Syllabus

Particle nature, Basic units, Atoms and molecules, Law of constant proportions, Atomic and molecular masses.

Facts that Matter

• Law of Chemical Combination
Given by Lavoisier and Joseph L. Proust as follows:
(i) Law of conservation of mass: Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
e.g.,A+B-C+D
Reactants R Products
Mass of reactants = Mass of products
(ii) Law of constant proportion: In a chemical substance the elements are always present in definite
proportions by mass.
E.g., in water, the ratio of the mass of hydrogen to the mass of oxygen is always 1 : 8 respectively.
These laws lacked explanation. Hence, John Dalton gave his theory about the matter. He said that the
smallest particle of matter is called ‘atom’.
• Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. Every matter is made up of very small or tiny particles called atoms.
2. Atoms are not divisible and cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
3. All atoms of a given element it are same in size, “mass and chemical properties.
4. Atoms of different elements are different in size, mass and chemical properties.
5. Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole number to form compounds.
6. The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound. 9
• Atom
Atoms are the smallest particles of an element which can take reaction.
Size of an atom: Atomic radius is measured in nanometres.

–10
Atomic radii of hydrogen atom = 1 × 10 m.
Symbols of atoms:
(a) Symbols for some elements as proposed by Dalton:

(b) Symbols of some common elements:

Name of the element Latin name Symbol
Hydrogen � H
Helium � He
Carobon � C
Copper Cuprum Cu
Cobalt Co
Chlorine Cl
Cadmium Cd
Boron B
Barium Ba
Bromine Br
Bismuth Bi
Sodium Natrium Na
 Potassium Kalium K
Iron Ferrum Fe
Gold Aurum Au
Silver Argentum Ag
Mercury Hydragyrum Hg
• Molecule
It is the smallest particle of an eleme4It- or a dolnpound which can wxist independently.
• Molecules of an element constitutes same type of atoms. 1.w
• Molecules may be monoatomic, di-atomic or polyatomic. IT .
• Molecules of compounds join together in defmite proportionsrand constitutes different type of atoms.
• Atomicity
The number of atoms constituting a Molecule is known as its atomicity.
Name of the Molecules
Atomicity
element formula
Helium Monoatomic He
Neon Monoatomic Ne
Argon Monoatomic Ar
Sodium Monoatomic Na
Iron Monoatomic Fe
Aluminium Monoatomic Al
Hydrogen Di-atomic H2
Oxygen Di-atomic O2
Chlorine Di-atomic Cl2
Nitrogen Di-atomic N2
Polyatomic
Phosphorus P4
(Tetra)
Polyatomic
Sulphur S8
(Octa)
• Ions
The charged particles (atoms) are called ions, they charge or negative charge on it:
�
Negatively charged ionis called anion (C1 ).
+
Positively charge ion is called cation (Na ).
• Valency
The combining capacity of an element is known as its valency: Valency is used to fmd out how atom of an
element will combine with the atom of another element to form a chemical compound.
(Every atom want, to become stable, to do so it may loose, gain or share electrongs.
(i) If an atom consists of 1, 2 or 3 electrons in its valgncesI ell then its valency is 1, 2 or 3 respectively,
(ii) If an atom consists of 5, 6 or 7 electrons in the outermost shell, then it will gain 3, 2 or 1 electron
respectively and its valency will be 3, 2 or 1 respectively.
(ii) If an atom has 4 electrons in the outermost shell than it will she this electron and hence its valency will
be 4.
(iv) If an atom has 8 electrons in the outermost shell then its valency is 0.
• Chemical Formulae
Rules: (i) The valencies or charges on the ion must balance.
(ii) A metal and non-metal compound should show the name or symbols of the metal first.
–
e.g., Na Cl → NaCl
+

(iii) If a compound consist of polyatomic ions. The ion before writing the number to indicate the ratio.
e.g., [SO4] → polyatomic radical
2–

H SO4 → H2SO4.
1+ 2–

Chemical formula of some simple compounds

(a) Calcium hydroxid

(b) Aluminium oxide

• Molecular Mass
It is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the substance. It is expressed in atomic
mass unit (u).
+
e.g., 2H + O2 H2O [H = 1, 0 = 16]
1 × 2 + 16 = 18 u
• Formula Unit Mass
It is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of a compound. The constituent particles
are ions.
e.g., Na + Cl– → NaCl
+

1 × 23 + 1 × 35.5 = 58.5 u
• Mole Concept
Definition of mole: It is defined as one mole of any species (atom, molecules, ions or particles) is that
quantity in number having a mass equal to its atomic or molecular mass in grams.
23
1 mole = 6.022 × 10 in number
Molar mass = mass of 1 mole → is is always expressed in r gram, and is also known as gram atomic mass.
1u of hydrogen has → 1 atom of hydrogen
lg of hydrogen has → 1 mole of hydrogen
= 6.022 × 1023 atoms of hydrogens
 Notes for Structure of Atom

• Sub-atomic particles of atom includes

(a) Electrons – negatively charged with charge of –1 and negligible mass.
(b) Protons – Positively charged with charge of +1 and mass is 1 u.
(c) Neutrons – Particles are with no charge and mass of 1 u.
Thomson’s model of an atom
• Atom is electrically neutral consisting of positively charged sphere with electrons embedded in it.
• If failed to explain the results of experiments carried out by other scientists.
Bohr’s model of an atom
• An atom has a positively charged nucleus and electrons revolve in permitted circular orbits with fixed radii
and energy.
• Bohr explained the drawback of Rutherford’s model of an atom.
Rutherford’s model of an atom
• He performed the α-particle scattering experiment and proposed that an atom is electrically neutral, with a
positively charged nucleus having protons and neutrons and negatively charged electrons revolving around the
nucleus.
Bohr-Bury scheme
• The number of electrons that can be present in a given shell is 2n , when ‘n’ is the number of shell.
2

• Maximum number of electrons in the outermost orbit should not exceed 8.

Valency
• The combining capacity of the atoms of an element is valency.
• Elements having 1, 2, 3, and 4 electrons in the valence shell, has valency equal to number of electrons.
• Elements having more than 4 electrons in the valence shell has valency equal to 8 minus the number of
valence electrons.
Atomic number and mass number
• Atomic number (z) is number of protons in one atom of an element.
• Mass number (A) is the sum of protons and neutrons present in the atom of the element.
• Notation for an atom

Isotopes
• Isotopes are the atoms of the same element, having the some atomic number but different mass number.
• Isotopes are useful as nuclear fuel, in medical field, in carbon dating, etc.
 Notes for Diversity in Living Organisms

• Biodiversity refers to variability.

• The diverse forms of organism need classification.
• The evolutionary history decides the phylogenetic classification.
• H. Whittaker proposed the five kingdom system of classification
• A distinct name is a need for identification.
• Common names are unscientific.
• Binomial nomenclature is scientific naming of organisms.
• Taxonomic hierarchy is the framework of classification which helps in appropriate placing of organisms.
1. Monera
• These are prokaryotic, unicellular, autotrophic or heterotropic organisms.
2. Protista
• These are unicellular and eukaryotic, autotrophic or heterotrophic organisms.
• They are further classified as protistan algae, slimemoulds, and protozoa.
3. Fungi
• Multicellular and eukaryotic organisms having plant like and animal like features. They may be parasitic or
saprophytic.
4. Plantae
• These are multicellular, eukaryotic and autotrophic organisms. They are further classified.
• Thallophyta – Thallus like body, mostly autotrophic and aquatic.
• Bryophyta – Simple plants with no vascular system. They are amphibious.
• Pteridophytes – They are land plants with true vascular system.
• Gymnosperms – They are land plants bearing naked seeds.
• Angiosperms – They are flowering plants with seeds covered by fruits.
5. Animalia
• These are multicellular, eukaryotic and heterotrophic organisms. They are further classified.
• Porifera – Pore bearing organisms.
• Coelenterata – Organisms with hollow gut.
• Platyhelminthes – unsegmented flat worms.
• Nematoda – Unsegmented round worms.
• Annelida – Metamerically segmented worms.
• Arthropoda – These are animals with jointed appendages.
• Mollusca – Soft bodied animals.
• Echinodermata – Spiny skinned animals.
• Chordata – Dorsal nerve cord,
notochord and gill slits.
 Notes
Tissues

1. Plant tissues- On the basis of dividing capacity, plant tissues are of two types-
(a) Meristematic tissue
(b) Permanent tissue
(a) Meristematic tissue- It consists of actively dividing cells. Meristematic tissues have three types.
• Apical meristem- present at the growing tips of stems and roots and helps in increasing the length of
stem and roots
• Intercalary meristem- Present at the base of the leaves. It is required for longitudinal growth of plants.
• Lateral meristem- present on the lateral side of stem and roots and helps to increase the length of stem
and roots.
(b) Permanent tissue- It is formed from the meristematic tissues, the cells in this tissue lose the ability to
divide. They are further divided into –
• Parenchyma- It is composed of unspecialized living cells with relatively thin cell walls, intercellular
space, present in soft part of the plants.
• Collenchyma- Composed of living and elongated cells with cell walls irregularly thickened at the
corners. There is no inter-cellular space. It helps in bending of leaves and stems.
• Sclerenchyma- It is composed of long narrow, thick-walled cells. It is made of dead cells and there are
no inter-cellular cells.
• Complex permanent tissue- It is made up of more than one type of cells.
2. Animal tissues- Animal tisues are divided into four types based on the functions performed by them.
(a) Epithelial tissues- They form the covering of the external surfaces, internal cavities and organs of the
animal body. These are various types of epithelial tissues-
• Simple squamous epithelium
• Cuboidal epithelium
• Columnar epithelium
(b) Connective tissues- They connect various organs of the body. They are divided into:-
• Areolar tissue
• Adipose tissue
• Dense regular connective tissue
• Skeletal tissue
(c) Muscular tissue- Muscular tissue provides movement to the body. They are divided into three types:
• Striated/skeletal/voluntary muscles
• Smooth/involuntary muscles
• Cardiac muscles
(d) Nervous tissue- These are present in brain, spinal cord and nerves. Neurons are cells of nervous tissue
which consist of a cell body, axon and dendrite.