamber through a sapphire window and
into a trifurcated optical fibre bundle which splits the
light into three equal portions. The light then passes
through three filters at wavelengths 488 2 1 nm, 514 -C
1 nm and 850 + 25 nm. The scattered laser light at
488 nm and 5 14 nm is detected by photo-multiplier tubes
while the near infra-red radiation at 850 nm is measured
with a photo-voltaic cell. The measurement volume for
light scattering is defined by the intersection of the laser
beam and the viewing cone angle, which is approxi-
mately 5 mm long and 1.5 mm wide. It should be pointed
out that the measurement volume for the two-colour
method will be along the line of sight as defined by the
cone angle, which is larger than tbe scattering volume.
Two different methods have been used by Tree and
Foster to obtain the diameter, number density and soot
volume fraction. The first is the light scattering/
extinction method and the second is a radiation/
scattering method.
3.3.2.1. The scattering and extinction technique. When
the scattered light is detected from a measurement
volume within a cloud of soot particles, as shown in
Fig. 26, the incident light intensity will be reduced by
extinction on its path in and the scattered light will be
similarly reduced on its path out. If this extinction effect
is taken into account, then the scattered power detected is
given by
where L.1and L2 are the path lengths in and out and it is
understood that I, is the intensity scattered for the
incident intensity I@
Using the optical probe shown in Fig. 26, a similar
effect takes place. The scattered light from the laser
beam detected at the laser wavelengths experiences both
scattering and extinction as it penetrates into and out of
the soot cloud. Hence the scattered power detected at
each laser wavelength is
where L is the optical path length as defined by the
intersection volume of the laser beam and the viewing
cone angle. Assuming the soot of one size is uniform
along the path and the measurement volume and using
Eqs (22) and (23), Eqs (26) and (27) become
P sea,A, = CC.&0 ev( - GD34,, ) C?$ (28)
P =a,x2 = G&m) exp( - GD3W.$?4,; (2%
where
c4 = calibration constant, including the transmission
characteristics of optics and the sensitivity of the
detector;

Am) = a function of the refractive index of soot, given by

f(m)=exp( -Im($$))l$$. (30)

 Optical diagnostics for soot and temperature measurement
From Eqs (28) and (29) the size of the soot particles can
be obtained by the measurements of scattered light at two
laser wavelengths. If the calibration constant, C,,,, is
known the number density of soot, C,, can also be cal-
culated. The calibration can be done by placing the
optical probe in front of water before and after each
engine measurement.
The light scattering and extinction method will only
work when there is a proper amount of soot in the
measurement volume. If the soot cloud were completely
opaque, there would be no extinction. On the other hand,
there would not be enough extinction if the soot cloud
were fairly transparent. Fortunately, during the combus-
tion period in a diesel engine, the amount of soot
concentration allows both scattering and extinction to
produce enough signals.
3.3.2.2. The radiation and scattering technique. In this
method, two radiation signals are detected together with
the scattering signal from the laser beam at one
wavelength. The scattering signal includes both
scattering and extinction from the laser beam. The two
radiation signals are given by Planck’s law:
From q, = ] - e(-KL’Aa)
and Eq. (23) the above equa-
tions can be generalized as
Prad.hl
=f(Cno3h> A, T)
Prad,X:
=f(CnD3/A2> X27’)
From two radiation signals the flame temperature and
quantity KLeff (-C,,D3L& can be determined using
the two-colour method described earlier. The effective
optical length, Leff, is defined by the receiving optics and
is less than the distance from the cylinder head to the
piston. If this effective length is known, the soot di-
ameter and number density can be found from Eqs
(28), (29), (33) and (34).
In their experiments, Tree and Foster estimated the
value of Left from the radiation and scattering signals.
The effective optical length, Leff, was approximated by
matching the radiation/scattering soot volume fraction at
a crank angle of peak soot concentration and was found
to be 0.6 times the length from the piston to the cylinder
head. This was only done at one engine condition and
used for other data.
3.3.2.3. Implementation. The optical probe was
positioned in place of one of the exhaust valves in a
single cylinder direct-injection diesel engine. The laser
beam was pulsed on and off every other cycle. This
makes every other cycle produce a signal only of
radiation from the soot particles while the cycles in
between contain both radiation and scattering. An
ensemble average of 200 cycles was taken, 100 with
243
the beam on and 100 with the beam off. An ensemble-
averaged scattering signal was obtained by subtracting
the ensemble-averaged value with the beam off from that
with the beam on. As a result, three sets containing the
ensemble-averaged radiation signals at the three
wavelengths of 488, 5 14 and 850 nm, with another two
sets of the scattering of the soot particles at wavelengths
of 488 and 514 nm, were generated. With this
information, the soot particle diameter, number density
and soot volume fraction were determined by the two
different methods described above.
3.3.2.4. Results. Figure 27 shows the results for soot
volume fraction, soot diameter and number density at
1300 rpm and 0.5 equivalence ratio. The flame
temperature is also shown as calculated from the
radiation signals. Analysis of the raw data by Tree and
Foster suggested that the soot diameter calculation was
only valid in the region between 4” and 16” CA ATDC.
The large soot volume fraction occurring between - 1lo
and 4” CA ATDC in the scattering and extinction method
is attributed to interference from fuel droplets and a low
signal-to-noise ratio.
As shown in Fig. 27, during 4” and 16” CA ATDC the
(31) soot diameter increases slightly to a peak then drops
rapidly. As the soot diameter peaks, the soot volume
fraction drops slowly and continuously. Detailed exam-
ination of the figure shows that the diameter is
decreasing in size very rapidly between 11” and
16” CA ATDC even though there are still large
measurable soot volume fractions, indicating a change
in soot diameter and not simply a lack of soot particles.
(33)
Also shown in Fig. 27 is the soot number density.
Owing to the high level of uncertainty involved in the
(34)
result, the soot number density results were not
considered in their paper by Tree and Foster.
In addition to the detailed study of the sooting process
at 1300 rpm and an equivalence ratio of 0.5, measure-
ments were also made at engine speeds of 1000 rpm and
1700 rpm and equivalence ratios of 0.2-0.5. The
measured peak soot diameter was found to be in the
range of 30-50 nm. Soot volume fraction was found in
the range of 2.5-6.5 X 10d5. The peak soot diameter,
soot volume fraction and soot temperature at the
measurement location were found to increase as the
equivalence ratio increased, though the effect of speed is
inconclusive.
There are two sources of errors that render the
scattering and extinction method more quantitative
than the radiation and scattering method. One is the
approximation of the effective optical length in the
radiation measurement. The other is caused when
radiation from soot outside the scattering measurement
volume is detected.
The uncertainty level for the scattering and extinction
method in absolute soot diameter was estimated to be
approximately 30% plus the uncertainty caused by the
unknown refractive index. The radiation and scattering
method involved an assumed path length in calculat-
ing the soot volume fraction and soot diameter as well
244 H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos
- -- - Rad./Scat.
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10,
-10
Fig. 27. Soot volume fraction, diameter, number density and temperature at 1300 ‘pm, equivalence ratio f = 0.5, from Tree and
Foster49(reprinted with permission from SAE 940270 6 1994 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.).
as the uncertainty of the scattering and extinction
method.
4. TWO-DIMENSIONALSOOT IMAGING
4.1. Introduction
The optical techniques described in the previous two
sections measure soot concentration integrated along the
line of sight and, hence, lack spatial resolution. Uneven
soot distribution along the line of sight cannot be
resolved. This difficulty can be overcome by means of
laser sheet. Two different types of laser-sheet or two-
dimensional soot imaging techniques have been
developed and used to obtain planar soot distributions
in both optically accessible diesel engines and in diesel
engine-like environments. The two techniques are laser
induced scattering (LIS) and laser induced incandes-
cence (LB). The principle of LIS from soot particles was
given in Section 3. In the following sections, the
principle and implementation of LII will be discussed
in detail. The applications of LII for two-dimensional
soot imaging in diesel engines are then described
together with LIS.
‘f
0.1
30
4.2. Laser Induced Incandescence (WI)
LII was first noticed by Eckbreth in 197750 when it
produced an interference signal in coherent anti-Stokes
Raman scattering experiments in particle-laden flames.
LII is generated when a cloud of soot is irradiated with
an intense laser light. The soot particles are heated to a
temperature well above the surrounding gas temperature
due to the absorption of laser energy. The heated soot
particles subsequently emit black body radiation corre-
sponding to the elevated soot particle temperature. If the
laser fluences are high enough the vaporization of small
carbon fragments, typically C2 and C3, from the surfaces
will take place once the vaporization temperature of
carbon of 4000 K is reached. Both LII and laser induced
fluorescence from the vaporized material have been
suggested previously by Dasch,5’-53 Melton54 and
Bengtsson and Aldet?’ to study soot volume concentra-
tions in flames. Since then, LII has been more widely
used because it is less susceptible to spurious signals, e.g.
those from other channels of C2 excitation or subtle
changes in the nature of the vaporized material which
may be associated with soot particle aging. It is also
observed that the LII signal, in general, dominates that
from fluorescent emissions from the vaporized carbon.
 Optical diagnostics for soot and temperature measurement 245

4.2.1. Theoretical analysis of LIZ where

4.2.1 .l. Energy and mass balance equations. The P5 = density of the sect particle (kg me3);
absolute temperature of the heated soot particles is
determined by the rate of laser energy absorbed, the A abs = mass specific absorption cross-section (m’ kg-‘);
rate of conductive heat transfer to the surrounding
= CaiJm/ms;
medium, soot vaporization and the energy loss due to
black body radiation. Both Dasch” and Melton54 have N” = the molecular diffusion flux (me2 s-l);
given derivations for laser induced vaporization with a
number of simplifications. A more thorough theoretical NAV = Avogadro’s number (kmol-‘);
analysis of the LII technique has recently been given by
Q abs = absorption efficiency of the soot particle, which is
Hofeldt.56 The analysis is based on a transient energy equal to the spectra1 emissivity of the soot particle, c<,x;
balance on a particle, which is small compared to the
wavelengths of absorbed and emitted radiation, = C,bJ(rD*/4).

d(CJs) K h,; The continuity equation for the particle mass is used to
m,-------
dt
---
M, dt
=I

o
c

abs - us(Ts- Tm) derive the above equation, which, assuming the particle
I m surface is essentially stationary and the vapour is carried
-
I
OAs%.&&-s)dX+ I ,Cabs%v,~Eb,~(Tw)
dh away from the particle by diffusion, is given by

(35) d% Nv?rD;Mv
(37)
dr= - NAv
where
As shown in Eq. (36), the change in soot particle tem-
m, = mass of the soot particle (kg); perature is affected by the particle diameter, which needs
c, = specific heat of the soot panicle (J(kg.K)-‘);
to be known when vaporization becomes important. For
T, = temperature of the soot particle (K); a spherical particle,

ff” = enthalpy of vaporization of the soot particle

dm
= ;p,Di a
-..-? dt
(38)
(Jmol-‘); dt

= molecular weight of vaporized material; Combining Eqs (37) and (38) it becomes

= laser intensity (W me*);

d4 -- 2NJ& (39)
dt= NAGS
= absorption cross-section (m’);
Therefore, Eqs (36) and (39) are coupled, non-linear
= heat transfer coefficient (W(m*.K)-‘); equations which must be solved simultaneously if vapor-
ization is important in order to obtain the time dependent
= surface area of the soot particle (m*); particle size and temperature distributions.
The molecular diffusion flux, N,, is related to the flux,
= rD*;
NvK, for free molecule conditions (K, >> 1) and the flux
= temperature of surrounding medium (K); under continuum conditions, NVCby
I
= spectral emissivity of the soot particle; _‘+-F
N,- N~K NC
= black body spectral irradiance (W(m*.pm)-I);
The molecular and continuum fluxes can be calculated
= spectral emissivity of wall. from kinetic theory5’ and mass transport relations58
according to
The terms in Eq. (35) are, respectively, the energy
storage, the heat of vaporization, the laser power
(41)
absorbed, the rate of heat transfer to the medium, the
rate of energy loss by radiation and the rate of radiative
absorption from surroundings. DABXv, -Xv=
If the radiation from the walls is neglected, Nvc=2nD,(l
-x,,)
(42)

using appropriate kinetic theory, Eq. (35) can be where

rewritten as
P = evaporation coefficient;

= 0.9 (0.6- 1.O spanned experimental result?“):

R = gas constant;
3 =
--- (36)
~P,C,D, I o Qabsh, A (q) dX
n = molecular number density (me3);
246 H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos

X”S = mole fraction of carbon vapeur at the surface of the distribution of soot particles, can be written as
seat particle;

XW = mole fraction of carbon vapour in gas far from the

soot particle:
m
= mass diffusivity of carben vapour in gas (m’s_‘).
DAB X o cab&b, dTs) dXmsdt (45)

Since the mass flow rate term is only important when where
vaporization is significant, the mole fraction in the
vapour phase can be obtained from the Clausius- V mv = measurementvolume (m’);
Clapeyron equation: = soot particle number density (m-‘);
C,(r)

W(r) = signal windowing function:

This is invalid if the particle is superheated beyond the N(D,) = Normalized size distribution, i.e. fN(DJdD,= I.
vaporization temperature, T*, and for temperatures far
different from T*. The emissivity of the soot particles is assumed to be
In order to solve Eq. (36), the absorption efficiency, equal to the absorption efficiency, Qabs. Equations (36)
Qabs, and the heat transfer coefficient, h, are also and (39) may be numerically integrated to obtain the soot
required. Though complete evaluation of Qabs can be temperature, T, and diameter, D,. For the sake of
done with computer programs based on Mie theory,34 simplicity, we have neglected laser intensity variations
there are two regimes where the value of Qabscan be easily and assumed that any fluorescence from excited-state
evaluated. For small particles in the Rayleigh regime, Qabs vapour molecules which may be generated if the
is a linear function of particle diameter D, as given by Eq. particles are vaporized is not significant in the wave-
(15). For very large particles (D >>A),Qabis independent length band being examined.
of particle size. A complicated relationship exists between The time integral is included to allow for the laser
Q abs and the particle diameter when the particle size is pulses which are functions of time, integrating detectors
comparable to the radiation wavelength. and/or post processing of time-resolved signal. A unit
Since the soot particle size is of the order of or smaller weight delta function 6(t = T) can be used to replace W(t)
than the mean-free-path in the surrounding gas, the heat to generate the signal at any time t = T. For integrated
transfer coefficient, h, is given by59 measurements, the exposure time may be adjusted
depending on illumination pulse length, particle
2k, 2k,
h= (43) response time, particle velocity, detector response time
D,(l+GK,)=D,+GX,rr,
and background level. Independent size calibration may
where K, is the Knudsen number, X,rr is the mean-free- be necessary to determine the optimum gating window if
path in the gas, and G is a factor which depends on temporal integration is to be employed without sensitiv-
geometry, ity to the particle size, which has been studied by Ni
et aLa and will be discussed below. On the other hand, it
G=-
8f
might be possible to infer information on soot particle
4-f+ 1)
size distribution if the temporal profile of the signal is
where f is the Eucken factor5’ and 01the thermal accom- recorded.
modation factor (a = 0.9). Computations of the LII in response to an
From Eq. (36). it can be seen that when a short intense idealized laser pulse based on the above black body
laser is applied, the soot particle temperature rises radiation laws and the soot particle energy balance
rapidly during the duration of the laser pulse as the soot have been performed by Melton54 and Tait and
particles absorb the laser energy. The heat loss through Greenhalgh.6’
the conductive (the second term) and radiative heat At the limit of high laser power and maximum soot
transfer (the last term) to the surrounding medium is particle temperature near its vaporization point, accord-
much smaller than the laser energy absorption rate (term ing to Meltons Eq. (36) becomes
1). As the soot particle temperature approaches the soot
vaporization point (approximately 4000 K), the tempera-
ture rise is severely hampered by the energy consumed in r,“Q
b”=_ HvNv
4 NAP
the vaporization of soot particles. After the laser pulse is
off, the temperature of the soot particles gradually For small particles (D < X),the absorption efficiency is
decreases due to conductive and radiative heat losses. given by Eq. (15). The soot temperature can be approxi-
mated by
4.2.1.2. UI signal and its relation to soot volume
fractions. As a black body, the soot particle radiates
1 1 m2 - 1
according to Plan&s equation (Eq. (1)). The detector 1- & log(Zs F Im -
TY9i5 . m2+2
signal, S, collected over a given solid angle, 61,from a [ I II
 Optical diagnostics
Fig. 28. Schematic layout for the two-dimensional
measurement.
Inserting this result into Eq. (45) we have approximately
where
cc,1 = calibration factor;
x = exponential fartor of LII signal’s dependence
particle size:
= (3 + 0.154h-.‘).
For h between 0.4 and 0.7 urn, for example, the LII
signal is proportional to the mean soot diameter raised to
the power of 3.38-3.22, or approximately to the soot
volume fraction. This forms the basis of using LB for
measurement of soot volume fraction.
4.2.2. Implementation of LII
Figure 28 shows the optical set-up for the LII
experiments. A high-power pulsed laser is used to form
a light sheet with a combination of spherical and
cylindrical lenses for the two-dimensional measurement.
The LII signal is detected perpendicularly to the laser
light sheet with a gated intensified CCD camera. The low
LII signal-to-noise ratio requires the use of a gateable
camera with gating down to nanoseconds. The camera
lens used is normally optimized for ultraviolet operation,
typically, a Nikon 105 mm ultraviolet lens. As will be
discussed later in this section, the best compromise
between the absolute intensity of the LII signal and the
ratio of the LII signal to the background luminosity is
obtained at a detection wavelength of about 400 nm. A
set of low pass filters or an ultraviolet narrow band-pass
filter is required to restrict the detection range of the LII
signal. One or two laser mirrors are used to block off any
elastic scattering from soot particles or any surfaces.
Under optimum conditions a signal-to-noise ratio of no
more than 1% may be achieved.
The intensity of an LII signal depends on a number of
factors. The dominant factor is the temperature of the
for soot and temperature measurement 247
laser-heated soot particles, which is determined by the
rate of laser energy absorption and heat loss through
conduction, radiation and soot vaporization. The detec-
tion wavelength will also affect the LII signal intensity
and its signal-to-noise ratio. The application of LII for
quantitative measurement of the soot volume fraction
needs to take these factors into consideration.
4.2.2.1. Selection of excitation and detection
wavelengths. The excitation wavelength and detection
wavelength need to be selected to optimize the LII
signal-to-noise ratio. When a visible light is used, most
soot particles in diesel engines scatter light in the
Rayleigh region, where the particle absorption
LII
efficiency varies approximately inversely with
wavelength at fixed refractive index and fixed size, as
shown in Eq. (15). Hence, a shorter excitation
wavelength will be more effective in heating up the
soot particles. However the broad-band fluorescence
from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) may
interfere strongly with the LII signal if an ultraviolet
excitation is to be used. When the 4th harmonic of an
Nd:YAG laser at 266 nm was used,62 for example, strong
broad-band fluorescence from PAHs was observed
around 400 nm. This produced severe interference with
the LII signal. The use of the second harmonic of an
on soot
Nd:YAG laser at 532 nm is a good compromise
between the excitation efficiency and signal-to-noise
ratio. With excitation at 532 nm, any fluorescence from
PAHs or other molecules will be at longer visible
wavelengths and near the infra-red region if there is
any. Because the LII signal is normally observed at
around 400 nm for reasons to be discussed below, the
interference from the fluorescence can be minimized
by using a short pass filter.
In the LII technique the temperature difference
between the laser-heated and not-heated soot particles
is used to reject the background luminosity from the soot
not in the probe volume. In a diesel engine or diesel
flame, the temperature of non-heated soot particles is
about 2200 K or less, whereas the temperature of laser-
heated soot particles could reach 4000 K. Assuming that
black body radiation takes place on soot surfaces, we can
compare the black body radiation at 4000 K to that at
2200 K. The results shown in Fig. 29 are calculated
assuming that the thickness of laser sheet is two orders of
magnitude less than that of a soot cloud. It is seen that the
ratio of radiation from laser-heated soot particles to that
from soot particles increases as the detection wavelength
becomes shorter. The detection of the LII signal at
shorter wavelengths is, therefore, preferred in order to
reject unwanted luminosity. On the other hand, the
overall intensity of the collected light will also decrease
as the cut-off wavelength is reduced. The LII signal is
normally detected around 400 nm to achieve a good
signal-to-noise ratio. A short pass filter or a narrow band-
pass filter is normally used. Since the LII signal-to-noise
ratio is very low (< 1%). a small amount of elastically
scattered laser light from soot, dust and the wall passing
through the filter may cause serious interference with the
248 H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos

105E

2:

10' =,

2 7

IO3 r

.o
3 2-

‘
*0 102 :

5
E 27

10’ :

2:

100 E

2 -
IO-“’ ’ b ’ ’ 6 ’ ’ ’ I ’ I ’ I ’ 1 ’
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 loo0
Wavelength (nm)

Fig. 29. Ratio of black body radiation from heated soot at 4000 K to that from soot at 2200 K.

- Rectangular beam
1.1.11-1 Gausianhm
? ? Experimental results

2 4 6 8

Laser Fluence x10’ (W/cm’)

Fig. 30. Effect of laser fluence on the LII signal level, adapted from Tait and Greenhalgh.6’

LII signal. A laser mirror, which reflects light at the laser
wavelength while allowing the others to pass, may
therefore be needed to block the elastically scattered
laser light.
4.2.2.2. Effect of laser output. The laser output affects
the intensity of an LII signal in two ways: laser fluence
and laser beam shape. Figure 30, from Tait and
Greenhalgh,63 illustrates the effect of laser Ruence on
the LII signal for a soot particle of radius 100 nm.
Below a certain laser fluence value, no observable LII
signal is detected. Just above the laser fluence threshold,
the LII signal exhibits a rapid increase with increased
laser fluence. This effect is due to the fact that the soot
particle temperature increases as a function of the laser
fluence, which causes a corresponding increase in the LII
signal. For a rectangular beam the signal decreases at
very large fluences due to the soot particles losing
significant mass. When a Gaussian profile laser beam
is used calculation predicts an LII signal nearly
independent of laser power above the threshold fluence
(about 10 MW cm-*). This can be explained by the fact
that for a Gaussian profile beam, the laser intensity is
high in the middle and gradually falls towards the edge
of the beam. Increasing laser energy will result in an
increase in the effective laser beam diameter or the LII
 Optical diagnostics for soot and temperature measurement 249

120
I: laca ffucacc 0.072 J/m*; 2: h fluence 0.14 J/cd;

3: laser flucnce 0.27 J/cd; 4: laser thmce 0.72 J/cm’;

100
i’\ 3

i \
; \3
80
Q I’; 4 ‘,
j i. ‘\
: :‘;’ ‘:{“,j ‘\
m 60
I\ '., '\
1 (1:' ', '\
6 ! i ‘. ‘.., ‘\
‘B !,I i *\
!I ; ‘\ ‘....- -\
z 40 ,, .\ -..._,,,‘N
II ! ” 2 -...:::,-,>_
0 1 ‘.\, - xT,y__
‘~=wl”_,,_
‘II I .A
- -._, ---
;#I I: - -.-._,
20 I/ : 1 - -._, -._._,
,I ! -‘-,-.-.-.-.-._._._,_._._._,,
!! ; ,,,................................,................ .,...................,.,......

0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Time (na)

Fig. 3 1.IEffect of laser fluence on the temporal profile of the LII signal, adapted from Ni et al,60

Table 3. Summary of experimental set-up for LB measurements

Excitation Detection wavelength Detector Reference

wavelength
Nd:YAG 532 mm < 450 nm, two 450 nm low-pass filters, Gated intensified CCD camera Dee et al.73-76
one BG39 Schott-glass short pass filter, (240 X 388), 70 ns gate width
a 53:2nm laser mirror Gated intensified CCD (380 X 480).
50 ns gate width
Nd:YAG 532 nm 400 t 70 nm band-pass filter532 nm, Gated intensified lens coupled CCD Alatas et aLb9
laser mirror camera (768 X 480). 50 ns gate width
Nd:YAG 532 nm 450 + 25 nm band-pass filter Gated intensified CCD camera Ni et aLm
(384 X 578). 18 ns gate width
Nd:YAG 532 nm 400 t 66 nm band-pass filter Gated intensified lens coupled Kosaka et al?*
CCD camera, 40 ns gate width
Nd:YAG 532 nm 410 -t 70 nm band-pass filter532 nm, Gated intensified CCD camera
laser mirror (384 X 578). 20 ns gate width
Excimer 308 nm Gated intensified CCD camera Tait and Greenhalgh6’.63
(600 X 400)
Nd:YAG 266 nm 400 2 35 nm band-pass filter, time Gated intensified CCD camera Cignoli et a16*
delayed detection (576 X 578)

probe volume, in which the laser fluence exceeds the
threshold of the LII signal. A similar result was also
reported by Quay et aLti
4.2.2.3. The selection oftemporal resolution. Since the
LII signal overlaps with flame radiation, synchronization
between the laser output and the detection of the LII
signal is required. Unlike elastic scattering (Rayleigh
or Mie scattering), which lasts as long as the laser
pulse, LII can last a few hundred nanoseconds.
Figure 31, from Ni et aZ.,60shows the temporal profiles
of LII signals for different laser fluences. As can be seen
from Fig. 3 1, when the Iaser fluence is not saturated, the
rise time and the decay time of the LII signal are long.
The peak LII signal increases with laser fluence initially
and then becomes lower for very high laser fluence.
Because of the time required for the LII signal to reach
its peak value, the detector gate should be delayed by few
nanoseconds with respect to the laser pulse.
In Fig. 3 1, significant effect on the LII signal decay is
also observed as the laser fluence is varied. The dramatic
decrease of the LII decay time with increased laser
tluence is observed, due to the reduction in particle
diameter by vaporization. The effect of particle size
on LII signal decay time was also studied by Ni
et al.60 Their results show that the rising edges of LII
temporal profiles for soot particles of different sizes
are closely matched, consistent with the theoretical
prediction that in the Rayleigh regime all particles,
regardless of their sizes, increase in temperature at the
same rate. But the LII signal from the smaller soot
undergoes a faster decay time than the larger soot. This
is because the heat loss is dominated by convection
and radiation losses in this region and the smaller
250 H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos

particles have a larger surface-to-volume ratio and or Rayleigh scattering depending on the particle size, is
hence, cool faster. frequently used to study the soot formation process in
The dependence of the LII signal on particle size to flames. The LIS signal is much stronger than that of LII.
D3.+o.“54m is valid only if the laser power is high and soot LIS has been successfully used to map the soot
approaches its maximum temperature (LII signal at its distribution in laminar and turbulent flames using
peak value). Because its rise time is independent of gaseous fuels. The flame luminosity is easily avoided
by using a short camera shutter time. The application of
particle size, the LII signal should be integrated up to its
peak value so that the detected LII signal can be related elastic scattering to a diesel engine, however, is more
to the soot volume fraction. problematic since the elastically scattered light from
Therefore, even though the LII signal could have a liquid droplets (Mie scattering) causes significant
lifetime as long as a few hundred nanoseconds, a short interference in identifying the soot particles during
gate width should be used so that the size sensitivity of early stages of combustion. The parasitic scattering from
the decaying LII signal can be minimized. For their windows and walls imposes another serious interference
experimental set-up, Ni et ~1.~ estimated that an error with elastic scattering. Lee et aL6* attempted to
could be as high as 10% due to the size effect when a gate distinguish between soot particles and liquid droplets
width of 50 ns was used. by comparing the elastic scattering intensities of
Table 3 summarizes the experimental setups used for vertically and horizontally polarized laser light. This
the LII measurements reported in the literature. approach was reasonably successful, but it complicated
the experiment significantly because it was necessary to
4.2.3. Calibration of LII for soot volume fraction acquire two images for different polarization ratios
measurement
simultaneously. Post-processing of the images to sep-
arate the signals from soot particles and liquid droplets
Since the LII technique involves the absolute was a lengthy process as well.
measurement of incandescent light, calibration of the There are other disadvantages of using elastic
LII signal is required in order to obtain the soot volume scattering for soot measurement. The elastic scattering
fraction. This can be carried out in a sooting laminar normally encountered in the cylinder is in the Rayleigh
flame. The LII signal at a single spatial point is equated regime. The Rayleigh scattering signal is proportional to
with the known value of the soot volume fraction, which the particle diameter to the sixth power. Therefore, the
is obtained by the tomographic inversion method after scattered light favours zones with larger particle size. A
the line-of-sight values of the soot volume fraction in strong Rayleigh scattering signal may be a result of very
several angular directions have been measured.65-67 high soot number density, large particle size or a
combination of both. As a result, the interpretation of
4.3. Soot Particle Sizing using WI and US the result obtained by Rayleigh scattering is difficult.
LII overcomes most of the problems associated with
We have shown that the LII signal is proportional to the elastic scattering technique. The LII signal is broad-
the soot volume fraction or, more precisely, to the soot band. It is, therefore, possible to receive the light signal
diameter to the power of 3.22 if it is to be detected at at a wavelength away from the laser wavelength with a
400 nm when the laser power is high and proper narrow band-pass filter. Although the LII signal-to-noise
temporal resolution is used. We can assume, therefore, ratio is low, an intensified CCD camera can be used to
that LII signal intensity is approximately proportional to obtain sufficient detection sensitivity. The flame lumin-
C,&. On the other hand, for soot particles in the osity can be suppressed by the gating on an intensified
cylinder with diameters between a few nanometres to camera. Because the LII signal originates from heated
tens of nanometres, the Rayleigh scattering approxi- soot particles, interference from liquid droplets is
mation can be applied. As discussed in Section 3.3, the avoided. Most importantly, the LII signal is proportional
LIS signal from soot particles is proportional to C,.Df. to the soot volume fraction. The dependence of LII on
Based on these assumptions, one can calculate the soot particle size will be very small when care is taken of
relative values of particle size and number density from the gating during the experiment. Furthermore, inter-
the measured LII and LIS intensities using the following ference from the elastically scattered light from
relationships: combustion chamber walls is avoided as the LII signal
relative particle number Oh3= (D’@z)“3 = (Zscat/ZLlt)‘n collected at a different wavelength from the laser
is
wavelength.

relative number density C, = I~&cat

4.4. Two-dimensional Soot Imaging in Diesel Engines
4.4.1. Introduction
Both LIS and LII have been used to measure the soot
distribution in diesel engines. LIS, either Mie scattering
4.4.2. Application of two-dimensional soot imaging to
diesel engines
Lee et aL6* applied planar laser induced scattering to
soot imaging in a specially designed direct-injection
diesel engine with the fuel injection nozzle mounted in
an extended piston. The combustion chamber is formed
by a quartz doughnut and a quartz window in the cylinder
 Optical diagnostics for soot and temperature
head for maximum optical access. The fuel used was a
50/50 mixture of isooctane and tetradecane. A skip-fire
mechanism was employed to reduce window fouling by
soot deposition. Two simultaneous images, taken with
vertically and horizontally polarized scattered light, were
used to determine the polarization ratio. Since the
scattered light from droplets is described by Mie
scattering, its polarization properties are preserved. On
the other hand, soot scatters light in the Rayleigh region.
The scattered light is characterized by very weak
scattering of the horizontally polarized light when
scattered light is detected at right angles to the incident
laser beam. Therefore the polarization ratio can be
employed to distinguish soot particles from fuel droplets.
The region where only soot particles exist should be
characterized by a low polarization ratio.
Using this technique Lee and his co-workers studied
the spatial and temporal variations of soot during the
combustion period. They found that for the high-swirl
case soot was uniformly distributed in the combustion
bowl. Without swirl, soot was mainly detected to exist
near the wall and persist into the expansion stroke. The
main difficulties encountered were the soot deposition on
the window and multiple scattering from the fuel
droplets during the fuel injection period. The same
experimental set-up was later used to study the soot
evolution by Alatas69 using LIS as well as LII. Only very
limited LII images were obtained as the engine operating
parameters were set to provide optimum conditions for
NO imaging.
Two-dimensional imaging techniques have been used
extensively at Tokyo Institute of Technology to study
diesel spray flames in a rapid compression machine.
Initially, the two-dimensional distribution of a soot cloud
in a diesel flame in the rapid compression machine was
measured by the LIS technique.” A cross-section on the
flame axis was illuminated by a thin laser sheet from an
Nd:YAG laser (532 nm). The scattered light from soot
particles was then taken by an intensified CCD camera.
The temporal variations of the scattered light images
were obtained for different injection pressures. The
results are summarized in Fig. 32.
As shown in Fig. 32, the scattered light appears first in
the periphery of the flame tip and it looks like a U-shape
(point 1). After the scattering appears in the periphery of
the flame tip, scattering is observed near the flame centre,
but the intensity is weak at first. The amount of scattered
light upstream from the centre is fairly uniform at an
early stage of combustion (point 2) but later it is broken
into a number of small clusters of the order of several
millimetres (point 3). The intensity of these clusters
increases as they travel downstream. This is followed by
the break-up of the peripheral U-shaped region (point 4)
as the flame moves further downstream. They also
found that increasing the injection pressure lowers soot
concentration in the flame. Later a pair of LIS
images were used to obtain the velocity vectors of soot
clouds in the diesel flame, which were achieved by
employing the laser sheet from a double pulsed Nd:YAG
laser.”
measurement 251
distance from injector
*
laser sheet
Fig. 32. Schematic representation of temporal variation of soot
distribution measured by LIS, adapted from Won er ~1.”
During their experiments, Won et ~1.” found that laser
sheet was strongly attenuated as it passed through the
soot cloud. They also pointed out that a large soot
number density or large soot particles, or a combination
of both, could cause the high scattering intensity. This is
attributed to the fact that the LIS signal is proportional to
the soot number density, C,, and their size to the power
of six, D6.
As discussed in Section 4.3, the LIS signal from soot
particles is proportional to C,@ but the LII signal is
approximately proportional to CnD3. Simultaneous
recording of LIS and LII images of soot particles can
be used to obtain the relative soot concentration, relative
soot particle size and relative number density of the soot
particles. Figure 33 shows the results obtained from the
diesel spray flame in a rapid compression machine by
Kosaka et al’* The injection pressure was 100 MPa.
From Fig. 33 it can be seen that soot particles of larger
diameter are distributed in the flame head region. It is
also noticed that there is a reciprocal correlation between
the soot particle number density and their sizes, i.e. as the
soot particles grow their number density is reduced.
Comprehensive results have been reported by Dee and
his co-workers in a series of papers73-76 using two-
dimensional laser sheet diagnostics. The schematic
layout of the optical set-up for the simultaneous LII
and LIS imaging is shown in Fig. 34.
Experiments were conducted in a single cylinder,
direct-injection, four-stroke diesel engine. Two windows
located between the cylinder head and cylinder block
allowed the laser sheet to pass through horizontally or
along the axis of the fuel jet as shown in Fig. 34. A
window in the cylinder head replaces one of the two
exhaust valves to obtain a view of the squish region and
the outer portion of the combustion bowl. A unit
252 H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos

APtnj = 55 MPa , tini :: 3.7 ms , do = 0.15 mm, Mf = 12 mg engine. A half-wave plate was used to rotate the
Relative soot cancel ration polarization of the laser, making it horizontal (perpendi-
I I ‘P cular to the scattering plane) to maximize the LIS signal
collected at right angles. An edge filter was used to split
the optical signal into two cameras.
LII images were recorded by an intensified CCD
camera. Using a combination of 450 nm short wave-
length pass and coloured glass filters and a camera
intensifier gate width of 50 ns, the contribution of
$ 11&l background luminosity to the LII images was found to
Relative soot dia.
5 4or- be negligible. A 532 nm laser-line mirror (reflection at
532 nm) was necessary to completely reject the elastic
scattering of the laser beam from particles and walls.
Since the laser power density used was above the
threshold (10 MW cmm2), the relative intensities in an
LII image provided information about the relative soot
volume fractions.
The LIS image was recorded simultaneously by the
o Relative nunber dens. of soot other intensified CCD camera. A 100 ns gatewidth and a
I I I I
532 t 10 nm interference filter suppressed the inter-
ference from flame radiation and LII, though spurious
scattered light from walls added noise to the LIS images.
To overcome the severe beam attenuation immedi-
ately after the start of combustion with normal diesel
fuels, low-sooting fuels were used. To minimize the rate
of window fouling and to avoid overheating, the engine
t= 2.0 ms 2.8 ms 3.2 ms 3.8 ms was operating at very low load and fired once every 10th
or 20th engine cycle, at which the images were taken.
Fig. 33. Distributions of relative soot concentration, relative
soot diameters and relative number density of soot particles, The images or image pairs were acquired in sets of 12,
from Kosaka et ~~1.7’ (reprinted with permision from SAE from 12 separate cycles.
952451 0 1995 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.). Figure 35 shows a temporal sequence of simultaneous
LII and LIS images for the low-sooting fuel. The laser
electronic fuel injector was mounted in the cylinder head sheet was horizontal in the plane 9 mm below the
and oriented so that one of the eight sprays was aimed cylinder head and the left edge of the image was 27 mm
directly under the detection optical window. (along the fuel jet axis) downstream of the injector.
A frequency doubled (532 nm) Nd:YAG laser was The first soot was detected at 6” CA after the start of
used for the LII and LIS measurements. A combination injection (ASI) with LII only, appearing near the leading
of cylindrical and spherical lenses produced a laser sheet edge of the fuel jet. At 6.5” CA ASI, the LII image shows
approximately 300 pm thick and 25 mm wide in the more soot being formed across the fuel jet with the

- LII Fllten (460 SWP)

532 nm Bend Pass Filter
Elastic Scetter

Fig. 34. Schematic of the optical set-up for the simultaneous LII and LIS imaging, from Dee and E~pey’~ (reprinted with permission
from SAE 950456 0 1995 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.).
 Optical diagnostics for soot and temperature
6.0"ASI 6.0” ASI
6.5” ASI 6.5” ASI
7.0” ASI 7.0” ASI
7.5” ASI 7.5” ASI
8.0” ASI 5.0” ASI
0.5’’A$1 5.5” ASI
Fig. 35. Temporal sequence of simultaneous LII and LIS images
using a low-sooting fuel. LII images are on the left and corre-
sponding LIS images on the right. The left edge of the image is
27 mm downstream from the nozzle, and the field of view is
26 mm by 188 mm (reprinted with permission from SAE
950456 0 1995 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.).
highest soot concentration in the leading portion of the
fuel jet. From 7.0” CA ASI through to the end of the
sequence at 8.5” CA ASI, the LB images in Fig. 35 show
a progressive development of the soot distribution. Soot
occurs throughout the majority of the cross-section of the
leading portion of the jet, and its concentration continues
to grow as indicated by the intensifier gas on the top
right-hand comer. Though soot concentrations are
generally higher toward the leading part of the jet, the
soot concentration is approximately the same in the
centre and at the edge of the jet at any axial location.
In contrast there is no sign of soot in LIS images until
7.0” CA ASI. The presence of soot in LIS images is
concentrated at the peripheral region of the jet. As
discussed in the previous sections, the LIS signal is
biased to regions of larger soot particles. Therefore, the
LIS images show large particles generally confined to the
peripheral regions during these early stages of diesel
combustion. There are more large soot particles at the
front of the jet but few in the central region.
5. SUMMARY
Optical techniques for soot diagnostics in diesel
engines have been introduced and reviewed. The two-
colour method is a widely used technique for soot
loading measurement and it is capable of instantaneous
measurement 253
and continuous flame temperature measurement in a
diesel engine. It is simple to set up and requires
minimum optical access to the engine. Because the
two-colour method is a line-of-sight measurement it does
not have a good spatial resolution. The two-colour
method gives a true flame temperature by assuming a
spatially uniform temperature along the line of sight. The
non-uniformity of temperature and soot concentration
will influence the physical meaning of the flame
temperature as well as the KL factor measured by this
technique. The effect of soot concentration non-
uniformity on the measured temperature is less severe
than the effect of uneven temperature on the KL factor. If
a severe non-uniform distribution of temperature exists,
the KL factor obtained can be easily underestimated. The
two-colour method measures the KL factor but does not
measure soot volume fraction directly. The optical path
length L is often unknown. Even if it can be
approximated in some applications, the soot volume
fraction C, can only be determined by the use of the
appropriate values of parameter cy and the refractive
index of the soot particles m.
The light extinction method is simple to set up. The
attenuation of light, rather than the absolute intensity of
light, is measured and, hence, it is very easy to calibrate.
The soot volumetric density is directly related to the ratio
of attenuated light intensity to that of the non-attenuated
light. The light extinction method can provide instanta-
neous soot measurement. The light extinction technique
can be extended to full-field imaging of soot distribution
in a diesel engine. However, care should be taken in the
optical set-up so that interference from the Schlieren and
Shadowgraph effects are minimized. Since the light
extinction method is a line-of-sight measurement, it
lacks the spatial resolution. In addition, two optical
windows are required to perform light extinction
measurements, which may present difficulty in a realistic
engine configuration.
The light scattering and extinction technique has often
been used to measure the soot particle size as well as soot
concentration in sooting flames. In one application, the
principle of light scattering and extinction has been
adapted to measure, for the first time, the time-resolved
soot particle size in a direct-injection diesel engine.
However, its use in a diesel engine is rather limited.
LII is a relatively new technique. With high laser
power, the LII signal is directly proportional to the soot
volume fraction. Compared with LIS, it is not biased by
the particle size. Since LII is a broad-band emission, a
band-pass filter can be used to eliminate the interference
from the spurious scattered light from surfaces, liquid
droplets and dust, which causes noise in the LIS signal.
LII is particularly suited for two-dimensional imaging of
soot volume fraction distributions in a diesel engine. The
combined use of LII and LIS measurements can provide
information about soot particle size as well as soot
volume fraction in a diesel engine. The beam attenuation
by soot particles can hamper the use of LII in heavily
sooting flames, which may be reduced by the use of low-
sooting fuels.
254 H. Zhao and N. Ladommatos
Finally, it should be pointed out that no one diagnostic
is the panacea for all in-cylinder soot measurement
needs. A combination of the physical sampling methods,
optical techniques discussed here, and any other new
development, should be used to unravel the complexities
of soot formation and oxidation phenomena in a diesel
engine.
Acknowledgmenrs-The authors would like to thank the
reviewers for their comments on the draft paper. We are
grateful to them for going through the manuscripts in such detail
and drawing the authors’ attention to additional literature. As a
result, some sections have been added to the paper, particularly
the implementation of the full-field light extinction, which has
sometimes been used incorrectlv in the literature.
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